The transcendental meditation program and criminal recidivism in California

Journal of Criminal Justice. Vol . 15 (1987) pp . 211-230 All rights reserved . Printed in U .S .A .

Copyright

W37--2352.87 $3 .W + .W 1987 Pergamon Journals Lid .

THE TRANSCENDENTAL MEDITATION PROGRAM AND CRIMINAL RECIDIVISM IN CALIFORNIA

CATHERINE

R.

BLEICK

and

ALLAN

1.

ABRAMS

Institute for Social Rehabilitation 11811/2 Ayres Avenue Los Angeles, California 90064

ABSTRACT A sample of 259 male felon parolees of the California Department of Corrections (CDC) who had voluntarily learned the Transcendental Meditation (TM) technique while incarcerated had more favorable parole outcomes than statewide CDC parolees (p < .004) . By comparison to matched controls, the TM group also had consistently more favorable outcomes as determined from rap sheets from one to five years after parole (p -- .05) . Finally, with twenty-eight social and criminal history variables controlled by stepwise multiple regression, TM significantly (p < .001) reduced recidivism (with partial correlations ranging from r = - 0 .0893 to -0.1226) at one year and at 0.5 to 6 .0 years after parole, whereas prison education, vocational training, and psychotherapy did not consistently reduce recidivism . Fifty-nine percent of not-yet-released meditators surveyed in prison were still meditating up to seven years after instruction, and TM recidivists were significantly (p < . 002) less regular in meditation than the not-yet-released meditators, suggesting that regular TM practice is important for reducing recidivism . Despite the limitations of the retrospective study design, these results all indicate a reduction in recidivism due to TM practice that is of practical significance .

INTRODUCTION

1979 ; Ross and Gendreau, 1980) . A National Research Council Panel (Sechrest, White, and Brown, 1979 :31 ; Martin, Sechrest, and The 1970s saw presentation of accumulated evidence that the many forms of Redner, 1981 :3,22) concluded that although rehabilitative treatment offered in correc- research examined by the panel did not tional institutions either do not work in terms demonstrate the efficacy of any rehabilitaof reducing criminal recidivism or at least tive technique adequately, the search for effective rehabilitation techniques is morally have not been demonstrated to work consistently (Martinson, 1974 ; 1976 ; Lipton, Mar- and socially desirable and should not be tinson, and Wilks, 1975 ; Greenberg, 1977) . abandoned in favor of a purely punitive approach . Presently, as society emphasizes Contrary evidence may indicate that some rehabilitation programs do work with some punishment rather than rehabilitation of clients, particularly juveniles, when condi- offenders in the mid-1980s the failure of any tions are favorable (Gendreau and Ross, single rehabilitation technique to effect a 211

212

CATHERINE R . BLEICK and ALLAN I . ABRAMS

reduction in recidivism in diverse populations seems accepted (Palmer, 1983 :4 ; Bartollas . 1985 :15) . Those still pursuing the rehabilitation ideal recommend treatment as a humane necessity beyond the scope of evaluation by recidivism statistics (Bartollas, 1985 :30) or seek new theories capable of predicting treatment success of diverse specific treatments according to the characteristics of specific target populations (Palmer, 1983 :7 ; Bartollas, 1985 :15 ; Orsagh and Marsden, 1985) . The present study is an ex post facto report on the effectiveness in reducing recidivism of the Transcendental Meditation (TM) program, taught to over 600 felons to date in the California Department of Corrections (CDC) and to several hundred more in Massachusetts and Vermont . Since the TM technique represents a relatively new form of rehabilitative treatment, its theoretical basis must be established, as Rahav (1980) requested of the TM program and as recommended in general by the National Research Council Panel (Martin, Sechrest, and Redner, 1981 :viii) and Bartollas (1985 :15) . The TM program is taught worldwide by instructors trained by Maharishi Mahesh Yogi, who stated that his teaching is a revival of traditional Indian knowledge (Maharishi Mahesh Yogi, 1967) . According to Maharishi (1963), any mistake ranging from a small moral error to a criminal act arises due to tension, stress, and weakness of mind . The mind, however, can be freed from stress by allowing it to settle down to the so-called state of pure consciousness, said to be the experience of one's own blissful Self-awareness . This transcending process also is said to bring the body to a state of deep rest, which allows the dissolution of physical stress (Maharishi Mahesh Yogi, 1973) . Practiced regularly for twenty minutes twice daily in a comfortable sitting position, the TM technique is claimed to lead the meditator gradually to the state of enlightenment, in which, being free from stress, he or she no longer makes mistakes . This theory, unusual though it seems in the modern world (see Aron and Aron, 1981),

obviously offers the expectation that criminal offenders can, indeed, be rehabilitated . It represents a return to the medical model of offender rehabilitation-rejected by Bartollas (1985 :15) on the basis of the failure of medical model treatments to reduce recidivism-in that it considers mental and physical stress, which are regarded as the root of criminal behavior, to be analogous to a disease that can be cured . It goes beyond the medical model in its representation of the repeated experience of pure consciousness as the basis not only for release of stress but also for the fullest possible human development of mind and heart . The extent or quality of mental and physical stress and tension individuals accumulate has not been measured directly . However, in accordance with the commonly accepted theories of the stress-related and psychosomatic origin of many diseases, both physiological and psychological effects of TM practice have been measured extensively both during and outside of meditation . Physiological changes recorded during '1'M practice include decreased oxygen consumption, increased galvanic skin resistance, decreased arterial lactate, decreased blood cortisol, increased EEG coherence . periodic breath suspension, and decreased red blood cell metabolism (Wallace, Benson, and Wilson, 1971 ; Jevning, Wilson, and Davidson, 1978 ; Dillbeck and Bronson, 1981 ; Farrow and Herbert, 1982 ; Jevning et al ., 1983) . These changes characterize the meditation period as a state of physical rest . Effects observed outside of meditation include improved autonomic stability ; reduced biological age as compared to chronological age ; reduced symptoms of bronchial asthma ; reduced blood cholesterol ; reduced systolic blood pressure in older meditators ; increased self-actualization ; reduced anxiety, depression, and neuroticism ; and increased job satisfaction and job performance (Orme-Johnson, 1973 ; Wallace et al ., 1982 ; Wilson et al ., 1975 ; Cooper and Aygen, 1979 ; Wallace et al ., 1983 ; Nidich, Seeman, and Dreskin, 1973 ; Ferguson and Gowan, 1976 ; Frew, 1974) . Although some studies (e .g . Pollack et al ., 1977 ; Fenwick et

Transcendental Meditation Program and Criminal Recidivism in California

al ., 1977 ; Warrenburg et al ., 1980) have reported equivocal results from TM practice, the preponderance of reports has been favorable . Aron and Aron (1980) reviewed applications of the TM program in the treatment of addictive behaviors . Findings included decreases by meditators in the use of cigarettes, marijuana, alcohol, and both prescribed and illegal drugs (Ottens, 1975 ; Shafii, Lavely, and Jaffe, 1974 ; 1975 ; Monahan, 1977) . In the field of mental health, effects attributed to TM practice have included relief from mental illness, mental retardation, Post-Vietnam Stress Disorder, and mental patient and addict recidivism (Glueck and Stroebel, 1975 ; Eyerman, 1981 ; Brooks and Scarano, 1985 ; Bielefeld, 1981) . In the field of criminal rehabilitation, evidence has been presented for psychological improvements by felons and juvenile probationers practicing the TM technique and also for reduced parolee recidivism (Abrams and Siegel, 1978 ; Aron and Aron, in press ; Alexander, 1982) . Alexander's retrospective recidivism study utilized only a moderate sample size and has so far remained unpublished . In the present larger study, also retrospective, it was hypothesized that the TM parolees recidivated less than both the statewide parolee population and matched controls and that TM participation was negatively correlated with recidivism after social and criminal history and motivational recidivism predictor variables not included in matching were controlled by stepwise multiple regression analysis . It was also hypothesized that TM recidivists were less regular in meditation and that enough of the TM inmates were continuing to practice the technique to be consistent with the theory that actual TM practice is important for reducing recidivism .

METHODS Subjects and Data Collection The TM program was offered to volunteer inmates at CDC's maximum security Fol-

213

som Prison starting in 1975, at high-medium security Deuel Vocational Institution (DVI) starting in 1976, and at maximum security San Quentin Prison starting in 1978 . A comparison of all men who learned TM from 1975 through 1981 to the resident populations of the same prisons showed that the percentage of the meditator group who were black (36 .3) closely matched that of the source population but that the meditators were more often white (49 .5) and less often Mexican-American (12 .1) . The meditators had slightly less serious prior commitment records than their source population, but 50 .4 percent had previous prison commitments and 82 .7 percent had prior commitments including jail or juvenile . The meditators showed a representative crosssection of offense categories except that homicide was a commoner offense by meditators . Meditators also were, on the average, about one year older than the source population, with a mean age of thirty-three at the time of TM instruction (range 19 to 62 years) . The TM experimental group consisted of 259 men, representing all those instructed in TM practice at the three prisons between 1975 and 1982 and subsequently paroled prior to October, 1982 . (However, TM instruction records were known to have been lost for perhaps fifty or more additional inmates . Men paroled to custody, released without parole, or deported were also excluded from the study .) The nonmeditator control group consisted of 259 men matched closely according to parole year, race, offense, and parole from one of the TM institutions, and matched approximately by prior commitment record, age, and drug use history . After matching, detailed data were gathered on other potential recidivism predictor variables for both groups from CDC's files . Potential recidivism predictors on which data were obtained were : marital status ; race ; claimed school grade ; school grade by test at commitment ; IQ ; longest employment ; military experience ; military honorable discharge ; drug abuse ; marijuana abuse ; alcohol abuse ; most serious instant



214

CATHERINE R . BLEICK and ALLAN I . ABRAMS

offense ; months served during term under consideration ; rules violations per year prior to TM instruction date ; age at first arrest ; age at first commitment ; prior commitment record ; age at parole ; time since release ; escape record ; institution of parole ; and participation in prison education, vocational training, and some form of group or individual psychotherapy . These variables represent most of those commonly found to be recidivism predictors, according to Pritchard (1979) in his survey of recidivism literature, plus a few others . Voluntary participation in prison self-improvement activities other than TM was intended as a control for the motivation factor involved in volunteering for TM instruction . Post-release criminal records were obtained from two sources . First, CDC records parole outcomes while the parolee remains on parole up to two years . (Since many parolees are discharged after less than two years-although rarely after less than one year-the two-year outcome is the outcome as of the date of discharge .) Second, the California Justice Department's Bureau of Identification keeps rap sheets, which continue indefinitely, for all California offenders . The parole outcome records are more complete, since reports of arrests, jail sentences, and, especially, out-of-state commitments do not always reach the Bureau of Identification, but rap sheets are the only source of long-term follow-up data after discharge from parole . Therefore, both types of records were used . Data Analysis

Parole outcomes were grouped into the following categories, ranked from the most favorable to the most unfavorable and similar to those used by CDC . 0 1

= No reported charges . = Technical charges ; arrest and release, with or without trial ; parolee-at-large for less than six months ; fine, misdemeanor probation, bail forfeited, jail under ninety days, or jail all suspended ; misdemeanor warrant out .

3

Disposition pending on a felony charge with no previous disposition ; parolee-at-large over six months ; felony warrant out ; declared criminally insane on a felony against a person ; death in commission of a crime or from a drug overdose ; jail over ninety days ; suspended prison ; five-year felony probation ; committed to California Rehabilitation Center ; parole revoked . = Return to any prison with a new court commitment, new term .

Rap sheet outcomes were ranked in the same way except that rap sheets included no information on technical charges, paroleeat-large, or death in commission of a crime or from a drug overdose (rap sheets are destroyed upon report of death from any cause) . Pending cases, parolees-at-large, warrants out, declared criminally insane, deaths, and committed to California Rehabilitation Center were unusual outcomes . This scale was created to permit the use of well known parametric analytic procedures (t-test and multiple regression) . It represents a simplification and collapsing of sentence length data (presumed to reflect severity of recidivist offense), which were highly nonnormally distributed and therefore not amenable to parametric analysis . Since the largest TM group effect was a reduction of new prison terms (see Results), and since new prison terms carry disproportionately long sentences relative to lesser offenses, the use of this simplified scale was conservative with regard to the hypothesis of reduced recidivism by the TM group . First, for the broadest possible comparison, parole outcomes for the TM group were compared to those for the California statewide population at one half, one, and two years after parole . The statewide population included felon parolees of minimum and medium as well as maximum security institutions and also female felon parolees for 1979 and subsequent years . In order to maximize the size of the TM group, parolees were lumped across parole years 1976 to 1982, but the statewide parole results were weighted for each year according to the proportion of the TM group paroled in that

Transcendental Meditation Program and Criminal Recidivism in California

year in order to control for any parole-yearrelated differences in recidivism . Second, to establish the trend of the relationship of TM practice and recidivism over time, rap sheet outcomes were compared at one to five years after release for meditators versus matched controls without controlling for other variables . Cases missing rap sheets due to reported death reduced sample sizes here and in the following analyses . Third, a series of stepwise multiple regressions were performed in order to determine the significance of the partial correlation of TM participation to recidivism after covarying for criminal and social history variables followed by participation in prison education, vocational training, and psychotherapy . Prior to running each multiple regression, pairwise correlation matrices were used to reduce the potential criminal and social history recidivism predictor variables to those correlated at approximately ±0 .05 or better with recidivism score and correlated in the same direction with recidivism score for both meditators and controls . The resulting list of predictor variables for input into the regressions varied slightly according to the recidivism variable used in the analysis, with the following predictors representing a composite list : married ; separated ; white ; black ; claimed school grade ; school grade by test at commitment ; IQ ; longest employment ; military experience ; honorable discharge ; drug and/or offense-related alcohol use ; drug and marijuana use ; drug use only ; marijuana use only ; instant offense of homicide, assault, robbery, burglary, sex offense, or drug offense ; months served ; rules violations per year prior to TM instruction date ; age at first arrest ; age at first commitment ; prior commitment record ; age at parole ; time since release ; and DVI as parole institution . Participation in TM and in the three prison-sponsored selfimprovement programs was included in every regression . Pairwise correlations of the predictor variables to TM participation showed that the TM group was significantly (p < .05) and favorably self-selected with respect to the

215

following recidivism and self-improvement predictors : school grade by test ; IQ ; drug and/or alcohol abuse ; prison rules violations ; and participation in education, psychotherapy, and all three self-improvement activities combined . These variables for which the TM group was significantly preselected did not enter each or, in some cases, any regression either because they were not significant predictors for every recidivism measure used or because of colinearity with other more significant predictors . Missing values due to incomplete data for social and criminal history variables ranged from zero percent to eight percent, except for rules violations (nineteen percent) ; and for education, vocational training, and psychotherapy from four percent to sixteen percent . Missing values were estimated from values of correlated independent variables by a stepwise multiple regression program . Stepwise multiple regressions were run with the following recidivism measures'as dependent variables : (a) parole outcomes at one year after release with outcome ranked from 0 to 3 as above ; (b) parole outcomes at one year after release with outcome dichotomized to with or without new prison term ; (c) rap sheet outcomes at longest time since release (0 .5 to 6 .0 years), with time since release controlled and with outcome ranked from 0 to 3 as above ; (d) rap sheet outcomes at longest time since release (0 .5 to 6 .0 years), with time since release controlled and with outcome dichotomized to with or without new prison term . Finally, the results of a survey of inmates' regularity in their TM practice conducted in Fall, 1982 to Summer, 1983 were examined . Possible responses were (a) regular, at least once a day, (b) irregular, less than once a day, (c) stopped, or (d) no response despite provision of a stamped return envelope . Regularity versus time since TM instruction was graphed . TM recidivists serving either new terms or revocations of parole were compared to meditators who had not been released since TM instruction . In order to control for the effect of length of time since TM instruction, the not-yet-released sample was drawn in proportion to the distribution

216

CATHERINE R . BLEICK and ALLAN 1 . ABRAMS

of recidivists by number of years since TM instruction, which reduced the number in the not-yet-released group . Unfortunately, it was not possible to locate and survey released meditators who had not recidivated to prison at the time of the survey . As a further test of the relationship between actual practice of TM and recidivism, rap sheet outcomes were compared for meditators released more than five months after TM instruction versus meditators released within five months of TM instruction and thus with little time for TM practice before having the opportunity to recidivate .

RESULTS TM Group vs . Statewide Parolees Table 1 shows that the TM group had consistently superior parole outcomes by comparison to the statewide CDC parolee population . The sample sizes decreased at each greater post-release time period because data were incomplete for the most recent parolees . The matched control group used below in this study also was compared to the pooled parolees of Folsom, Deuel Vocational Institution, and San Quentin from which they were drawn . These groups did not differ significantly (not shown) . TM Group vs . Controls over Time Figures 1 and 2 show superior rap sheet records by the TM group as compared to the matched controls over one to five years after parole from CDC . Table 2 shows that the mean outcome rank was significantly lower (better) for the TM group at every year after release (p s .05) . No particular trends over time are apparent in the differences between the TM group and the controls . As recidivism increased in both groups over time, the groups did not converge . Stepwise Multiple Regressions Tables 3a and 3b present the sequence of recidivism predictors entering the four step-

wise multiple regressions . Social and criminal history variables were allowed to enter before motivational variables defined by presence or absence of participation in prison education, vocational training, psychotherapy, or one to three of these combined ; and presence or absence of TM instruction was allowed to enter last . An F value significant at p < .05 was required for each variable to enter the equation and to remain in up to the TM step . Variables that entered a regression but were subsequently removed after the entry of colinear variables were omitted from the runs d epicted . T M entered each regression with an F value significant at p < .001 . Considerable colinearity (intercorrelation) was observed among the entering variables, so that the relative sizes of the increases in variance attributable to the different variables as they entered are not necessarily indicative of the relative importance of each variable as a predictor by itself (i .e ., its pairwise correlation with recidivism) . However, allowing entry of all other predictors before TM did control for their maximum effect as a group, leaving to TM only its remaining effect independent of the colinear effects of other predictors . For a comparison of participation in TM as a recidivism predictor to participation in the prison-sponsored programs presumed to be indicative of motivation for self-improvement, Table 4 presents the partial correlations of all these variables to the recidivism variables at the step immediately preceding entry of any of them, At this step all the criminal and social history predictor variables were controlled, and the participation variables including TM were all on an equal footing . Table 4 presents the nonTM programs first as presence or absence of participation ("± ") and then as ranked from zero to high participation ("amount") . Information on amount of TM participation was not available, When the amount of education and vocational training variables were allowed to enter before TM instead of the presence or absence variables used in Tables 3a and 3b, TM nevertheless entered with F(9,489) = 2 .64, p < .005 after education in

251 36,821

220 32,270

1 Year TM All CDC

2 Years TM All CDC

56 .4% 45 .4%

56 .6% 46 .3%

70 .7% 61 .3%

11 .4% 12 .6%

11 .6% 14 .7%

13 .1% 16 .8%

24 .1% 25 .4%

24 .7% 28 .2%

15 .1% 18 .7%

Outcome 2 (Long Jail, Parole Revocation, etc.)

8 .2% 16 .6%

7 .2% 10 .8%

1 .2% 3 .2%

Outcome 3 (New Prison Term)

NOT£: Parole years are 1976-1982 at ''/7 year after parole, 1976-1981 plus January to June, 1982 at I year after parole, and 1976-1980 plus January to June, 1981 at 2 years after parole . .p < .004, ' •p < .002, two-tailed .

259 37,987

1/2 Year TM All CDC

N

Outcome 0 (clean)

Outcome I (Arrest, Short Jail, etc .)

0 .841 1 .132

0 .825 1 .035

0467 . 0 .638

Mean Outcome Rank

-3 .66"

-3 .07'

-3 .08"

Z

PAROLE OUTCOMES OVER TIME AFTER RELEASE FROM CDC FOR TM GROUP VS . CDC STATEWIDE PAROLEES

TABLE 1

0 .25

0 .19

0 .19

Size

Effect

0 .967

Control

p (two-tailed)

-3 .42 0 .0007

(241) (241)

0 .652

TM

t

(N)

1 Year

-3 .03 0 .0026

0 .952 1 .290

2 Years (210) (207)

(N)

-2 .70 0 .0074

1 .094 1 .445

3 Years (159) (164)

(N)

-1 .94 0 .0539

1 .239 1 .543

4 Years

Mean Rap Sheet Outcome Rank

(113) (127)

(N)

MEAN RAP SHEET OUTCOME RANK OVER TIME AFTER RELEASE FROM CDC

TABLE 2

-2 .44 0 .0160

1 .264 1 .738

5 Years

(72) (80)

(N)

~°

N



a

W

F Z W

It

>

m Q 0

LU J

D

F

2 0

W

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

CONTR N=201 THREE YEARS

TM CONTR N=159 N=164

CONTR N=127 FOUR YEARS

TM N=113

TIME SINCE RELEASE

TWO YEARS

TM N=210

CONTR N=60 FIVE YEARS

TM N=72

Figure 1 . Favorable rap sheet outcomes vss time since release from CDC .

ONE YEAR

TM CONTR N=241 N=241

0 (1) ARREST, SHORT JAIL, ETC .

(0) CLEAN



CONTR N=241

Figure 2 .

ONE YEAR

TM N=241 CONTR N=207

THREE YEARS

TM CONTR N=159 N=164

TM CONTR N=119 N=127 FOUR YEARS

FIVE YEARS

TM CONTR N=72 N=eO

Unfavorable rap sheet outcomes vs . time since release from COC.

TIME SINCE RELEASE

TWO YEARS

TM N=210

NEW PRISON TERM

I (3)

(2) LONG JAIL, PAROLE REVOCATION, ETC .

3a

Number of prior commitments (+) Number of rules violations (+) IQ(-) -± Marijuana use only (-) Longest employment (-) ± Burglary as instant offense (+) ± Robbery as instant offense (+) ± Drug and/or alcohol use (+) Education (-) ± TM (-) Total common variance

1 2 3

Note. n = 498 (244 TM plus 254 controls) .

4 5 6 7 8 9 10

Variable Entered (Correlation +,-)

Step

A) Ranked Parole Outcome

0.0054 .0070 0 0 .1103

0 .0223 0 .0240 0 .0169 0 .0112 0 .0086 0 .0073 0 .0040 0 .0036

Increase in Variance

Total common variance

Number of prior commitments (+) Age at parole (-) Drug and/or marijuana use (-) ± Assault as instant offense (-) Drug offense as instant (-) Separated from spouse (+) TM (-)

0 .0763

0.0139 0.0241 0 .0112 0 .0086 0 .0056 0 .0045 0 .0084

Increase in Variance

B) Prison-or-Not Parole Outcome Variable Entered (Correlation +,-)

MULTIPLE VARIANCE

RECIDIVISM-PREDICTOR VARIABLES ENTERING STEPWISE MULTIPLE REGRESSIONS AND THEIR CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE INCREASE IN

TABLE

3b

Military honorable discharge (-) Time since release (+) Longest employment (-) 1 Number of prior commitments (+) Age at parole (-) Married (-) Marijuana use only (-) ± Homicide as instant offense (-) Number of rules violations (+) :t White race (-) Vocational training (-) TM (-) Total common variance

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13

NOTE : N = 507 (252 TM plus 255 controls) .

0H

Variable Entered (Correlation +,-)

Step

C) Ranked Rap Sheet Outcome

0 .0344 0 .0321 0 .0211 0 .0185 0 .0138 0 .0206 0 .0091 0 .0076 0 .0047 0 .0042 0 .0042 0 .0047 0 .0063 0 .1813

Increase in Variance

Total Common Variance

Time since release (+) Military honorable discharge (-) Longest employment (-) Number of prior commitments (+) Age at parole (-) ± White race (-) ± Marijuana use only (-) Number of rules violations (+) Married (-) -s TM (-)

0 .1502

0 .0311 0.0292 0 .0226 0 .0120 0 .0124 0 .0097 0 .0092 0 .0063 0 .0047 0 .0130

Increase in Variance

D) Prison-or-Not Rap Sheet Outcome Variable Entered (Correlation +,-)

MULTIPLE VARIANCE

RECIDIVISM-PREDICTOR VARIABLES ENTERING STEPWISE MULTIPLE REGRESSIONS AND THEIR CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE INCREASE IN

TABLE

' p < .025, " P < .005, "' p < .001 .

± TM

± Education ± Vocational training ± Psychotherapy '- 1-3 of above activities Amount of education Amount of vocational training Amount of psychotherapy Amount of 1-3 of above activities

Program Variables

-0 .0466 0 .0011 -0 .0962 -0 .1030

-0 .0498 -0 .1429

-0 .0776 -0 .0186 -0 .0035

Partial Correlation

Partial Correlation -0.0118 0.0105 -0 .0363 -0 .0145 -0 .0513 -0 .0006 -0 .0122 -0 .0244 -0 .0948

2 .96" 0 .17 0 .01 1 .21 10 .17'" 1 .06 0 .00 4 .55' 5 .23'

0 .07 0 .05 0 .65 0 .10 1 .29 0 .00 0 .07 0 .29 4 .44'

F

B) Prison-or-Not Parole Outcome

F

A) Ranked Parole Outcome

-0 .0075 -0 .0750 0 .0294 -0 .0283 -0 .0363 -0 .0956 0 .0644 -0 .0348 -0 .0893

Partial Correlation

0 .03 2 .80" 0 .43 0 .40 0 .65 4 .55"' 2 .06' 0 .60 3 .97'

F

C) Ranked Rap Sheet Outcome

SOCIAL AND CRIMINAL HISTORY RECIDIVISM-PREDICTOR VARIABLES

-0 .0063 0.0101 0 .0141 0 .0085 -0 .0302 -0 .0203 0 .0280 -0 .0092 -0 .1226

Partial Correlation

0 .02 0 .05 0 .10 0 .04 0 .45 0 .20 0 .39 0 .04 7 .57"'

F

D) Prison-or-Not Rap Sheet Outcome

PARTIAL CORRELATIONS OF SELF-IMPROVEMENT PROGRAM PARTICIPATION VARIABLES WITH RECIDIVISM AFTER CONTROLLING FOR

TABLE 4

224

CATHERINE R . BLEICK and ALLAN I . ABRAMS

the first regression and with F(12,495) _ 3 .57, p < .001 after vocational training in the third regression . The small positive correlation of amount of psychotherapy with recidivism in the third regression is presumably spurious . The above regressions were run using estimates of missing values (except for the dependent variable) to complete the cases (see Methods) . The same regressions, run using only initially complete cases, yielded essentially the same results . Slightly different combinations of the input social and criminal history variables entered the e quations . TM entered each regression, and education and vocational training entered as above . The partial correlations shown in Table 4 are all low, even where statistically significant . Correspondingly, the percentage of the total variance explained by TM ranged from only 0 .6 to 1 .3 (Tables 3a and 3b) . Examination of the actual difference in percentage of new prison terms between TM group and controls facilitates an evaluation of the practical significance of this apparently small TM effect . At one year after parole the TM group had 7 .4 percent new prison terms vs . 13 .8 percent for the controls, an absolute difference of 6 .4 percent, which (dividing this absolute difference by the 13 .8 percent control group returns to prison) amounts to a relative reduction in new terms by the TM group of over 45 percent . The corresponding figures, as determined from rap sheets at 0 .5 to 6 .0 years after release, were 19 .8 percent new prison terms for the TM group vs . 34 .5 percent for the controls, an absolute difference of 14 .7 percent, amounting to a relative reduction of over 40 percent . (The relative difference necessarily decreases without a decrease in the absolute figure as total recidivism increases over time .) However, these results do not consider the variables controlled in the regression analysis . By substituting the group mean values of each independent variable for the two groups in the appropriate regression equations at the step immediately before TM enters, the differences were obtained in

percent new prison terms between the TM group and the controls due solely to the predictor variables other than TM . Subtracting these smaller differences from the observed differences between the TM group and the controls, it was found that the remaining reductions in percent new prison terms due to TM (with other variables controlled) were 5 .6 percent absolutely (approximately 40 percent relatively) at one year after parole and 9 .9 percent absolutely (nearly 30 percent relatively) at 0 .5 to 6 .0 years combined . Regularity of TM Practice

Figure 3 shows regularity of TM practice after varying lengths of time since TM instruction by meditators who had not yet been released from prison . The overall figures for the entire 229 inmates surveyed were : 42 .8 percent regular, 16 .2 percent irregular, 9 .2 percent stopped, and 31 .9 percent no response . Table 5 shows that fifty-one TM recidivists surveyed in prison were less regular in meditation than the not-yet-released group . Table 6 shows that at two through five years after release, there was a strong trend for meditators paroled within five months after TM instruction to recidivate more than those paroled more than five months after instruction .

DISCUSSION The main problem with any ex post facto recidivism study such as the present study is the impossibility of constructing a control group demonstrably equal in risk of recidivism to the experimental group . The National Research Council Panel (Sechrest, White, and Brown, 1979 :167-175) pointed out that one can never know whether all relevant a priori differences between the groups are accounted for by matching or by multiple regression, which is a kind of matching . Even if one could obtain data on all relevant independent variables, the measurement of such variables inevitably is



225

Transcendental Meditation Program and Criminal Recidivism in California

NO RESPONSE

STOPPED

0-2 YEARS N=1 16

2-4 YEARS N=59

4-7+ YEARS N=54

TIME SINCE TM INSTRUCTION

Figure 3 . Regularity of TM Practice vs . Time Since Instruction for Not-Yet-Released Meditators imperfect . The skeptics of research on criminal rehabilitation have expressed dissatisfaction with all research designs except those based on initial random assignment of subjects to experimental and control groups. However, the present study was conceived only after hundreds of volunteer CDC inmates had already received TM instruction, and we were obliged to do the best we could with an ex post facto design . In the case of an obligatory ex post facto design, the Panel (Sechrest, White, and Brown, 1979 :169) recommended the selection of a natural, intact comparison group, particularly one with an initially higher probability of success . The TM group had significantly better mean parole outcome ranks than the statewide CDC parolees,

representing such an intact comparison group, with an effect size indicating practical significance . Because CDC parole outcomes provide accurate recidivism data only up to one year after parole, and because we encountered strong expectations that the volunteer TM group was self-selected, we felt it would be useful to turn to a matching and multiple regression approach as well . Matching was necessarily restricted to a few social and criminal history variables available on CDC computer printouts . Despite this restriction, matching did show that the TM group maintained significantly and consistently better rap sheet outcomes over one to five years after parole than matched controls . TM showed a significant negative correla-

22 6

CATHERINE R . BLEICK and ALLAN I . ABRAMS

TABLL 5 REGULARITY OF MEDITATION BY TM RECIDIVISTS VS . NOT-YET-RELEASED MEDITATORS

Regular Frequency (%)

Irregular Frequency (%)

No Response or Stopped Frequency (%)

N Frequency (%)

TM Recidivists

7

(13 .7%)

8

(15 .7%)

36

(70 .6%)

51

(100 .0%)

TM not yet released

27

(36 .0%)

15

(20 .0%)

33

(44 .0%)

75

(100 .0%)

NOTES : The Mann-Whitney U statistic is approximately Z when the sample sizes exceed 30 . Z = -3 .297 ; p < .002, two-tailed .

tion with recidivism after all other significant social and criminal history and motivation variables were controlled . However, the percentage of the total variance explained ranged from a low of about eight percent to eighteen percent, suggesting that some important variables might have been overlooked . Although the available variables included those most commonly used in recidivism studies, psychological test scores were not used, and detailed personal history variables were not available . Gendreau, Madden, and Leipciger (1980) reported that the addition of MMPI scores to social history data had little effect on the multiple variance of their combined predictor variables . In their literature survey they found multiple correlations of social history variables with recidivism ranging from lower to higher than those of the present study . Using criminal as well as social history variables . Pallone and Hennessy (1977) were able to explain twenty-six percent of the variance of their recidivism sample . However, their sample, representing young male felons from a single prison, was more homogeneous than ours . It is worth noting that the magnitude of the negative correlation between TM and recidivism in the four regressions is uncorrelated with the amount of the variance explained . We cannot rule out the absence of unknown variables for which the TM group could be preselected and which could reduce

or even eliminate the observed TM effect . Motivation for self-improvement alone did not appear to be such a factor, however . Since, overall, none of the three prison-sponsored programs had a consistently negative correlation with recidivism, it appears that motivation for self-improvement as indicated simply by joining prison programs did not reduce recidivism . Although the TM group contained more joiners of other groups, as one would expect of any volunteer group, this did not account for its reduced recidivism, With respect to the regressions in which prison-sponsored program participation was correlated with reduced recidivism, it is difficult to distinguish between the effect of motivation and the effect of actual practice of the various programs . Where education and vocational training showed some effect, the effect was more when amount of participation was taken into consideration . This may indicate either a greater degree of effectiveness of the programs when pursued extensively or a negative correlation between recidivism and the higher motivation required for extensive participation, or both . Where these programs were colinear with TM, the mutual correlation with recidivism may have belonged either to education and vocational training or to TM, or b oth . TM may actually have increased participation in other programs, and in fact several CDC meditators reported to the authors that this was so . But

t p (two-tailed)

5 Months > 5 Months

Time Since TM Instruction

0.9538

-0.06

(30) (202)

0 .644

(N)

0 .633

I Year

0 .0216

2 .41

0 .869

1 .370

2 Years (175)

(27)

(N)

0 .1597

1 .44

1 .030

1 .381

3 Years (132)

(21)

(N)

0 .1213

1 .61

1 .168

1 .625

4 Years

Mean Rap Sheet Outcome Rank

PAROLED SOON VS . LATE AFTER TM INSTRUCTION

(95)

(16)

(N)

MEAN RAP SHEET OUTCOME RANK OVER TIME AFTER RELEASE FROM CDC FOR MEDITATORS

TABLE 6

0 .0117

3 .27

1 .139

2 .429

5 Years

(65)

(7)

(N)

228

CATHERINE R- BLEICK and ALLAN I . ABRAMS

even when the contribution to the TM effect of high participation in education and vocational training was removed, the remaining reduction in recidivism attributable to TM was significant . It may be objected that TM might have attracted inmates who possessed a different quality of motivation for self-improvement than that of the participants in other activities-a motivational quality that was more predictive of reduced recidivism . But this idea seems unnecessarily mystical, especially as the TM group were often participants in the other activities . And even if we accept that the motivational quality leading to TM participation could be different, nevertheless, if the observed TM effect cannot be explained by some concrete social or psychological variable, it seems most parsimonious to explain it as due to TM practice itself, although motivation may have been helpful in encouraging practice . The concrete, measurable physiological correlates of TM practice listed in the introduction show that the practice itself is not without effects, and the results observed in this study are in the direction predicted by TM theory . The regularity survey results indicated that of men not yet released from prison, about forty percent were meditating regularly and another fifteen percent irregularly, up to seven years after instruction . This kind of dedication may reasonably have allowed TM to be effective over the long span of time between the initial instruction and the actual return to society . If we assume that these figures also apply to men who have been released, then it follows that enough men were practicing the TM technique that we may attribute the observed reduction in recidivism to actual TM practice . Although nonrecidivists could not be surveyed, the recidivists were meditating less regularly than the not-yet-released group . Evidence that amount of TM practice is related to recidivism comes from the finding that men paroled within five months of TM instruction tended to have a higher (worse) mean recidivism rank than those paroled later, who had more time to practice before

having the opportunity to recidivate . Since this difference did not appear until after the first year of parole, it may he that early parolees were more likely to discontinue TM practice after some time due to their shorter exposure to the supportive TM program within the institutions . Further research is required to substantiate the theoretical relationship between amount of TM practice and recidivism . Nevertheless, the finding of reduced recidivism for the TM group as a whole supports the medical model TM theory, which predicts effectiveness of the technique for all who are willing to practice it . Because TM theory considers pure consciousness to be the innermost and most powerful level of human nature, the effects of contacting this transcendental field of life in meditation are understood by proponents to outweigh both individual variations and even major negativity in the external environment . The practical significance of the TM correlation to reduced recidivism may be translated into a statement of cost-effectiveness . Other predictor variables accounted for approximately one-third of the overall fifteen percent difference in new prison terms between the TM group and matched controls . After controlling for these other predictors, TM accounted for an approximately ten percent absolute reduction in new prison terms by the TM group of about 250 . Without controlling for other recidivism predictors, the mean length of new prison sentences was 16 .8 months for the TM group vs . 25 .2 months for the controls overall, a difference of 8 .4 months . If this difference is reduced by the same one-third as the TM reduction in new prison terms accounted for by other predictors (as a rough estimate, without a regression analysis using new sentence length as the dependent variable), then the reduction in mean sentence length due to TM alone amounted to 5 .6 months per TM group member, including nonrecidivists . If we assume that only one-half of each sentence need actually be served, this corresponds to a reduction by the whole TM group of about sixty man-years in prison, or (at $20,000 per man-year in direct and indirect

Transcendental Meditation Program and Criminal Recidivism in California

costs) a saving of about $1 .2 million . The TM program is currently available in prisons at a fee of $800 per client . Thus the program being evaluated, which was actually offered free of charge by the TM organization with the aid of donations, would have cost about $200,000 and would have been highly cost-effective had it been state-sponsored . In the present climate of doubt over the efficacy of any rehabilitative program and particularly those aimed at adult felons, our results are very encouraging . If our findings are supported by further research, the potential savings in human suffering are large . It is noteworthy that the CDC TM program, despite being operated by a largely volunteer teaching staff and providing only rather limited follow-up to its participants, nevertheless showed superior results to the state-funded programs of education, vocational training, and psychotherapy . This suggests that the TM program deserves consideration as a candidate for public sponsorship .

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS We are grateful to Robert Dickover, Dorothy Jaman, and Richard Plante of CDC for their generous cooperation in supplying data ; to Sue Spencer, Dwight Harris, Tom Crone, and Chris Dcnnen for computer assistance ; to Maharishi International University for the use of its computer ; to Brian Hofland for statistical assistance ; to Sara Bleick for graphics assistance ; and to the CDC TM teachers for their largely volunteer time given for teaching .

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