- Email: [email protected]
The transformation of agricultural landscapes in Western Europe
The Scie,~ce of the Total Enviromnent, 129 (1993) 171-190 Elsevier Science Pt~blishers B.V., Amsterdam
171
The transformation of agricultural landscapes in Western Europe J.HoA. Meeus Pels Rijcker~traat 2, 6814 DL Arnhem, Netherlands
ABSTRACT Today's agricultural lands~pes are becoming decors, as the old pattern of conditions for regionally differentiated farming systems is disappearing. The variety of regionally differentiated landscapes is unlikely to increase. Some types of landscape will disappear, others will be sufficiently flexible to survive. In some other areas restoration of the traditional landscape is being considered for reasons like tourism, ecology or scenic value. The landscape typology as described here is meant to be a step in setting up a commonly adopted vocabulary and this we need in order to know what we are t a ~ n g about. The interaction between agriculu:ra! land use and the long-ter:~,,~management of the landscape is discussed ~t length. The main conclusion is that the variation in agricukurai landscapes in E u r o ~ will probably diminish if tke world market for agricultural products has its way and landscape planning is ignored.
Key words: typology; diversity; classification; policy scenarios; planning INTRODUCTION
There is not just ene European landscape but dozens, each with its own specific character. ]'he landscape typology as described in this article is meant to be the fiist step in setting up a commonly adopted vocabulary. In order to investigate the effects of agricultural policy on the transformation ~,f the landscapes, four scenarios are presented. These scenarios empha~ize in turn four divergent policies in the Common Market. The main conclusion is that the variation in agricultural landscapes will diminish if the liberal market policy has it~ way. That is why we need landscape planning. Landscape is perceived as semething to look at, but also to live or to work in. On the one hand landscapes are ~ series of fc~rrns which attract the eye, appreciated for their character, beauty, openness or wildness. On the other hand landscapes are habitats for wild species of plants and animals. Landscapes have a long positive association with agriculture. Farmers keep the countryside inhabited, attractive and thriving. Most people's vislcn of an ideal landscape includes farming. The mosaic of agricultural l.~n~!-
172
a.H.t~.MEEUS
scapes represents an attraction for visitors. But agriculture also has a profound impact on the environment. Fa~ners are dependent on the quality of their natural resource base. The raanagement of land, water and air should be an integral part of the wise use and maintenance of natural resources in the countryside. Landscape also embodies the memory of the efforts made throughout history, to harness natural resources. The different types of landscapes which man has fashioned both bear witness to our history [1] and provide refuge for numerous plas:* and animal species [2]. Because of different and sometimes conflicting goals such as agriculture, urbanisation, recreation, tourism and the environment, there is a need for physical ann i~,dzcape planning on a European scale [3-5]. AGRICULTURE AS PROTECTOR AND POLLUTER OF THE ENVIRONMENT
Agricultural modernisation and industrialisation has had a tremendous impact on the landscape. Recently agriculture has evolved to a state where short-term profits can be made without maintaining the traditional harmony and interdependence between agriculture and the environment. I,andscapes are in a process of transformation because of the current changes in farming practice. This; brings about considerable instability in the countryside. The Common Agricultural Policy is faced with unexpected environmental effects: a polluted and underpopulated countryside, abandoning almost 10% of the land, and a loss of natural species and scenic values [6]. In the last decade awareness ha,,; grown that the agricultural sector can be a major prL,~ector but also a significant polluter of the environment. Some of the long-term effects of bad management, such as the polluting of ground water sources, have often only recently been detected [7]. Since the eighties almost all European governments have expressed the need to preserve traditional landscapes with natural habitats [8]. F~om aa ecological point of'view the question is [2]" 'Do we want productive land on the one side and pseudo-wilderness on the other, or is there a way to plan, design and manage landscapes for multi-purposes, using sound ecological principles?' The question of this article is: 'Do we want standardised productionlandscape on the one side and abandoned wilderness on the other, or is there a way to develop ~pecific regional characters by landscape planning?' SUPRANATIONAL ID~:AS AND POLICIES
Supranational negotiations, such as in General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT), the Commission of European Community (CEC), and the
TRANSFORMATION OF AGRICULTURAL LANDSCAPES IN WESTERN EUROPE
173
Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) lead to a struggle to find out how to manage the economic problems of agriculture. These organisations are not seriously engaged with the environmental effects of agriculture such as the preservation of natural resources, the protection v,~ wildlife or the conservation of cultural values in tiie landscape. GATT governments plead for a world wide liberal market of agricultural products. As the demand for agricultural products stagnates, the agricultural policies can no longer be seen in terms of raising the production. Agricultural policies must be reformed. That is why governments have to remove price support arrangements and expose all sectors of agriculture to free market forces. In theory this will create a more eifidcnt allocation of resources and a greater diversity in agriculture. In some areas extevsification of the produ ction will be the result, in other regions there will be a tremendous intensification. Especially sr~iall scale landscapes, like the mountains or wetlands of Europe, are in damager because of abandoning and erosion. Effects on landscape or environment are not calculated [9]. Since 1985 the European Commission realised that there was a link between agricultural surpluses, the management of the natural environmen~ and social problems in rural areas [10]. Setting aside the surplus of farmland, covering some 10-20% of the territory of the Member States, should be a promising niche for regional development a~d physical planning. That ~s why suggestions are ~ven for the development of woodlands, ~he protection of natural habitats and the shaping, of a network of semi-natural areas [4]. Environmental and regi¢nal regulations are mainly related to econoraic measures. In the words of ~he Commission m 1988 [ 11 ]:
Local rural development does not mean merely working along existing lines. It means making the most of all advantages that the particular rural area has: space and landscape beauty, high-quality agricultural and forestry products sfecific to the area, gastronomic specialities, cultural aaJ craft traditions, architectural and artistic heritage, innovatory ideas, availability o~"labour, industries and services already existing, all to be exploited with regional capita~ and human resources . . . . In these circumstances payment by users of the infrastructure is n<,t to be debarred, the value (price) being determined by the authority on the basis of priorities and available resources. The OECD wants to integrate policies for agricuhure and envi~-onment. That approach is mainly an economic one a~ well. Not only agricultural products, but also the quality of resources an,0Lhndscapes will get a price. "i'he obiectives of 'production' a~d 'env~ronm~nt' may be conflicting. They may vary from region to regie, and can be exp:cted to change with time. But
174
.LH.A. MEEUS
also highly priced habitats and landscape features can be further impoverished. That is why different goals have to be integrated in a regional approach. The effects of setting aside the land can vary from region to region [ 12]: A recent development has been the renewed interest in land set-aside policies coupled with a concern for 'abandoned land'. In fact, such land is rarely abandoned by its owners. Rather, its use changes from cropping to grazing or forestry, although occasionally it is simply left idle. FoJrestfires, the loss of scenic amenities and wildlife habitats can all be the result of such changes. Often when the holding costs are low such land is inadequately managed. A number of countries are now considering the possibility of using such land for nature conservation and protecting purposes.
THE SAME WORDS AND OTHER MEANINGS
There is much confusion about the relationship between agriculture, environment and landscape. Farmers' experience and concept of nature differ greatly from the urban concept of rural landscape. The words landscape and environment have subtle different meanings in each west-Europ,~an country. In German speaking countries the concepts Naturschutz and Landschaftspflege are completely different. The first word means a purely sectoral, biological activity to save habitats. The second word is a more cultural concept which integrates visual, historic and biological measurements. Due to the diversity of each country's cultural goals or physical conditions also the words conservation and preservation have a different shade of meaning. In England, for example, care for the en~,ironment requires the maintenance of hedges, stone walls and traditional farm practices necessary for flora and fauna conservation. In Mediterranean countries care for the environment means terrace maintenance and grazing of semi-natural habitats, because of the prevention of soil erosion and the reduction of fire hazards.~ The state of the landscape is a fragile expression of natural conditions, regional culture and local heritage. It is impo:mnt to respect the different characters in landscape planning, o~:herwise the landscapes in Europe will look the same in the future. SCENARIOS OF LANDSCAPE PLANNING
The agric~dtural landscapes in Europe are in a continuous process of transformation. This may not be too shocking, although: many people thought or hoped that we had left behind us the period, in which agricultural increases of scale swept over the countryside~ spoiling many worthwhile
TRANSFORMATION OF AGRICULTURAL LANDSCAPES IN WESTERN EUROPE
175
~:-. #
._
=.
t,,f
• •
~A2
S " , ..
A3
f"
....~,~,
t'~
~ . . ,~
-~.~
%
AG~ICULTURA,. "ANDSCAP£'5 r~
OPF.NFIELDS
A_ .__22 FORI~,~R OPE~:'BELD5 A3' ~_~
7"OLDEI~
D1O_. KAMPEN B4
IVIED Ot~N LA~bD
C~
B_~_ ~ -
wIUEDTAS
D._.8_8BOCA,GE
CS~_Cc,'r~A P:~("w{~C;.,,4
~7ONTADOS
D_9 ~
BOCAG~
EI~_1 ~tr.~ILANBS
~'"3
~
;~c "
DEj.A.¢
Fig. 1. Typology of agricultural land,~apes in Europe (described more fully on some of the following pages).
"-~
.,
~
- ~ . ~ . . . ~
\
"\
O~cn Fields - - ~ ,andscape of wide undulating plains with regular parcels of land, from th~ Paris Basin to the middle of Germany. Farms are concentrated in viiiages Here and there relics of woodlands can be found. Fertile soils ensure high yields [26]. The granaries of Europe can compete with wor!doma~¢t price.,.~.They will survive and attract more production when the prices will ~ lowered in a liberal price policy.
\
Fig. 1. (Continued) Agricultural landscapes in Europe.
Polders - -
The flat and open landscapes in the lowlands of northwest Europe are called Polders. That is the case in the west of the Netherlands, Nie~ersachsen i~ Germany end southwest Denmark. Artificial drainage, regular fields, scattered farmyards and relatively large farming units make these landscapes very flexible. Fertile soils, modem land division and ~lanegement aimed at efficient production allow high y;elds [26]. The com;)etitivenaas is h~gh.
.
~'~
.
~
' '" , ,'; ,~"
~ .~ .~ 'L,
F,
.....
....~~.,.~,~,~ .~_,- ~,.-,~,. ,- ~'~;w~P~'
M e o i t e r r a n e a n Open L e n d ~ This drier variant of the Atlantic Open Fields cam be found in the Spanish highlands, the mountain regions of northern and southern Italy and Greece. Cereals are much cultivated and where possible there are olive-trees on the hillsides. Higher up, the mountains are used for extensive grazing. Due to the hot climate, a sometimes poor and stony soil and, last but not least, a lack of water in the growing season, competition with Atlantic Europe or world market is virtually impossible. The soil is far poorer end more difficult to work [29].
Former Open Fields - - Smaller areas, poorer soils and a cooler Atlantic climate mean that these landscapes are suitable for both cattle and arable farming. Their development differs from the OpEn Fields. Remains of hedges and trees can be found in southwest England, eastern Oenmark rand southern Sweden. Scattered buildings and fragmentation of parcels rare characteristic~ of the Former Open Fields. Yiek~s are generally lower Lhan in the Open Fields.
~"
,,4
-
~-
. ,.
~
Fig. I. (Continued) Agricultural landscapes in Europe.
Masteries
- - Montadoe form a sort of savanna landscape with cork oaks or olives, among which pi~e, sheep or cows 9re~e the meadows bare. Orynoss end low fertility ot the soil have led to a delicate equilibrium of a multiple-source, low.Input agriculture ~',h a high level of self-sufficiency, This type of landscape dominates in Alenteio (Portugal). In Extremadure (Speini they call it d e h e s a (28].
•
Huertaa --
Along the c o a s t s of the Mediterranean lie c o m p a c t , extremely cultivated regions, such as those near Valencia in Spain. These are known as Huertae. Irrigation makes varied and intensive agriculture possible. The land is intersected by t~ri~tlon ditches and often terraced. Fruits and vegetables of e9 kinds ~e grown [27].
~~-
~
--
~
=F.~.L.~J
'
8 o c a g a - - The Bocage landscape is a classic example of an enclosed landscape: a mosaic of plots, each surrounded by a wall or hedge, This lendscape is the expression of the individusl freedom of farmers on their own lend [27|. The sails are moderately fertile, and rainfall is excessive in an Atlantic climate. Land use is intensive. Traditionally, mixed crops dominate, though today it Is largely grassland 126), ~xamples can be found in Bretngne (France), Wales, the uplands end Midlands in England, the east of Ireland, the northwest of Denmark, the southeast of Norway and in the southwestern i~art of S~-ver~en,
¢
- - This is an enclosed ~,andscape where mixed farming is lntensiva;y practised. The populations are concentrated in villages. Also scatterd farmsteads can be found, The landscape di,~p~ays a classic upward pattern of trees, bushes and ground cover. In the ;oothills of the A~anninee, Coltura Promiscua appears in conjunction with terraces (27], which retain ~oth the scarce rainwater end the thin layer of soil. Examples can be found in Tuscana and Umbria, central Italy,
Colfura Promiscua
"' "- ~_
. . . . .
,,j ,-4
- _. - -:-... ~
~"<:-'-~"
- - =~- - ' - - - -
. . . . . . ~.. - . . . .
I
~
~ ...,,.__.
-
i
~
~
-
~ , ~ ' C
,
.
~
-'~
~~
, '~ ,.. ~ . ~h,," c '
,~
.
I~,~
~
..,
~
__
_',~-~- ~---,~-,c~=,,
•
) ,11/I, '/ ~ ,~_ ;~.. .~. ~r; ~, ' ~l,; lI@, : . t f f u_ '.,
Fig. I. (Continued)Agricultural landscapes in Europe.
Highland~ -The Highlands in the extreme northwest of Europ~ are charecterised by very extensive agrarian u s e , stony soils and a major surplus of water |26]. The landscapes of western Ireland, western Scotland and Norway are rough, bare and desolate.
.......
...,.-,--
h~-,,,,,,,,',,',hv',,~~
~ - _ _ _ _ _ - ~- -- -.~ . ~~..~ , --------
- -
~emi.Bocsge - - In the mountainous areas of central France and northern Spain (Galicia), Semi-Bocages are found: not all the plots are enclosed and stge and small plots alternate in steep terrain. The land use is extensive ~nd there are many woods.
..j::_; -.-- . . , , . . . - . . , , , - : . . - - ' - - - - . _ , - - ~ ~ .
--- .-_-_-...'~I~, ,~
~ c
',,'.-"~_--
y
/ / "-X'._.~ s
Montegnes - - In the Alps and the Pyrenees there is a real mountain landscape. Here agriculture is mainly concentrated in the valleys, except for some extensively used grazing grounds. The slopes are either wooded or covered with meadows. The, short growing season and thin, stony soils create an ecologically unstable system. The difficult production conditions mean that meadows are deserted. There is much forest planted to avoid Drosion of the slopes. In Switzerland and Austria, measures are taken to preserve areas that are in danger of being abandoned. Meedowlands are cut to maintain the visual appearance of cut-grass fields and the condition Df ski slopes for the tourist industry [121.
,,,~'~)1
-Kampen landscapes are mostly enclosed, have a patchwork lay-out, mixed crops, scattered farmsteads and a great diversity of trees on plots and roads. They contsin poor, sandy soils crossed by stream valleys. Interesting ecological differences have arisen between the cultivated land and the heath and the wet pasture land. The poorest soils are wooded. Intensification of iagriculture, abundant use of fertilizers ~nd manure and fragmentation of wild-life habitats mean that the contrast between the open areas and the enclosed farm land has almost disappeared in the Dutch Kampen. In Vlaanderen (Belgium) and in Nordrhein-West falen (Germany) Kampen can also be found. Due to a great flexibility in the growing of crops competiveness is high.
Kampen
m -4 ~0
=
~ _ ~
---;2, --''
~
~
~.-.;!.:..,;
~
-_
.. ~.::...,., :.,.:,,..,
. ~'..'s." ~--:yd~,,.,~,:,
•~loJn~l
:"~":
.
ui
.. ..
sadn:~s,put~ I lt~mlln:~.ullV {panu!luo,)) "l "$!:!
.
.
\
J',
,
\/~
\ J \
,,/
,~,-~
~
,I
/x
.. •
.
'i!,,:!... :. . ":;..~/.'...; :.
•: . | , . . . .
":i2 ' . .
\/. \J "~ ~ \ . . . . .
"'~
. ... .. . ...,-.-...:.,.:~. .
. . ........
" i."":::,..~
~
.................. ....
~'.,i~.;.,.~.;.,,...... .. , ;-~-"~,:~;::,:-..~',
i~::!"
,,.
I..J
}
- .:...
"'".
~--------'~
' --
1".-~ L.
. '
. .
f"
. :i.
~
"lll§nl~od u! { J e l l liql pull ulaclg u! O]Cl] ilql '^IIBI Ul od ilqi ,tiou~ ~:i u! ougq~ oql puno~e oou~lsu! ~oj se 'leUOBe~ s! uoBepOile puel oq| pue poleG!~! o~o Sl!OS Olll~el o q i "lueWdOlO^Op ueqm pug leJm po),ll~luoo,Joo t.!ll'~ {*gilo8 -pUel uodo ue s, l! "edom3 l s e ~ q l ] o u Io s]oplOd oql o| oiqgJDdwo:) 'seOJil pole^Bin:) ~le^!su~,:' oJg aJoql odo~n3 moqlnos Ul liJo^lJ ulgu.' ~:u~ OuGiy -- -;#~110{~
,
,
._~"~";,'b:~:L.C~. /~~.-~-~~-~_
180
J.H.A. MEEUS
landscape features. It has been, ht;wever, only one of the waves, and there are more to come; landscapes are dynamic features. Because of the confusion about landscape planning in Europe, a typology and scenario-study has been set up. The typology presented here, describes different Western-European landscapes. While farming is still related to ~oil conditions, topography and climate, thirtee)~adifferent types of agricultural landscapes can be distinguished (Fig. 1). In order to understand the interrelation of various objectives, four scenarios are presented. These scenarios emphasize in turn four diverging policies and describe alternative developmenta of the European landscapes. The first scenario is based on an emphasis on a liberal price policy and will have a negatiw," impact on landscape amenity. The second scenario emphasizes the promotion of existing qualities in regions with a strong identity, both in terms of special products and in environmental characteristics. The third scenario stresses the need for protection and preservation of,,natural N,. o . and cultural values in the landscape. The fourth scenario is based on g--'.~,mg priority to improving environmental quality by active intervention; here, the sustainability of natural resources comes first. The intention is not that one of these scenarios should be chosen as a general solution for the whole of Europe. Rather they are presented to illustrate the consequences of certain choices. Each of them might be applicable in selected areas, according to the situation in agricalture, recreation, environment and landscape planning. SCENARIO ONE: GPTIMIZING AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTION
It is the market which determines the fate of farmers, crops and farm land. The cultivation of specific crops moves from place to place, all over Europe, as farmers anticipate changes in the market. Soil quality, flexibility in tillage and location near urban concentrations, trunk roads, seaports and international airports are decisive factors. Only the most efficient farmers survive in the long run. Optimal production is ensured by means of a liberal price and market policy~ stimulating: the mobility of production factors, set-aside programmes etc. [13]. Consumers are confronted with an ample supply of a variety of products, the quantity and quality of which is continuously adapted to changing demands and the latest innovations [14]. But society not only demands agricultural products of standard quality and low price, it also wants ',~:aturaland cultural values to be maintained [8]. In reaction to this, the government gives direct subsidies for specific purposes? such as the protection of certain landscapes or to prevent the depopulation of regions [10].
181
TRANSFORMATION OF AGRICULTURAL LANDSCAPES IN WESTERN EUROPE
J f-
SCENARIO I.
OPTIMIZING
AGRICULTURAL P R O D U C T I O N
:iiiiii:ii:'-iii:'i: Deveiopmer~r
:
P,-eservat,on
- ........
~)ecay
Fig. 2. Impact on landscapes of scenario 1.
The impact on landscapes Zoning on an unprecedented European scale will occur (Fig. 2). The extremes are highly productive agriculture in growth centres, and depopulation and degradation in peripheral and less favoured areas [15]. ~l~e open landscapes of northwestern Europe in the vicinity of major ports are developed into even more highly productive areas. These are the large scale landscapcs such as Open Fields, Former Open Fields and Polders. Natura!l habitats, recreation, tourism and housing are excluded from these areas and are situated elsewhere [16]. In this scenario also Deltas and Huertas in the Mediterraneaa attract more production.
182
J.H.A. MEEUS
There is a considerable amount of social upheaval [17]. Government str/ttegy is to protect parts of small scale laadscapes, bordering upon densely populated areas, because of recreation and landscape amenity. Decay threatens in thinly populated landscapes, such as the so called 'less favoured areas' and mountainous regions. In the Scandinavian mainland there will be a change-over from agricultural production to commercial forestry. SCENARIO TWO: THE PROMOTION OF SPECIFIC REGIONS The autonomy of a region [18], with its specific geographical and historical conditions and the existence of special high-quality products, offers opportunities on the market. Regionally cultivated 'quality products' with special
¢,
~!iiiiiii!iiiii!ii!iiii!iii~
SCENARIO 2, PROMOTION OF SPFCIFiC REGIONS ~,..,.....,.
,--- __,
Development
L____..J Preservation
Fig. 3. Impact on landscapes of :~cenario2.
r
:~71
L~.~
Decay
TRANSFORMATION OF AGRICULTURAL LANDSCAPES IN WESTERN EUROPF
183
brand names can be sold at higher prices than the co~lunon agricultural bulk goods of the previous scenario [19]. They could be products such as wines, cheeses or beef, or services such as tourist attractions and accommodation; all this in combination with the existence of special historic or scenic attractions. 'The principles of ecologic farming and a careful landscape management would be the 'badge' of European foods in competition on a world market where lower wages will be our challenge [17]. Examples in Europe are: the region of Emilia Romagna in Italy with its Parmesan cheese, the Bordeaux region in France with its famous wines, and some regions in Germany, Switzerland and Austria where the well kept countryside is a tourist attraction. The market value of individual products and services is enhanced by the associated regional image, by inherited local customs, careful landscape maintenance and the resulting local identity. The goal is to facilitate the use of the landscape for various purposes: a mixture of production, recreation and natural processes. Governn~ent interference is selective: only these areas requiring active support are eligible for some sort of assistance. Natural resources are managed carefully, because they are the basis for the quality image of the region, which must be guarded. A rise in food and tourist prices, however, is inevitable in this scenario. The impact on landscapes
It would be possible to mention other European regions, but not all regions have the potential to develop themselves according to this scenario. Many lack the resources for a s~ccessfui implementation of this strategy. It is therefore very difficult to prese1~t anything like a complete and exact portrayal of the location and nature of all possible regions throughout Europe. This is why the encircled areas on this map (Fig. 3) are superimposed on the map of scenario one. This implies a complementary relation between the two scenarios: outside the specified regions bulk-goods production may dominate, with the same impact on the laadscape. Within some of the specialised regions ~here may i~ a tendency to emphasize historical elements and to conserve ~:haracteristic patterns. Only thinly populated areas may suff~r from local decay. Ancient estates, vineyards, truffles, haute cuisine, traditional customs and regional culture may go hand in hand. Landscapes tentatively indicated ~,l this map include the Coltura Promiscua in central Italy, the Montados in Portugal and Spain~ the periphery of the Mediterranean Open Land in Spain an~ Greece, some of the French wine distriicts and a few of the small scale tourist ianc'iscapes.
184
~.a.A. MEsUS
SCENARIO THREE: OPTIMISING LANDSCAPE PRESERVATION
The landscape is public property, and must not be allowed to fall into neglect as a result of agricultural production or other damaging forms of land use. Authorities, acting in the common long-term interest, put restrictions on production in order to safeguard social, natural and visual quality [20]. The argument behind these actions is the need to preserve intrinsic val-aes, and to protect the landscape from negative influences caused by too much human interference, motivated by the search for short-term profits [211. Another motive is to provide attractive space for the urban population, for activities such as outdoor recreation, tourism or holiday places. These go
., <>'~
tb
SCENARIO 3. OPTIMIZING LANDSCAPE PRESERVATION
~:~
Development
~
Preservat0on
Fig. 4. Impact on landscapes of scenario 3.
De cay
TRANSFORMATION OF AGRICULTURAL LANDSCAPES IN WESTE~A,IEUROPE
| 85
together with the demand for experiencing nature and rurality. An overall extensification of land use is implied. The interweaving of natural processes, agriculture and recreation must be carried out at a local level [22,23]. Nature areas, wildlife reserves and landscape parks are maintained and preserved. The goal is a local mixture of agriculture, natural elements, recreation, tourism and housing, with an eye towards simultaneous .use. That is why shelter belts are planted and buffer zones are created between the rural and the urban, and between the natural and the cultivated landscape. The maintenance and preservation of the landscape as a public good prevent such processes as depopulation and decay, and encourages recreational use. All this requires extensive public funding [11].
The impact on landscapes The degeneration of most endangered landscapes is effectively stopped (Fig. 4). All small-scale landscapes where local ecological differentiation is at its highest level, are preserved [8,16]. These are the Bocages, Kampen, Montagnes, Semi-Bocages, Montados and Coltura Promiscua. In this scenario preservation means making nature areas, wildlife reserves and landscape parks. One should be aware that development in this scenario does not have the same meaning as in scenario one or two. Development of the large scale landscapes of Atlantic Europe, such as Open Fields, Polders and Former Open Fields means that buffer zones are planned to protect the nature areas. Landscapes far from me~.ropolitan areas and harbouring little human activity, such as the Highlands in Scotland, the Mediterranean Open Land in the interior of Spain, Greece and the Mezzogiorno region of Italy, might tend to fall into decay. Abandoning cannot effectively be stopped but a minimal level of maintenance must be ensured here Ill]. SCENARIO FOUR: SUSTAINABLE USE OF NATURAL RESOURCES
This scenario is the result of a different way of thinking~ The maintenance of environmental quality and ecological processes are limiting factors for production. Human health is at stake. It is recognised that we must pay a price in order to be able to retain scarce commodities like clean water, uncontaminated soils and pure air, these being consumer goods like all the others [12]. Closed cycles in the production and reconversion of energy and matter must be attained on a worldwide scale. Each product revolves in its own cycle of formation and decomposition. Advanced and refined techniques are applied in order to achieve this [7]. The advance of theoretical knowledge on the subject of ecological processes makes it possible to create a natural differentiation
SUSTAINABLEUSE OF NATURAL RESOURCES
Fig 5. Impact on landscapes of scenario 4.
SCENARIO 4.
............
~,:.
0
O
",',',-.'°°."
Y
::.:.~I~.:...
Decay
Preservation
Dt,velopment
TRANSFORMATION OF AGRICULTURAL LANDSCAPES IN WESTERN EUROPE
187
in landscapes which ensures the permanent survival of a variety of ecosystems. The latest innovations in technological know-how are applied in order to achieve a high level of efficiency and production, combined with the sustained use of natural resources. That is why the use of pesticides will be replaced by biological pest control. The governments have the task of supervising the maintenance of environmental quality, controlling the use of natural resources, and actively reconstructing landscapes in order to help balance the various land-use requirements. A monitoring system will be set up, that gives early warning of pollution, erosion and other threats [7,24]. By implementing landscape plans, new frameworks are established that connect elements and zones of high stability and envelop the more dynamic productive areas [6].
The impact on landscapes In the long run, the absence of polluting chemicals and organic waste in rivers, lakes and oceans, as well as in the soil, will result in a certain revival of endangered species in flora and fauna. Additional planning and management measures based on increased know-how will help stabilise natural systems, especially the more fragile ones in areas such as the Mediterranean (Fig. 5). On a European scale, the major rivers, with their sources, aquifers and catchment basins, are the ordering elements for furore settlement patterns [25]. Valleys, basins and estuaries are the intensively used and heavily polluted arteries, and need to be cleaned up and redeveloped. The Kampen landscape and large parts of the Deltas of the rivers Po, Ebro and Rh6ne are developed. In Mediterranean areas the desalination of soils requires special attention. Preservation has much in common with preservation in scenario three but here development is a different process. Adequate techniques and an ample supply of money should help maintain the quality of all European landscapes, by measures such as the prevention of erosion and desertification. Some of the areas that are in the process of depopulation, such as Galicia, the Spanish uplands, the Massif Central and the IIighlands of Scotland, might suffer from degradation caused by abandoning. EVALUATION AND CONCLUSIONS
The typology is limited in scope. If we value landscape variety as such, then this typology has to say something. If there are reasons to superimpose a new kind of variety based on entirely different concepts, then there are un-
188
J.H.A. MEEUS
doubtedly other ways to sort out information, which would result in a different typology. As the four scenarios dealt with here have been described only briefly, and the measures involved merely indicated, their impact on landscapes needs further investigation. Not all implications could be foreseen in this overview. There also might be other options available. Scenario one is clearly based on a laisser-faire philosophy, allowing for large economic activity~ and a general rise in material living standards, a~bcit combined with vast differences in income levels. Only the most efficient farmers survive in the long run. They have to believe ~ new technologies who solve all problems. However, there is a general lowering of the overall quality of life as environmental qualities suffer and landscapes decay. Scenario two exploits and promotes regional qualities that are already there and stimulates this development in places where opportunities are recognised. This results in the differentiation of Europe into prosperous and healthy regions with a balanced natural and scenic environment and more uniform landscapes where bulk goods are produced. Scenario three is based on a pessimistic view of the human capacity to distinguish between short-term gain and long-term inlterests. There is a pronounced ethical attitude, both in the social and the environmental domain. Government needs more power to counteract human intervention in the environment by means of landscape and physical planning. Scenario four, on the contrary, is founded on the optimistic belief that with the growth of scientific knowledge, an increased understanding of economic and ecological processes will be ours. New techno]logies, environmental policies and landscape planning will lead to a better future for the countryside. This prospect, combined with a vast increase in instant communication and public information, will lead to a general awareness of what should and can be done to create and sustain a high living standard. In some districts, scenario one 'production' might be inevitable because circumstances are favourable for a quick adaptation to market opportunities and the market forces are too strong to withstand. And in a number of regions, scenario two 'promoting the region' can certainly be applied with due success. The choice between the last scenarios three and four is a complex one, because here we are confronted with fundamental differences between the philosophies behind each of them. REFERENCES Council of Europe, Secretariatmemorandum for the meeting of the group of specialists on the conservation, management and restoration of rural landscapes, June 1990,
Strasbourg.
TRANSFORMATION OF AGRICULTURAL LANDSCAPES IN WESTERN EUROPE
189
2 J. Baudry, Hedgerows and hedgerow networks as wildlife habitat in agxicultural landscapes, in J. Park (Ed.), Environmental Management in Agriculture: European Perspectives, CEC, Belhaven Press, London, 1989, pp. 110-124. 3 H. d'Ancona, Naar een Europees ruimtelijk belcid. In: Het open Europa en de ruimtelijke ordening, Tien jaar planologische diskussiedagen. PDD/DUM, Delft, the Netherlands, 1989, pp. 19-23. 4 D. Martin, Ruimtelijke ordening: een taak voor de Europese Gemeenschappen in de jaren negentig. In: Ruimtelijke verkenningen 1990, Jaarboek Rijksplanologische Dienst~ Ministry of Housing. Physical Planning and Environmental Management, The Hague, 1990, pp. 111-122. 5 R.D. Williams (Ed.), Planning in Europe. Urban and regional planning in the EEC. Allen and Unwinn, London, 1984. 6 M.J. Vroom, (Ed.), Changing agricultural landscapes of Europe, Special issue. Landsc. Urban Plann., 18 (1990) 179-362. 7 R. Langeweg (Ed.), Zorgen voor morgen, nationale milieuverkenning 1985-2010. Samson H.D. Tjeenk Willink, Alphen aan den Rijn, the Netherlands, 1989. 8 A. de Regt, Kleinschalig landschap in een grootschalig Europa. In: Ruimtelijke verkenningen 1989, Jaarboek Rijksplanologische Dienst, Ministry of Housing, Physical Planning and Environmental Management, The Hague, 1989, pp. 11-44. 9 W. Van der Weijden, Nieuw wereldhandelsakkoord kan landbouw en milieu schaden. Volkskrant, Open Forum, 6/02/1990, p. 15. 10 Cc,awnission of the European Communities (CEC), Perspectives for the Common Agricultural Policy (Green Paper), EC. Official Publication, Luxembourg, 1985. 11 Conm~s~ic:n of the European Communities (CEC), The future of rural society. Bull. Eur. Communities, Suppl., 4/8,8 (1988). 12 OECD~ Agricultural and environmental policies; Opportunities for integration. Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, Paris, 1989. 13 ]. de en Hoogh and H.J. Silvis (Eds), EG-landbouwpolitiek van binnen en van buiten. Pudoc, Wageningen, 1988. 14 H.R. Mentink, Long term developments in European agriculture and its visual impact on the landscape. Landsc. Urban Plann., 18 (1990) 203-209. 15 J. Primdahl, Heterogeneity in agriculture and landscape: from segregation to integration. Landsc. Urban Plann., 18 (1990) 221-228. 16 .L Conrad, Alternative land use options in the EC. Land Use Policy, 3 (1987) 229-242. 17 A. Bramsnaes, Rural planning; The landscape of agriculture. Paper for the international conference in June 1990: The contribution of landscape planning to environmental protection, Hannover, FRG (unpublished) 1990. 18 H.M. Enzensberger, Ach Europa! Wahrnehmungen aus sieben L/indern; Mit einem Epilog aus dem Jahre 2006. Suhrkamp, Frankfurt, 1989. 19 J.D. Ploeg v.d., AgrP,rische verscheidenheid als vertrekpunt voor ruimtelijke ordening. Plan, 1/2 (1989) 31-40. 20 G.H. Moss, The future of the rural community in Europe, Council of Europe, Strasbourg, 1986. 21 D. Bruns, G. Kaule and F. Luz, Die Rolle der Landschaftsplanung in der Agrarlandschaft. Garten Landschaft, 11 (1988) 15-21. 22 Countryside Policy Review Panel, New opportunities for the countryside. Countryside Commission, Cheltenham, 1987. 23 A. Noirfalise, Paysages l'Europe de la diversit6. EC Official Publication, Luxembourg, 1988.
190
.I.H.A. MEEUS
24 .I. Park (Ed.), Environmental Management in Agriculture: European Perspectives. CEC:, Belhaven Press, London, 1989. 25 R. Tavernier (coordination) Soil map of the European Communities, 1:1 000 000. EC Official Publication, Luxembourg, 1985. 26 J. Lee, Land ~esources and their use in the European Communities, in H. Barth and P. L'Hermite (Eds), Scientific Basis for Soil Protection in the European Community. CEC, El.qevier, London, 1987, pp. 29-63. 27 R. Lebeau, Les grands types de structures agraires dans le monde. Initions aus 6tudes de geographic. Masson, Paris, 1969. 28 O. Balabanian, Les exploitations et les problemes de i'agriculture en Estramadure Espagnole et dans le Haut-Alentejo. Tome 1-2, Di:~sertation Universit6 Clermont Ferrand, 1980. 29 M. Ruiz Perez, Development of Mediterranean a:;riculture: an ecological approach. Landsc. Urban Plann., 18 (1990) 211-220. 30 J. Meeus, J.D.v.d. Ploeg and M. Wijermans, Changing agricultural landscapes in Europe: continuity, deterioration or rupture? IFLA conference, Rotterdam, 1988. 31 J.H.A. Meeus, M.P. Wijermans and M.P. Vroom, Agricultural landscapes in Europe and their transformation. Landsc. Urban Plann., 18 (1990) 289-352.
171
The transformation of agricultural landscapes in Western Europe J.HoA. Meeus Pels Rijcker~traat 2, 6814 DL Arnhem, Netherlands
ABSTRACT Today's agricultural lands~pes are becoming decors, as the old pattern of conditions for regionally differentiated farming systems is disappearing. The variety of regionally differentiated landscapes is unlikely to increase. Some types of landscape will disappear, others will be sufficiently flexible to survive. In some other areas restoration of the traditional landscape is being considered for reasons like tourism, ecology or scenic value. The landscape typology as described here is meant to be a step in setting up a commonly adopted vocabulary and this we need in order to know what we are t a ~ n g about. The interaction between agriculu:ra! land use and the long-ter:~,,~management of the landscape is discussed ~t length. The main conclusion is that the variation in agricukurai landscapes in E u r o ~ will probably diminish if tke world market for agricultural products has its way and landscape planning is ignored.
Key words: typology; diversity; classification; policy scenarios; planning INTRODUCTION
There is not just ene European landscape but dozens, each with its own specific character. ]'he landscape typology as described in this article is meant to be the fiist step in setting up a commonly adopted vocabulary. In order to investigate the effects of agricultural policy on the transformation ~,f the landscapes, four scenarios are presented. These scenarios empha~ize in turn four divergent policies in the Common Market. The main conclusion is that the variation in agricultural landscapes will diminish if the liberal market policy has it~ way. That is why we need landscape planning. Landscape is perceived as semething to look at, but also to live or to work in. On the one hand landscapes are ~ series of fc~rrns which attract the eye, appreciated for their character, beauty, openness or wildness. On the other hand landscapes are habitats for wild species of plants and animals. Landscapes have a long positive association with agriculture. Farmers keep the countryside inhabited, attractive and thriving. Most people's vislcn of an ideal landscape includes farming. The mosaic of agricultural l.~n~!-
172
a.H.t~.MEEUS
scapes represents an attraction for visitors. But agriculture also has a profound impact on the environment. Fa~ners are dependent on the quality of their natural resource base. The raanagement of land, water and air should be an integral part of the wise use and maintenance of natural resources in the countryside. Landscape also embodies the memory of the efforts made throughout history, to harness natural resources. The different types of landscapes which man has fashioned both bear witness to our history [1] and provide refuge for numerous plas:* and animal species [2]. Because of different and sometimes conflicting goals such as agriculture, urbanisation, recreation, tourism and the environment, there is a need for physical ann i~,dzcape planning on a European scale [3-5]. AGRICULTURE AS PROTECTOR AND POLLUTER OF THE ENVIRONMENT
Agricultural modernisation and industrialisation has had a tremendous impact on the landscape. Recently agriculture has evolved to a state where short-term profits can be made without maintaining the traditional harmony and interdependence between agriculture and the environment. I,andscapes are in a process of transformation because of the current changes in farming practice. This; brings about considerable instability in the countryside. The Common Agricultural Policy is faced with unexpected environmental effects: a polluted and underpopulated countryside, abandoning almost 10% of the land, and a loss of natural species and scenic values [6]. In the last decade awareness ha,,; grown that the agricultural sector can be a major prL,~ector but also a significant polluter of the environment. Some of the long-term effects of bad management, such as the polluting of ground water sources, have often only recently been detected [7]. Since the eighties almost all European governments have expressed the need to preserve traditional landscapes with natural habitats [8]. F~om aa ecological point of'view the question is [2]" 'Do we want productive land on the one side and pseudo-wilderness on the other, or is there a way to plan, design and manage landscapes for multi-purposes, using sound ecological principles?' The question of this article is: 'Do we want standardised productionlandscape on the one side and abandoned wilderness on the other, or is there a way to develop ~pecific regional characters by landscape planning?' SUPRANATIONAL ID~:AS AND POLICIES
Supranational negotiations, such as in General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT), the Commission of European Community (CEC), and the
TRANSFORMATION OF AGRICULTURAL LANDSCAPES IN WESTERN EUROPE
173
Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) lead to a struggle to find out how to manage the economic problems of agriculture. These organisations are not seriously engaged with the environmental effects of agriculture such as the preservation of natural resources, the protection v,~ wildlife or the conservation of cultural values in tiie landscape. GATT governments plead for a world wide liberal market of agricultural products. As the demand for agricultural products stagnates, the agricultural policies can no longer be seen in terms of raising the production. Agricultural policies must be reformed. That is why governments have to remove price support arrangements and expose all sectors of agriculture to free market forces. In theory this will create a more eifidcnt allocation of resources and a greater diversity in agriculture. In some areas extevsification of the produ ction will be the result, in other regions there will be a tremendous intensification. Especially sr~iall scale landscapes, like the mountains or wetlands of Europe, are in damager because of abandoning and erosion. Effects on landscape or environment are not calculated [9]. Since 1985 the European Commission realised that there was a link between agricultural surpluses, the management of the natural environmen~ and social problems in rural areas [10]. Setting aside the surplus of farmland, covering some 10-20% of the territory of the Member States, should be a promising niche for regional development a~d physical planning. That ~s why suggestions are ~ven for the development of woodlands, ~he protection of natural habitats and the shaping, of a network of semi-natural areas [4]. Environmental and regi¢nal regulations are mainly related to econoraic measures. In the words of ~he Commission m 1988 [ 11 ]:
Local rural development does not mean merely working along existing lines. It means making the most of all advantages that the particular rural area has: space and landscape beauty, high-quality agricultural and forestry products sfecific to the area, gastronomic specialities, cultural aaJ craft traditions, architectural and artistic heritage, innovatory ideas, availability o~"labour, industries and services already existing, all to be exploited with regional capita~ and human resources . . . . In these circumstances payment by users of the infrastructure is n<,t to be debarred, the value (price) being determined by the authority on the basis of priorities and available resources. The OECD wants to integrate policies for agricuhure and envi~-onment. That approach is mainly an economic one a~ well. Not only agricultural products, but also the quality of resources an,0Lhndscapes will get a price. "i'he obiectives of 'production' a~d 'env~ronm~nt' may be conflicting. They may vary from region to regie, and can be exp:cted to change with time. But
174
.LH.A. MEEUS
also highly priced habitats and landscape features can be further impoverished. That is why different goals have to be integrated in a regional approach. The effects of setting aside the land can vary from region to region [ 12]: A recent development has been the renewed interest in land set-aside policies coupled with a concern for 'abandoned land'. In fact, such land is rarely abandoned by its owners. Rather, its use changes from cropping to grazing or forestry, although occasionally it is simply left idle. FoJrestfires, the loss of scenic amenities and wildlife habitats can all be the result of such changes. Often when the holding costs are low such land is inadequately managed. A number of countries are now considering the possibility of using such land for nature conservation and protecting purposes.
THE SAME WORDS AND OTHER MEANINGS
There is much confusion about the relationship between agriculture, environment and landscape. Farmers' experience and concept of nature differ greatly from the urban concept of rural landscape. The words landscape and environment have subtle different meanings in each west-Europ,~an country. In German speaking countries the concepts Naturschutz and Landschaftspflege are completely different. The first word means a purely sectoral, biological activity to save habitats. The second word is a more cultural concept which integrates visual, historic and biological measurements. Due to the diversity of each country's cultural goals or physical conditions also the words conservation and preservation have a different shade of meaning. In England, for example, care for the en~,ironment requires the maintenance of hedges, stone walls and traditional farm practices necessary for flora and fauna conservation. In Mediterranean countries care for the environment means terrace maintenance and grazing of semi-natural habitats, because of the prevention of soil erosion and the reduction of fire hazards.~ The state of the landscape is a fragile expression of natural conditions, regional culture and local heritage. It is impo:mnt to respect the different characters in landscape planning, o~:herwise the landscapes in Europe will look the same in the future. SCENARIOS OF LANDSCAPE PLANNING
The agric~dtural landscapes in Europe are in a continuous process of transformation. This may not be too shocking, although: many people thought or hoped that we had left behind us the period, in which agricultural increases of scale swept over the countryside~ spoiling many worthwhile
TRANSFORMATION OF AGRICULTURAL LANDSCAPES IN WESTERN EUROPE
175
~:-. #
._
=.
t,,f
• •
~A2
S " , ..
A3
f"
....~,~,
t'~
~ . . ,~
-~.~
%
AG~ICULTURA,. "ANDSCAP£'5 r~
OPF.NFIELDS
A_ .__22 FORI~,~R OPE~:'BELD5 A3' ~_~
7"OLDEI~
D1O_. KAMPEN B4
IVIED Ot~N LA~bD
C~
B_~_ ~ -
wIUEDTAS
D._.8_8BOCA,GE
CS~_Cc,'r~A P:~("w{~C;.,,4
~7ONTADOS
D_9 ~
BOCAG~
EI~_1 ~tr.~ILANBS
~'"3
~
;~c "
DEj.A.¢
Fig. 1. Typology of agricultural land,~apes in Europe (described more fully on some of the following pages).
"-~
.,
~
- ~ . ~ . . . ~
\
"\
O~cn Fields - - ~ ,andscape of wide undulating plains with regular parcels of land, from th~ Paris Basin to the middle of Germany. Farms are concentrated in viiiages Here and there relics of woodlands can be found. Fertile soils ensure high yields [26]. The granaries of Europe can compete with wor!doma~¢t price.,.~.They will survive and attract more production when the prices will ~ lowered in a liberal price policy.
\
Fig. 1. (Continued) Agricultural landscapes in Europe.
Polders - -
The flat and open landscapes in the lowlands of northwest Europe are called Polders. That is the case in the west of the Netherlands, Nie~ersachsen i~ Germany end southwest Denmark. Artificial drainage, regular fields, scattered farmyards and relatively large farming units make these landscapes very flexible. Fertile soils, modem land division and ~lanegement aimed at efficient production allow high y;elds [26]. The com;)etitivenaas is h~gh.
.
~'~
.
~
' '" , ,'; ,~"
~ .~ .~ 'L,
F,
.....
....~~.,.~,~,~ .~_,- ~,.-,~,. ,- ~'~;w~P~'
M e o i t e r r a n e a n Open L e n d ~ This drier variant of the Atlantic Open Fields cam be found in the Spanish highlands, the mountain regions of northern and southern Italy and Greece. Cereals are much cultivated and where possible there are olive-trees on the hillsides. Higher up, the mountains are used for extensive grazing. Due to the hot climate, a sometimes poor and stony soil and, last but not least, a lack of water in the growing season, competition with Atlantic Europe or world market is virtually impossible. The soil is far poorer end more difficult to work [29].
Former Open Fields - - Smaller areas, poorer soils and a cooler Atlantic climate mean that these landscapes are suitable for both cattle and arable farming. Their development differs from the OpEn Fields. Remains of hedges and trees can be found in southwest England, eastern Oenmark rand southern Sweden. Scattered buildings and fragmentation of parcels rare characteristic~ of the Former Open Fields. Yiek~s are generally lower Lhan in the Open Fields.
~"
,,4
-
~-
. ,.
~
Fig. I. (Continued) Agricultural landscapes in Europe.
Masteries
- - Montadoe form a sort of savanna landscape with cork oaks or olives, among which pi~e, sheep or cows 9re~e the meadows bare. Orynoss end low fertility ot the soil have led to a delicate equilibrium of a multiple-source, low.Input agriculture ~',h a high level of self-sufficiency, This type of landscape dominates in Alenteio (Portugal). In Extremadure (Speini they call it d e h e s a (28].
•
Huertaa --
Along the c o a s t s of the Mediterranean lie c o m p a c t , extremely cultivated regions, such as those near Valencia in Spain. These are known as Huertae. Irrigation makes varied and intensive agriculture possible. The land is intersected by t~ri~tlon ditches and often terraced. Fruits and vegetables of e9 kinds ~e grown [27].
~~-
~
--
~
=F.~.L.~J
'
8 o c a g a - - The Bocage landscape is a classic example of an enclosed landscape: a mosaic of plots, each surrounded by a wall or hedge, This lendscape is the expression of the individusl freedom of farmers on their own lend [27|. The sails are moderately fertile, and rainfall is excessive in an Atlantic climate. Land use is intensive. Traditionally, mixed crops dominate, though today it Is largely grassland 126), ~xamples can be found in Bretngne (France), Wales, the uplands end Midlands in England, the east of Ireland, the northwest of Denmark, the southeast of Norway and in the southwestern i~art of S~-ver~en,
¢
- - This is an enclosed ~,andscape where mixed farming is lntensiva;y practised. The populations are concentrated in villages. Also scatterd farmsteads can be found, The landscape di,~p~ays a classic upward pattern of trees, bushes and ground cover. In the ;oothills of the A~anninee, Coltura Promiscua appears in conjunction with terraces (27], which retain ~oth the scarce rainwater end the thin layer of soil. Examples can be found in Tuscana and Umbria, central Italy,
Colfura Promiscua
"' "- ~_
. . . . .
,,j ,-4
- _. - -:-... ~
~"<:-'-~"
- - =~- - ' - - - -
. . . . . . ~.. - . . . .
I
~
~ ...,,.__.
-
i
~
~
-
~ , ~ ' C
,
.
~
-'~
~~
, '~ ,.. ~ . ~h,," c '
,~
.
I~,~
~
..,
~
__
_',~-~- ~---,~-,c~=,,
•
) ,11/I, '/ ~ ,~_ ;~.. .~. ~r; ~, ' ~l,; lI@, : . t f f u_ '.,
Fig. I. (Continued)Agricultural landscapes in Europe.
Highland~ -The Highlands in the extreme northwest of Europ~ are charecterised by very extensive agrarian u s e , stony soils and a major surplus of water |26]. The landscapes of western Ireland, western Scotland and Norway are rough, bare and desolate.
.......
...,.-,--
h~-,,,,,,,,',,',hv',,~~
~ - _ _ _ _ _ - ~- -- -.~ . ~~..~ , --------
- -
~emi.Bocsge - - In the mountainous areas of central France and northern Spain (Galicia), Semi-Bocages are found: not all the plots are enclosed and stge and small plots alternate in steep terrain. The land use is extensive ~nd there are many woods.
..j::_; -.-- . . , , . . . - . . , , , - : . . - - ' - - - - . _ , - - ~ ~ .
--- .-_-_-...'~I~, ,~
~ c
',,'.-"~_--
y
/ / "-X'._.~ s
Montegnes - - In the Alps and the Pyrenees there is a real mountain landscape. Here agriculture is mainly concentrated in the valleys, except for some extensively used grazing grounds. The slopes are either wooded or covered with meadows. The, short growing season and thin, stony soils create an ecologically unstable system. The difficult production conditions mean that meadows are deserted. There is much forest planted to avoid Drosion of the slopes. In Switzerland and Austria, measures are taken to preserve areas that are in danger of being abandoned. Meedowlands are cut to maintain the visual appearance of cut-grass fields and the condition Df ski slopes for the tourist industry [121.
,,,~'~)1
-Kampen landscapes are mostly enclosed, have a patchwork lay-out, mixed crops, scattered farmsteads and a great diversity of trees on plots and roads. They contsin poor, sandy soils crossed by stream valleys. Interesting ecological differences have arisen between the cultivated land and the heath and the wet pasture land. The poorest soils are wooded. Intensification of iagriculture, abundant use of fertilizers ~nd manure and fragmentation of wild-life habitats mean that the contrast between the open areas and the enclosed farm land has almost disappeared in the Dutch Kampen. In Vlaanderen (Belgium) and in Nordrhein-West falen (Germany) Kampen can also be found. Due to a great flexibility in the growing of crops competiveness is high.
Kampen
m -4 ~0
=
~ _ ~
---;2, --''
~
~
~.-.;!.:..,;
~
-_
.. ~.::...,., :.,.:,,..,
. ~'..'s." ~--:yd~,,.,~,:,
•~loJn~l
:"~":
.
ui
.. ..
sadn:~s,put~ I lt~mlln:~.ullV {panu!luo,)) "l "$!:!
.
.
\
J',
,
\/~
\ J \
,,/
,~,-~
~
,I
/x
.. •
.
'i!,,:!... :. . ":;..~/.'...; :.
•: . | , . . . .
":i2 ' . .
\/. \J "~ ~ \ . . . . .
"'~
. ... .. . ...,-.-...:.,.:~. .
. . ........
" i."":::,..~
~
.................. ....
~'.,i~.;.,.~.;.,,...... .. , ;-~-"~,:~;::,:-..~',
i~::!"
,,.
I..J
}
- .:...
"'".
~--------'~
' --
1".-~ L.
. '
. .
f"
. :i.
~
"lll§nl~od u! { J e l l liql pull ulaclg u! O]Cl] ilql '^IIBI Ul od ilqi ,tiou~ ~:i u! ougq~ oql puno~e oou~lsu! ~oj se 'leUOBe~ s! uoBepOile puel oq| pue poleG!~! o~o Sl!OS Olll~el o q i "lueWdOlO^Op ueqm pug leJm po),ll~luoo,Joo t.!ll'~ {*gilo8 -pUel uodo ue s, l! "edom3 l s e ~ q l ] o u Io s]oplOd oql o| oiqgJDdwo:) 'seOJil pole^Bin:) ~le^!su~,:' oJg aJoql odo~n3 moqlnos Ul liJo^lJ ulgu.' ~:u~ OuGiy -- -;#~110{~
,
,
._~"~";,'b:~:L.C~. /~~.-~-~~-~_
180
J.H.A. MEEUS
landscape features. It has been, ht;wever, only one of the waves, and there are more to come; landscapes are dynamic features. Because of the confusion about landscape planning in Europe, a typology and scenario-study has been set up. The typology presented here, describes different Western-European landscapes. While farming is still related to ~oil conditions, topography and climate, thirtee)~adifferent types of agricultural landscapes can be distinguished (Fig. 1). In order to understand the interrelation of various objectives, four scenarios are presented. These scenarios emphasize in turn four diverging policies and describe alternative developmenta of the European landscapes. The first scenario is based on an emphasis on a liberal price policy and will have a negatiw," impact on landscape amenity. The second scenario emphasizes the promotion of existing qualities in regions with a strong identity, both in terms of special products and in environmental characteristics. The third scenario stresses the need for protection and preservation of,,natural N,. o . and cultural values in the landscape. The fourth scenario is based on g--'.~,mg priority to improving environmental quality by active intervention; here, the sustainability of natural resources comes first. The intention is not that one of these scenarios should be chosen as a general solution for the whole of Europe. Rather they are presented to illustrate the consequences of certain choices. Each of them might be applicable in selected areas, according to the situation in agricalture, recreation, environment and landscape planning. SCENARIO ONE: GPTIMIZING AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTION
It is the market which determines the fate of farmers, crops and farm land. The cultivation of specific crops moves from place to place, all over Europe, as farmers anticipate changes in the market. Soil quality, flexibility in tillage and location near urban concentrations, trunk roads, seaports and international airports are decisive factors. Only the most efficient farmers survive in the long run. Optimal production is ensured by means of a liberal price and market policy~ stimulating: the mobility of production factors, set-aside programmes etc. [13]. Consumers are confronted with an ample supply of a variety of products, the quantity and quality of which is continuously adapted to changing demands and the latest innovations [14]. But society not only demands agricultural products of standard quality and low price, it also wants ',~:aturaland cultural values to be maintained [8]. In reaction to this, the government gives direct subsidies for specific purposes? such as the protection of certain landscapes or to prevent the depopulation of regions [10].
181
TRANSFORMATION OF AGRICULTURAL LANDSCAPES IN WESTERN EUROPE
J f-
SCENARIO I.
OPTIMIZING
AGRICULTURAL P R O D U C T I O N
:iiiiii:ii:'-iii:'i: Deveiopmer~r
:
P,-eservat,on
- ........
~)ecay
Fig. 2. Impact on landscapes of scenario 1.
The impact on landscapes Zoning on an unprecedented European scale will occur (Fig. 2). The extremes are highly productive agriculture in growth centres, and depopulation and degradation in peripheral and less favoured areas [15]. ~l~e open landscapes of northwestern Europe in the vicinity of major ports are developed into even more highly productive areas. These are the large scale landscapcs such as Open Fields, Former Open Fields and Polders. Natura!l habitats, recreation, tourism and housing are excluded from these areas and are situated elsewhere [16]. In this scenario also Deltas and Huertas in the Mediterraneaa attract more production.
182
J.H.A. MEEUS
There is a considerable amount of social upheaval [17]. Government str/ttegy is to protect parts of small scale laadscapes, bordering upon densely populated areas, because of recreation and landscape amenity. Decay threatens in thinly populated landscapes, such as the so called 'less favoured areas' and mountainous regions. In the Scandinavian mainland there will be a change-over from agricultural production to commercial forestry. SCENARIO TWO: THE PROMOTION OF SPECIFIC REGIONS The autonomy of a region [18], with its specific geographical and historical conditions and the existence of special high-quality products, offers opportunities on the market. Regionally cultivated 'quality products' with special
¢,
~!iiiiiii!iiiii!ii!iiii!iii~
SCENARIO 2, PROMOTION OF SPFCIFiC REGIONS ~,..,.....,.
,--- __,
Development
L____..J Preservation
Fig. 3. Impact on landscapes of :~cenario2.
r
:~71
L~.~
Decay
TRANSFORMATION OF AGRICULTURAL LANDSCAPES IN WESTERN EUROPF
183
brand names can be sold at higher prices than the co~lunon agricultural bulk goods of the previous scenario [19]. They could be products such as wines, cheeses or beef, or services such as tourist attractions and accommodation; all this in combination with the existence of special historic or scenic attractions. 'The principles of ecologic farming and a careful landscape management would be the 'badge' of European foods in competition on a world market where lower wages will be our challenge [17]. Examples in Europe are: the region of Emilia Romagna in Italy with its Parmesan cheese, the Bordeaux region in France with its famous wines, and some regions in Germany, Switzerland and Austria where the well kept countryside is a tourist attraction. The market value of individual products and services is enhanced by the associated regional image, by inherited local customs, careful landscape maintenance and the resulting local identity. The goal is to facilitate the use of the landscape for various purposes: a mixture of production, recreation and natural processes. Governn~ent interference is selective: only these areas requiring active support are eligible for some sort of assistance. Natural resources are managed carefully, because they are the basis for the quality image of the region, which must be guarded. A rise in food and tourist prices, however, is inevitable in this scenario. The impact on landscapes
It would be possible to mention other European regions, but not all regions have the potential to develop themselves according to this scenario. Many lack the resources for a s~ccessfui implementation of this strategy. It is therefore very difficult to prese1~t anything like a complete and exact portrayal of the location and nature of all possible regions throughout Europe. This is why the encircled areas on this map (Fig. 3) are superimposed on the map of scenario one. This implies a complementary relation between the two scenarios: outside the specified regions bulk-goods production may dominate, with the same impact on the laadscape. Within some of the specialised regions ~here may i~ a tendency to emphasize historical elements and to conserve ~:haracteristic patterns. Only thinly populated areas may suff~r from local decay. Ancient estates, vineyards, truffles, haute cuisine, traditional customs and regional culture may go hand in hand. Landscapes tentatively indicated ~,l this map include the Coltura Promiscua in central Italy, the Montados in Portugal and Spain~ the periphery of the Mediterranean Open Land in Spain an~ Greece, some of the French wine distriicts and a few of the small scale tourist ianc'iscapes.
184
~.a.A. MEsUS
SCENARIO THREE: OPTIMISING LANDSCAPE PRESERVATION
The landscape is public property, and must not be allowed to fall into neglect as a result of agricultural production or other damaging forms of land use. Authorities, acting in the common long-term interest, put restrictions on production in order to safeguard social, natural and visual quality [20]. The argument behind these actions is the need to preserve intrinsic val-aes, and to protect the landscape from negative influences caused by too much human interference, motivated by the search for short-term profits [211. Another motive is to provide attractive space for the urban population, for activities such as outdoor recreation, tourism or holiday places. These go
., <>'~
tb
SCENARIO 3. OPTIMIZING LANDSCAPE PRESERVATION
~:~
Development
~
Preservat0on
Fig. 4. Impact on landscapes of scenario 3.
De cay
TRANSFORMATION OF AGRICULTURAL LANDSCAPES IN WESTE~A,IEUROPE
| 85
together with the demand for experiencing nature and rurality. An overall extensification of land use is implied. The interweaving of natural processes, agriculture and recreation must be carried out at a local level [22,23]. Nature areas, wildlife reserves and landscape parks are maintained and preserved. The goal is a local mixture of agriculture, natural elements, recreation, tourism and housing, with an eye towards simultaneous .use. That is why shelter belts are planted and buffer zones are created between the rural and the urban, and between the natural and the cultivated landscape. The maintenance and preservation of the landscape as a public good prevent such processes as depopulation and decay, and encourages recreational use. All this requires extensive public funding [11].
The impact on landscapes The degeneration of most endangered landscapes is effectively stopped (Fig. 4). All small-scale landscapes where local ecological differentiation is at its highest level, are preserved [8,16]. These are the Bocages, Kampen, Montagnes, Semi-Bocages, Montados and Coltura Promiscua. In this scenario preservation means making nature areas, wildlife reserves and landscape parks. One should be aware that development in this scenario does not have the same meaning as in scenario one or two. Development of the large scale landscapes of Atlantic Europe, such as Open Fields, Polders and Former Open Fields means that buffer zones are planned to protect the nature areas. Landscapes far from me~.ropolitan areas and harbouring little human activity, such as the Highlands in Scotland, the Mediterranean Open Land in the interior of Spain, Greece and the Mezzogiorno region of Italy, might tend to fall into decay. Abandoning cannot effectively be stopped but a minimal level of maintenance must be ensured here Ill]. SCENARIO FOUR: SUSTAINABLE USE OF NATURAL RESOURCES
This scenario is the result of a different way of thinking~ The maintenance of environmental quality and ecological processes are limiting factors for production. Human health is at stake. It is recognised that we must pay a price in order to be able to retain scarce commodities like clean water, uncontaminated soils and pure air, these being consumer goods like all the others [12]. Closed cycles in the production and reconversion of energy and matter must be attained on a worldwide scale. Each product revolves in its own cycle of formation and decomposition. Advanced and refined techniques are applied in order to achieve this [7]. The advance of theoretical knowledge on the subject of ecological processes makes it possible to create a natural differentiation
SUSTAINABLEUSE OF NATURAL RESOURCES
Fig 5. Impact on landscapes of scenario 4.
SCENARIO 4.
............
~,:.
0
O
",',',-.'°°."
Y
::.:.~I~.:...
Decay
Preservation
Dt,velopment
TRANSFORMATION OF AGRICULTURAL LANDSCAPES IN WESTERN EUROPE
187
in landscapes which ensures the permanent survival of a variety of ecosystems. The latest innovations in technological know-how are applied in order to achieve a high level of efficiency and production, combined with the sustained use of natural resources. That is why the use of pesticides will be replaced by biological pest control. The governments have the task of supervising the maintenance of environmental quality, controlling the use of natural resources, and actively reconstructing landscapes in order to help balance the various land-use requirements. A monitoring system will be set up, that gives early warning of pollution, erosion and other threats [7,24]. By implementing landscape plans, new frameworks are established that connect elements and zones of high stability and envelop the more dynamic productive areas [6].
The impact on landscapes In the long run, the absence of polluting chemicals and organic waste in rivers, lakes and oceans, as well as in the soil, will result in a certain revival of endangered species in flora and fauna. Additional planning and management measures based on increased know-how will help stabilise natural systems, especially the more fragile ones in areas such as the Mediterranean (Fig. 5). On a European scale, the major rivers, with their sources, aquifers and catchment basins, are the ordering elements for furore settlement patterns [25]. Valleys, basins and estuaries are the intensively used and heavily polluted arteries, and need to be cleaned up and redeveloped. The Kampen landscape and large parts of the Deltas of the rivers Po, Ebro and Rh6ne are developed. In Mediterranean areas the desalination of soils requires special attention. Preservation has much in common with preservation in scenario three but here development is a different process. Adequate techniques and an ample supply of money should help maintain the quality of all European landscapes, by measures such as the prevention of erosion and desertification. Some of the areas that are in the process of depopulation, such as Galicia, the Spanish uplands, the Massif Central and the IIighlands of Scotland, might suffer from degradation caused by abandoning. EVALUATION AND CONCLUSIONS
The typology is limited in scope. If we value landscape variety as such, then this typology has to say something. If there are reasons to superimpose a new kind of variety based on entirely different concepts, then there are un-
188
J.H.A. MEEUS
doubtedly other ways to sort out information, which would result in a different typology. As the four scenarios dealt with here have been described only briefly, and the measures involved merely indicated, their impact on landscapes needs further investigation. Not all implications could be foreseen in this overview. There also might be other options available. Scenario one is clearly based on a laisser-faire philosophy, allowing for large economic activity~ and a general rise in material living standards, a~bcit combined with vast differences in income levels. Only the most efficient farmers survive in the long run. They have to believe ~ new technologies who solve all problems. However, there is a general lowering of the overall quality of life as environmental qualities suffer and landscapes decay. Scenario two exploits and promotes regional qualities that are already there and stimulates this development in places where opportunities are recognised. This results in the differentiation of Europe into prosperous and healthy regions with a balanced natural and scenic environment and more uniform landscapes where bulk goods are produced. Scenario three is based on a pessimistic view of the human capacity to distinguish between short-term gain and long-term inlterests. There is a pronounced ethical attitude, both in the social and the environmental domain. Government needs more power to counteract human intervention in the environment by means of landscape and physical planning. Scenario four, on the contrary, is founded on the optimistic belief that with the growth of scientific knowledge, an increased understanding of economic and ecological processes will be ours. New techno]logies, environmental policies and landscape planning will lead to a better future for the countryside. This prospect, combined with a vast increase in instant communication and public information, will lead to a general awareness of what should and can be done to create and sustain a high living standard. In some districts, scenario one 'production' might be inevitable because circumstances are favourable for a quick adaptation to market opportunities and the market forces are too strong to withstand. And in a number of regions, scenario two 'promoting the region' can certainly be applied with due success. The choice between the last scenarios three and four is a complex one, because here we are confronted with fundamental differences between the philosophies behind each of them. REFERENCES Council of Europe, Secretariatmemorandum for the meeting of the group of specialists on the conservation, management and restoration of rural landscapes, June 1990,
Strasbourg.
TRANSFORMATION OF AGRICULTURAL LANDSCAPES IN WESTERN EUROPE
189
2 J. Baudry, Hedgerows and hedgerow networks as wildlife habitat in agxicultural landscapes, in J. Park (Ed.), Environmental Management in Agriculture: European Perspectives, CEC, Belhaven Press, London, 1989, pp. 110-124. 3 H. d'Ancona, Naar een Europees ruimtelijk belcid. In: Het open Europa en de ruimtelijke ordening, Tien jaar planologische diskussiedagen. PDD/DUM, Delft, the Netherlands, 1989, pp. 19-23. 4 D. Martin, Ruimtelijke ordening: een taak voor de Europese Gemeenschappen in de jaren negentig. In: Ruimtelijke verkenningen 1990, Jaarboek Rijksplanologische Dienst~ Ministry of Housing. Physical Planning and Environmental Management, The Hague, 1990, pp. 111-122. 5 R.D. Williams (Ed.), Planning in Europe. Urban and regional planning in the EEC. Allen and Unwinn, London, 1984. 6 M.J. Vroom, (Ed.), Changing agricultural landscapes of Europe, Special issue. Landsc. Urban Plann., 18 (1990) 179-362. 7 R. Langeweg (Ed.), Zorgen voor morgen, nationale milieuverkenning 1985-2010. Samson H.D. Tjeenk Willink, Alphen aan den Rijn, the Netherlands, 1989. 8 A. de Regt, Kleinschalig landschap in een grootschalig Europa. In: Ruimtelijke verkenningen 1989, Jaarboek Rijksplanologische Dienst, Ministry of Housing, Physical Planning and Environmental Management, The Hague, 1989, pp. 11-44. 9 W. Van der Weijden, Nieuw wereldhandelsakkoord kan landbouw en milieu schaden. Volkskrant, Open Forum, 6/02/1990, p. 15. 10 Cc,awnission of the European Communities (CEC), Perspectives for the Common Agricultural Policy (Green Paper), EC. Official Publication, Luxembourg, 1985. 11 Conm~s~ic:n of the European Communities (CEC), The future of rural society. Bull. Eur. Communities, Suppl., 4/8,8 (1988). 12 OECD~ Agricultural and environmental policies; Opportunities for integration. Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, Paris, 1989. 13 ]. de en Hoogh and H.J. Silvis (Eds), EG-landbouwpolitiek van binnen en van buiten. Pudoc, Wageningen, 1988. 14 H.R. Mentink, Long term developments in European agriculture and its visual impact on the landscape. Landsc. Urban Plann., 18 (1990) 203-209. 15 J. Primdahl, Heterogeneity in agriculture and landscape: from segregation to integration. Landsc. Urban Plann., 18 (1990) 221-228. 16 .L Conrad, Alternative land use options in the EC. Land Use Policy, 3 (1987) 229-242. 17 A. Bramsnaes, Rural planning; The landscape of agriculture. Paper for the international conference in June 1990: The contribution of landscape planning to environmental protection, Hannover, FRG (unpublished) 1990. 18 H.M. Enzensberger, Ach Europa! Wahrnehmungen aus sieben L/indern; Mit einem Epilog aus dem Jahre 2006. Suhrkamp, Frankfurt, 1989. 19 J.D. Ploeg v.d., AgrP,rische verscheidenheid als vertrekpunt voor ruimtelijke ordening. Plan, 1/2 (1989) 31-40. 20 G.H. Moss, The future of the rural community in Europe, Council of Europe, Strasbourg, 1986. 21 D. Bruns, G. Kaule and F. Luz, Die Rolle der Landschaftsplanung in der Agrarlandschaft. Garten Landschaft, 11 (1988) 15-21. 22 Countryside Policy Review Panel, New opportunities for the countryside. Countryside Commission, Cheltenham, 1987. 23 A. Noirfalise, Paysages l'Europe de la diversit6. EC Official Publication, Luxembourg, 1988.
190
.I.H.A. MEEUS
24 .I. Park (Ed.), Environmental Management in Agriculture: European Perspectives. CEC:, Belhaven Press, London, 1989. 25 R. Tavernier (coordination) Soil map of the European Communities, 1:1 000 000. EC Official Publication, Luxembourg, 1985. 26 J. Lee, Land ~esources and their use in the European Communities, in H. Barth and P. L'Hermite (Eds), Scientific Basis for Soil Protection in the European Community. CEC, El.qevier, London, 1987, pp. 29-63. 27 R. Lebeau, Les grands types de structures agraires dans le monde. Initions aus 6tudes de geographic. Masson, Paris, 1969. 28 O. Balabanian, Les exploitations et les problemes de i'agriculture en Estramadure Espagnole et dans le Haut-Alentejo. Tome 1-2, Di:~sertation Universit6 Clermont Ferrand, 1980. 29 M. Ruiz Perez, Development of Mediterranean a:;riculture: an ecological approach. Landsc. Urban Plann., 18 (1990) 211-220. 30 J. Meeus, J.D.v.d. Ploeg and M. Wijermans, Changing agricultural landscapes in Europe: continuity, deterioration or rupture? IFLA conference, Rotterdam, 1988. 31 J.H.A. Meeus, M.P. Wijermans and M.P. Vroom, Agricultural landscapes in Europe and their transformation. Landsc. Urban Plann., 18 (1990) 289-352.