The transition from Antiquity to the Middle Ages in present-day Switzerland: The archaeobiological point of view

Quaternary International xxx (2017) 1e12

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The transition from Antiquity to the Middle Ages in present-day Switzerland: The archaeobiological point of view € Orni Akeret*, Sabine Deschler-Erb, Marlu Kühn University of Basel, Integrative Prehistory and Archaeological Science (IPAS/IPNA), Spalenring 145, CH-4055 Basel, Switzerland

a r t i c l e i n f o

a b s t r a c t

Article history: Received 15 February 2017 Received in revised form 26 April 2017 Accepted 21 May 2017 Available online xxx

This article summarises the results of archaeobiological research into the period from the mid-3rd to the 8th centuries AD in the area of present-day Switzerland. Compared to the preceding and subsequent periods, the state of research is rather poor, particularly in the cases of archaeobotanical research on the period of Late Antiquity and archaeozoological research on the early Middle Ages. The majority of the sites investigated so far are situated in the northern part of the country. A marked decline in human impact can be observed at the transition from Roman times to the early Middle Ages, particularly in pollen diagrams. A change from surplus production to a subsistence economy can be seen from changes in the relative importance of different species of domestic animals and in the size of cattle. The cereal spectrum becomes increasingly diverse. A movement from long-distance to regional trade is illustrated by the absence of imported foods, such as exotic plants, from the 3rd century onwards. At the same time, the production of goods from antlers is intensified and the cultivation of rye begins; both are probably influences from northern (Germanic) regions. Some of the Roman innovations, like the cultivation of fruit trees and the keeping of poultry, persist throughout these times of change. © 2017 Elsevier Ltd and INQUA. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Late Antiquity Early Middle Ages Switzerland Archaeobotany Archaeozoology

1. Introduction Compared to previous and subsequent periods, the transition from Late Antiquity to the early Middle Ages is poorly understood in Switzerland from an archaeobiological point of view. For example, of all the 110 archaeobotanically studied Roman sites, only 13 date from the time between the mid-3rd century and the late 5th century AD. For the first time, all the archaeobiological data from Switzerland have been compiled to provide the basis for a better understanding of the changes that took place in this period. The modifications in the spectra of crops and livestock can give indications as to how the economic and social transformations affected the everyday lives of ordinary people. Almost the entire area of present-day Switzerland was part of the Roman Empire in the first five centuries AD, exceptions being parts of the cantons of Basel and Schaffhausen that are situated north of the River Rhine, the river having become the border of the

* Corresponding author. € Akeret). E-mail address: [email protected] (O.

empire from the late 3rd century onwards (Flutsch et al., 2002). After the fall of the Western Roman Empire in 476 AD, the country belonged to different and changing political entities (Steiner, 2014). The last centuries of the Roman era and the beginning of the Middle Ages was a period of political crisis, of human migration and of climatic deterioration (e.g. Büntgen et al., 2016; Marti, 2000; Windler and Fuchs, 2002). 2. Material and methods All available archaeobotanical and archaeozoological analytical data were collected, including published work and unpublished material from the department of Integrative Prehistory and Archaeological Science (IPAS) at the University of Basel. The period considered ranges from the middle of the 3rd century to the 8th century AD. The year 476 AD has been set as the chronological dividing line between the Roman period and the Middle Ages, in the knowledge that the transition was a process with considerable spatial variations. The sites are listed in Table 1 and displayed on a map (Fig. 1). Site number 1 (the colonial town of Augusta Raurica, in the modern municipalities of Augst and Kaiseraugst) is highlighted,

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2

Table 1 List of the sites with archaeobotanical and archaeozoological finds from Late Antiquity and the Early Middle Ages in Switzerland. Abbreviations: N: number on maps Fig. 1; c.: century; bot: archaeobotany; SPR: sum of plant remains; zoo: archaeozoology; NISP: number of identified specimens. N

1 2 3 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 4 5 1 1 6 7 8 6 1 9 10 10 11 12 6 1 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 6 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41

Site

Augst Insula 23 Biberist-Spitalhof, Phase 7 Worb-Sunnhalde Augst-Vorratskeller Augst, Graben Frauenthermen Kaiseraugst-Hotel Adler Augst-Kastelen, Insula 6 Augst- Insulae 41/47 Kaiseraugst-Schmidmatt Augst-Taberna € ri Neftenbach-Steinmo Alle-Les Aiges, phase 4 Augst-Giebenacherstrasse, Insula 36 Augst-Kastelen Basel-Münsterplatz Courrendlin-Vers la Vielle Eglise, ST 14 Avenches Basel-Martinsgasse 6-8 Castrum Rauracense Pfyn-Kastell €rbelhof Rheinfelden Go Rheinfelden-Augarten West Schaan Windisch-Dammstrasse Basel-Münsterplatz 19 þ 20 Castrum Rauracense Schiers Tiefencastel-Kirchhügel Chevenez-Lai Coiratte Flaach-Chrumben Baar-Früebergstrasse Herznach-Unterdorf Lausen-Bettenach Sursee-Mülihof Tomils-Sogn Murezi Winterthur-City Zürich-Schmidgasse Bannwil-Neufeldweg Courtedoux-Creugenat telle-La Pran/Tivila Develier/Courte Elgg-Florastrasse Schleitheim-Brüel Basel-Reischacherhof, D þ E Domat/Ems-Sogn Pieder Gansingen-Naglergasse Schwyz-Pfarrkirche St. Martin 2 La Neuveville-Place de la Liberte Müstair-St. Johann Büsserach Cortaillod-Petit Ruz Boudry-Grandchamps - CADBAR €llanden-Dorfgasse Fa Reinach Brig-Glis-Gamsen-Waldmatte €sereistrasse Langenthal-Ka Dietikon-Pfarreizentrum

Dating

3rd c. AD mid-3rd c. AD 3rd c. AD mid-3rd c. AD mid-3rd c. AD mid-3rd c. AD late 2nd-3rd quarter 3rd c. AD 3rd quarter 3rd c. AD 3rd quarter 3rd c. AD 3rd quarter 3rd c. AD 2nd half 3rd c. AD 3rd/4th c. AD 3rd/4th c. AD 3rd/4th c. AD 3rd/4th c. AD 3rd/4th c. AD 4th c. AD 4th c. AD 4th c. AD 4th c. AD 4th c. AD 4th c. AD 4th c. AD 4th c. AD late Roman/early medieval late Roman/early medieval late Roman/early medieval 4th-6th c. AD 5th-7th c. AD 5th-7th c. AD 6th/7th c. AD c. 600 AD 6th/7th c. AD 6th/7th c. AD 6th/7th c. AD 6th/7th c. AD 6th/7th c. AD 7th c. AD 6th-8th c. AD 6th-8th c. AD/early medieval 6th-8th c. AD 6th-8th c. AD 7th/8th c. AD c. 700 AD 7th/8th c. AD 7th/8th c. AD 8th c. AD 8th c. AD early medieval early medieval early medieval early medieval early medieval 5th-9th c. AD 7th-10th c. AD 9th/10th c. AD

Bot

Zoo

SPR

NISP

Reference

Deschler-Erb, 1991 Deschler-Erb et al., 2006 Büttiker-Schumacher, 1998 Deschler-Erb and Hüster Plogmann, 2012 Deschler-Erb, 2006 3690 Jacomet, 2000 2739 Jacomet et al., 1988 91 Schibler and Furger, 1988 12,794 Jacomet et al., 1988, Vandorpe pers. comm. 29,679 570 Kühn, 2011; Kühn and Klee, 2011; Marti-Gr€ adel, 2011 €der Fartash, 1999 1185 Deschler-Erb and Schro 1967 Brombacher and Klee, 2010 113 Jacomet et al., 1988 1195 30,784 Lehmann and Breuer, 2002; Petrucci-Bavaud and Jacomet, 2002
10,000 205 Martinoli and Plüss, 2008 108 Brombacher and Klee, 2011 852 unpublished 708 unpublished 1028 Schibler and Furger, 1988
13 3204 Brem et al., 2008; Jacomet, 2008 €gli et al., 1963 496 Bo 428 316 Hüster Plogmann, 2005; Zibulski, 2005 285 Würgler, 1958 8 Flück, 2004 704 unpublished 3780 Frosdick, 2014 1224 Hartmann-Frick, 1975 260 Hopf, 1992 12,903 Hecker, 2012; Brombacher and Hecker, 2015 240 unpublished 23 Kühn, 2010 320 Galioto, 2011a 34,991 484 Jacomet and Favre, 1992; Kühn, 2000; Frosdick, 2014 671 Kühn, 2016 6444 unpublished 56,842 Windler et al., 2010 1493 Hüster-Plogmann et al., 2004 1292 unpublished 28,102 5599 Putelat, 2004; Hecker, 2014; Brombacher and Hecker, 2015 57,290 14,081 Brombacher and Klee, 2008; Olive, 2008; Brombacher and Hecker, 2015 2668 unpublished 3949 Rehazek, 2002 €chliger, 1994 313 Jacomet and Blo
9489 unpublished 501 Galioto, 2011b 1337 Hopf, 1974 1164 Brombacher, 1999 29 Brombacher et al., 2007 1056 unpublished re, 2010, 2011 240 Akeret and Geith-Chauvie re, 2016 184 Akeret and Geith-Chauvie 87 unpublished 1370 Frosdick, 2014 671 unpublished 395 unpublished 488 unpublished

because it comprises 11 separate sites and contributed by far the largest number of finds to this study. The state of archaeobotanical and archaeozoological research varies from site to site. What the two disciplines have in common is that most data are from sites concentrated in northern Switzerland. The western and southern parts of the country are clearly underrepresented, the Alps being particularly data-deficient. Regarding the chronological distribution of the sites, the two disciplines differ considerably. Late Antiquity is poorly known from an archaeobotanical point of view, and the sites are largely restricted to

1705 1764 2153 2098 27,261

north-western Switzerland, particularly Augusta Raurica. Thanks to a recent increase in new investigations, the early Middle Ages are better represented, with sites from a wider area of the country. By comparison, Late Antiquity is better known from an archaeozoological perspective, but zoological work dealing with the early Middle Ages is scarce and limited to the northernmost regions. None of the late Roman sites had waterlogged preservation. This has to be taken into consideration when comparing the results with those from the first centuries of the Roman era, from which several

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Fig. 1. Map showing the sites with archaeobotanical (top) and archaeozoological (bottom) finds from Late Antiquity and the Early Middle Ages in Switzerland. White: Late Antiquity; black: Early Middle Ages; white and black: both periods; grey: transition period. For numbers of the sites see Table 1.

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Table 2 Finds of cultivated plants from late Roman and early medieval sites in Switzerland. xxx: large number (not counted). N: number on maps Fig. 1 and Table 1. See Table 1 for references. N Site

1 1 1 1 5 1 1 6 7 9 10 12 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 6 29 30 31 32 33 35 36 37 39 40 41

Late Antiquity Kaiseraugst-Hotel Adler Augst-Kastelen, Insula 6 Kaiseraugst-Schmidmatt Augst-Taberna, Phase 11 Alle-Les Aiges, phase 4 Augst-Giebenacherstrasse, Insula 36 Augst-Kastelen Basel-Münsterplatz Courrendlin-Vers la Vielle Eglise, ST 14 Pfyn-Kastell Rheinfelden-Augarten West Windisch-Dammstrasse Tiefencastel-Kirchhügel Early Middle Ages Chevenez-Lai Coiratte Flaach-Chrumben Baar-Früebergstrasse Herznach-Unterdorf Lausen-Bettenach Sursee-Mülihof Tomils-Sogn Murezi Winterthur-City Zürich-Schmidgasse Bannwil-Neufeldweg Courtedoux-Creugenat telle-La Pran/Tivila Develier/Courte Elgg-Florastrasse Basel-Reischacherhof, D þ E Domat/Ems-Sogn Pieder Gansingen-Naglergasse Schwyz-Pfarrkirche St. Martin 2 La Neuveville-Place de la Liberte Müstair-St. Johann Cortaillod-Petit Ruz Boudry-Grandchamps - CADBAR F€ allanden-Dorfgasse Brig-Glis-Gamsen-Waldmatte Langenthal-K€ asereistrasse Dietikon-Pfarreizentrum

Cereals

Pulses

Avena Hordeum distichon/ vulgare

Setaria Secale Triticum Panicum miliaceum italica cereale "nudum"

Triticum dicoccon

Triticum Triticum Lens Pisum Vicia Vicia monococcum spelta culinaris sativum faba sativa

1 . 10 . 7 . . 28 . . . . 3

8 . 16 . 75 33 11 xxx 4 2 15 . 185

2 . 2 7 5 . 6 14 1 2 46 1 .

. . 1 . . . . . . . 1 . .

957 60 1376 17 10 . 1 3 . . 5 . 2

2675 1308 2791 24,686 32 . 102 2 . . 14 . 4

. . 166 . 8 . 1 . . . . . 4

2 . 1 . 5 . . . 10 . 1 . .

2 . . . 153 . 3 4 3 . 1 . .

. . . . 1 . 7 1 1 . . . .

. 5 . . . . 1 3 . . . . 35

. . 1 1 . . 3 . . . . . 16

. . . . . . . . . . . . .

606 . . . 1275 116 . 2 4 14 441 11,933 2 9 16 9 1 . 2 . . . . 15 15

13 . 1 . 115 25 1 220 . 4 . 256 23 4 188 3 . . . 1 . 3 3 2 12

3 . . . 23 4 4 960 . . 3 2 32 1 508 . . . . 2 3 . 11 . .

. . . . 2 . . . . . 2 1 . . 16 . . . . . . . 19 . .

67 . . . 761 17 1 226 1 20 122 244 84 6 400 . . . . . 2 . 1 24 8

505 . . . 441 1 . 146 7 . 483 196 19 6 24 5 . . . . 19 . . . 21

1 . . . 87 . . 24 . . 11 170 2 1 . 4 . . 2 4 . . . 1 .

. . . . 3395 . . 16 10 . 29 1364 36 3 . 8 . 6 . 3 . 3 . . 12

77 . . . 1218 18 . 149 39 28 199 3773 36 4 . 29 1250 3 . 2 . 6 . 7 47

137 . . . 57 2 1 . . . 11 9 2 2 . . . . . 3 . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . 1 . . 6155 . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . 3 3 . . . . . . . . 588 . 60 . . . . . . . .

2 . . . 1 . . . . . . 29 . . . . . . 2 . . . . . .

sites with permanently wet conditions survive. As experience shows, certain finds are underrepresented at dry sites, for example oil- and fibre plants, fruits and vegetables. Among the early medieval sites, three had archaeological features with waterlogged detelle, Winterthur and Zürich. posits: Develier/Courte Depositions of complete animal skeletons, often found in burials and wells, were excluded from the archaeozoological study because they do not represent food remains; examples are the finds from Kaiseraugst-SBB-Umschlagplatz-Brunnen (Markert and Markert, 1986) and Augst-Brunnenhaus (Schmid et al., 2011). Furthermore, sites with bone numbers too small for statistical analysis were €hlinexcluded, for example the 4th century watchtower of Mo Untere Wehren (Schwarz et al., 2015). For the graphs, the percentages of the number of identified specimens (% of NISP) have been calculated. All sites were included in the archaeobotanical analysis, even though some of them had produced very small numbers of remains. A graph of relative frequencies was only produced for the cereals; for the other crops the number of finds was too small. In total, the study analysis is based on 106,952 animal remains (74,705 late Roman, 26,539 early medieval, 5708

intermediary) and >281,171 plant remains (>62,734 late Roman, >218,437 early medieval). 3. Results 3.1. Archaeobotany The cultivated plants of Late Antiquity and the early Middle Ages are summarised in Table 2. As in the preceding and subsequent periods, cereals were the primary source of food. The relative importance of the cereal taxa is illustrated in Fig. 2. During the entire time span considered here, a broad spectrum of cereals was in use. The most important taxa in Late Antiquity were naked wheat (Triticum aestivum/durum/turgidum ¼ T. “nudum”), barley (Hordeum distichon/vulgare), rye (Secale cereale) and broomcorn millet (Panicum miliaceum). Spelt wheat (Triticum spelta) became less important compared with the first centuries of the Roman era (Jacomet and Mermod, 2002). On the other hand, rye was cultivated as a new crop from the 3rd century onwards (Jacomet and Brombacher, 2009). Before this, the

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Oil/fibre plants

Vegetables/herbs

5

Fruits/nuts

Prunus Prunus Vitis Camelina Cannabis Linum Papaver Anethum Apium Brassica Coriandrum Juglans Malus Pyrus Malus/ Prunus Prunus sativa sativa usitatissimum somniferum graveolens graveolens sativum regia Pyrus avium/ domestica/ domestica persica vinifera cerasus insititia/ spinosa . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . 21 . . 3 . . .

. . . . . . 2 . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . 14 . . . . . 1 34 . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . 1 . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . 7 . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . 6 . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . 16 . 1 . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . 44 . . . . . 2 . . . . . . .

7 . . . . . . 11,649 14 . . 1052 . . . . . 3 . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . 5 4 . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . 1 . . 4 6 . 1 . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . 2 . . 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1 . . . . . . . . . 7 19 . 1 . 1 . 1 . 1 . . . . .

1 . . . . . . 1 . . 1 5 . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . 3 . 93 . 52 . 2 1 14 . 1 . . 1 . 16 . 3 14 . 8 . .

. . . . . . . . . . . 11 . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

. . . . . . . . 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. 138 . . . . . 9 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 . . . .

73 . . . . 1 1 1 . . 10 . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . 3 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . 317 4 . . . . . . . . . 80 . . 85 . 1 16 . 34 . .

species was only present in small quantities, and can be considered a weed (Behre, 1992). In Late Antiquity, it seems to have been important only in Augusta Raurica, but from the 5th or 6th century onwards it was found more widely. In the early Middle Ages, six to eight taxa can be considered as the main cereals. Compared to Roman times, the diversity increases (Brombacher and Kühn, 2005). Common oat (Avena sativa) and the glume wheats, in particular, are better represented in the data. Oat is now certainly cultivated; from Roman and earlier times, it is only found in small quantities and must be regarded as a weed. On the basis of the existing data it can be assumed that oat cultivation started between the 5th and 7th centuries, when the species becomes an important crop at the sites of Chevenez-Lai Coiratte (Hecker, 2012; Brombacher and Hecker, 2015), Lausen-Bettenach (Jacomet and Favre, 1992; Kühn, 2000) and Sursee-Mülihof (Kühn, 2016). Common Oat was used as food for humans, but was just as important as horse fodder. All three species of glume wheat gain in importance: emmer (Triticum dicoccon), einkorn (T. monococcum) and spelt (T. spelta). The frequencies of barley and rye remain nearly unchanged, but there is a rise in the quantities of

rye grains. On the other hand, there is a decrease in naked wheat and broomcorn millet. To sum up, the economy of the early Middle Ages was based on the cultivation of many different cereal species, with important regional variations. Only from around 1000 AD onwards rye and spelt became the dominant species countrywide (Kühn and Brombacher, 2014). The spectrum of pulses remains unchanged throughout the entire Roman period and the early Middle Ages, with lentils (Lens culinaris), pea (Pisum sativum) and broad bean (Vicia faba) being important dietary supplements. Common vetch (Vicia sativa) has hitherto only been found at early medieval sites; it was probably used as animal fodder. The data for oil- and fibre plants and vegetables and herbs are too fragmentary for any development over time to be detected. The virtual absence of waterlogged deposits is probably the main reason for the rarity of finds of these groups. Remains of flax (Linum usitatissimum), for example, are only numerous in the wet seditelle and Winterthur. ments of Develier/Courte Cultivated fruits and nuts seem to have been present during the whole period, although the data suffer from the same taphonomic

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6

Fig. 2. Relative frequencies (percentage of sites containing the taxon) of cereal taxa at sites from Late Antiquity and the Early Middle Ages in Switzerland.

problems as the groups just mentioned above. The hard-shelled walnut (Juglans regia) is the most frequent species of this group; it is found throughout both periods, and pollen is permanently present in sediment cores (Wick, 2015). The complete absence of grape pips (Vitis vinifera) in Late Antiquity could be due, amongst other things, to the fact that the oil-rich seeds are underrepresented in sites without waterlogged deposits. It is very likely that vines were still grown. In the early Middle Ages there are finds from seven sites, the earliest among them being HerznachUnterdorf, which dates from around 600 AD (Galioto, 2011a). Vine cultivation therefore seems to have existed continuously from the beginnings of Roman times to the Middle Ages, and the data indicate that the same was probably true of other cultivated fruit trees. This is underlined by the finds of plum (Prunus domestica/insititia) from Chevenez-Lai Coiratte (Hecker, 2012; Brombacher and Hecker, 2015) and of apple or pear (Malus/ Pyrus) from Flaach-Chrumben, both sites dating from the 5th to 7th centuries. For the entire time span considered here there are no finds of imported exotics, i.e. plants that did not grow in the area for climatic reasons. 3.2. Archaeozoology In all the complexes examined (Table 3), cattle (Bos taurus), pigs (Sus domesticus) and sheep/goats (Ovis aries/Capra hircus) were by far the most important animal taxa, with changing proportions over time (Fig. 3). In late Roman times cattle were more important than pigs and sheep/goats in all urban complexes (Augusta Raurica, Aventicum) and at some rural sites. From 400 AD onwards cattle frequency decreased, with values at most sites similar to those for pigs and sheep/goats. The frequency of the small ruminants, on the other hand, increased to values of between 10 and 30%, whereas at most late Roman sites it had been less than 10%. Changes from Late Antiquity to the early Middle Ages can also be

observed in the case of poultry. Finds of chicken are rarer than those of cattle, pig and sheep/goat, but still of economic relevance. According to the Edict on Maximum Prices of Diocletian, one chicken cost 30 denarii compared to 8 denarii for one pound of beef (Lauffer, 1971), showing that chicken was a luxury food. In the 3rd century, the frequency of chicken bones can be as high as 10% in settlement contexts. Later, it decreases and does not exceed 5% from the 4th century onwards (Fig. 4). It has to be noted that in certain late Roman contexts, such as funerary (Lepetz, 1996, 152, Fig. 170) and ritual contexts (Deschler-Erb, 2015, 187) very large quantities of chicken bones can be found, but they are not included in this study. An opposite development can be seen for equids (Equidae) and dogs (Canis familiaris) (Fig. 5). After 300 AD both are considerably more frequent than in earlier periods. Eating horsemeat was taboo , 1998, 115), but the increasing immigration in Roman times (Andre of Germanic people into the Roman Empire could explain this observation. In the culture of Germanic tribes, the consumption of horse was not unusual (Benecke, 1994, 305e306). The ban on horsemeat by Pope Gregory III in 732 suggests that this custom continued until the early Middle Ages at least (Arbogast et al., 2002, pp. 61e65). Dogs were slightly better represented in Roman times than in the early Middle Ages. It is possible that more dogs were living in Roman cities than later in small “dark age” villages. This hypothesis is supported by the fact that in 3rd century wells accumulations of dog skeletons have repeatedly been found (e.g. Markert and Markert, 1986; Schmid et al., 2011). Probably stray dogs could easily find food in cities with no organised waste disposal and only culling could stop the augmentation of their population. No chronological development can be seen in the data for red deer and wild animals in general (Fig. 6). The differences are of a regional nature. The sites with the highest numbers of game all lie in the eastern part of the country, for instance Neftenbach, Pfyn and Schaan. This region is less favourable for crop production, and the

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smaller human impact seemingly had a beneficial effect on the wild animal population, which made hunting more rewarding (Deschler-Erb, 2016). 4. Discussion 4.1. Human impact The end of the Roman era and the transition to the Middle Ages was a time of political and social instability. It was also a period of €schenen II climatically unfavourable conditions, described as Go (Burga et al., 2001), or, more recently, as the “Late Antique Little Ice Age” e particularly the years from 536 to around 660 AD (Büntgen et al., 2016). This cold phase spanned most of the northern hemisphere, and was probably caused by a cluster of large volcanic eruptions, as well as a solar minimum. The climatic deterioration must have had an adverse effect on agricultural production, and may therefore have influenced social and political developments. Within this timespan, a general decrease in human impact can be discerned. This is also reflected by the noticeably lower number of archaeological sites, and therefore fewer archaeobiological finds, compared to the preceding and subsequent periods. The fact that human activities have left fewer traces could be due to a decreasing human population, but could also have been caused by a reduced consumption of resources (for example, less firewood was needed because baths and under floor heating were no longer in use), or possibly by a combination of both factors. In the case of Augusta Raurica, which has contributed the largest number of finds to this study, the inhabitants of the colonial town moved to the fortified Castrum Rauracense and its suburbium and the number of villae rusticae in the surrounding area decreased (Schwarz, 2011). Pollen profiles show an increase in tree species at the expense of €xeplatz, open-land species at this time. At the site of Rheinfelden-Ha located about 5 km from Augusta Raurica, beech pollen (Fagus sylvatica) starts to increase from the early 4th century onwards, followed by oak (Quercus spec.) and hornbeam (Carpinus betulus) (Wick, 2015). On the other hand, decreasing cereal and hemp (Cannabis sativa) pollen values can be observed. This indicates a decline in agriculture in the surrounding area, while falling quantities of microcharcoal point to a less intense forest use. Walnut (Juglans regia), only introduced into the region at the beginning of the Roman era, also becomes rarer. The extension of woodland can be seen in all pollen studies that cover this period. For example, at ^tel, the first wood species to spread are Le Loclat, near Neucha hazelnut (Corylus avellana), alder (Alnus spec.) and birch (Betula spec.), followed by ash (Fraxinus excelsior) and beech (Hadorn, 1994).

7

this process. As could be demonstrated by LSI (logarithmic size index) analysis of material from northern Switzerland (Breuer et al., 1999; Frosdick, 2014), cattle size increased continuously from the Iron Age to the 3rd century AD, but there are marked differences between the sites in the 4th and a decrease in size from the 5th century, which continued well into the 13th century. That means that not only fewer cattle e as shown above e but also smaller individuals were kept from the 4th century onwards. The larger size of Roman cattle is due to the fact that in Roman times they were mainly used as working animals, in transport and agriculture (Peters, 1998, pp. 25e70). From the 1st to the 3rd centuries, they became increasingly important for satisfying the requirements of the growing urban centres for meat and raw €der, 1997; Deschlermaterial for crafting (Ebersbach and Schro Erb, 2005; Amrein et al., 2012, pp. 113e151 and 158e161). Due to the political and economic crisis from the mid-3rd century onwards e and, in the case of Augusta Raurica, possibly an earthquake (Berger, 2012; Schatzmann, 2013, pp. 47e48) e the regional Roman urban system broke down. As a consequence, there was less demand for food and everyday goods, the spending capacity e especially of townspeople e declined (Deschler-Erb and Breuer, 2002), transport activity decreased, the area under cultivation became smaller, and fewer and smaller bovids were exploited as working animals. In the early centuries of the Roman era, local wool production lost its importance and was at least partly replaced by textile products imported from Gallia Belgica (Amrein et al., 2012, p. 123). In Late Antiquity and the early Middle Ages, sheep husbandry and textile production became important economic activities again, which led to an increased consumption of mutton. At the late Roman sites studied here, there are no finds of exotic food plants or plant products, in contrast to the first centuries of the Roman era, when imported fruits and herbs are regularly found (e.g. Jacomet et al., 2002; Vandorpe and Jacomet, 2009; Jacomet and Vandorpe, 2011). Exotic plant species are equally absent at early medieval sites (Brombacher and Kühn, 2005). Both the intensification of sheep breeding and the absence of exotic plants could be indications of reduced long-distance trade, or the reduced availability of cash. The increasing importance of spelt wheat and the arrival of rye as a new cereal species e both crops are undemanding and suited to an unfavourable climate e could be adaptions both to depleted soils after centuries of intensive Roman farming practices and to the climatic deterioration mentioned above. The higher diversity of cereal species, in combination with a crop rotation system with winter and summer crops, led to a prolonged harvest season, better suited to small scale farmers.

4.3. Continuity and new influences 4.2. Market economy versus self-sufficiency Roman agriculture in the region concerned here was largely based on a system of villae rusticae that produced goods for centres like towns or military camps. In addition, there existed smaller farmsteads in hilly country (e.g. Matter et al., 2016). Towards the end of the Roman period, the importance of urban centres declined (e.g. Berger, 2012, pp. 24e33) and a trend towards decentralisation must have taken place, together with a change from surplus production to subsistence farming or small-scale production for household use. Archaeobiological observations such as the decrease in cattle size, the revival of sheep breeding, the reduction in imported goods and the changes in the cereal spectrum illustrate

While many of the innovations of the Romans were lost or forgotten after the fall of the Empire, some of them survived the centuries into the Middle Ages. Based on the analysis of both plant macrofossils and pollen, the continuity of gardening and orchard cultivation can be postulated. Both were introduced into the provinces north of the Alps by the Romans. The Celts before them had only grown a small number of garden plants, and no fruit trees or grapevines at all (the only exception being the central alpine valley of Valais, where viticulture started in the 5th or 4th century BC (Curdy et al., 2009)). As shown above, vines and fruits continued to be planted. Chicken bones are also still found in excavations at early medieval sites, even if their number decreases compared to

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Table 3 Numbers of identified bone fragments at sites from Late Antiquity and the Early Middle Ages in Switzerland (* fragments of one individual). Site, date and reference

AugstVorratskeller, 250 Deschler-Erb and HüsterPlogmann, 2012

Augst, Graben Frauenthermen, 250 Deschler-Erb 2006

Augst, Taberne, 250-270 MartiGr€ adel, 2011

AugstIns. 41/ 47, 250275 Schibler and Furger, 1988

Augst Ins.23, 200-300 DeschlerErb, 1991

Biberist, Phase 7, 250 DeschlerErb et al., 2006

WorbSunnhalde 200-300 BüttikerSchumacher, 1998

Neftenbach 250-300 Deschler-Erb € der and Schro Fartash, 1999

AugstKastelen 276-350 Lehmann and Breuer 2002

RheinfeldenAugarten, 320-350 Hüster Plogmann 2005

Castrum Rauracense, 300-400 Schibler and Furger 1988

Basel, Münsterplatz Martinoli and Plüss, 2008

Bos taurus Ovis/Capra Sus domesticus Canis familiaris Equidae Gallus domesticus Domestic animals Cervus elaphus Wild animals Total NISP

258 179 1144 4 5 211 1816 7 282 2098

25,363 159 1500 122 7 91 27,247

225 123 155 1 5 47 556

48 5 11 21* 2 4 91

885 182 552 30

0 91

15,204 2592 10,591 674 110 1002 30,173 212 611 30,784

234 19 45

14 570

519 251 1047 13 2 158 2013 74 140 2153

338 111 625

14 27,261

641 242 679 8 13 34 1617 99 136 1764

552 113 320 7 26 19 1015 8 13 1028

152 5 42 1 1 1 202 2 3 205

41 1693 2 12 1705

the early Roman times. Both gardening and poultry keeping are activities well suited to small-scale farming and self-sufficiency. Therefore, they did not disappear after the end of Roman rule, and may, at least partly, have become even more essential for the food supply of the population. Some of our finds from Late Antiquity indicate an increasing Germanic influence. Evidence of the cultivation of rye and the intensification of antler working are the most striking from an archaeobiological point of view. In Late Antiquity, Secale cereale appears for the first time as a main crop. This cereal species was not imported from the Mediterranean area, where it was barely known in Antiquity, and was held in low esteem by classical writers like Pliny (Historia Naturalis 18:16). On the other hand, it had already been an important crop species in eastern and northern parts of central Europe (e.g. the Netherlands and northern Germany) from at least the 1st century AD onwards (Behre, 1992). It is just around the time when the northern frontier of the Empire was withdrawn to the River Rhine that we find the first large quantities of grains of rye. Antler becomes an important raw material for the production of

17 52 980 128 205 1185

14 1 313 1 3 316

everyday objects from the 4th century onwards, whereas until the 3rd century, bone had been most commonly used (Deschler-Erb, 2005, pp. 212e214). Antler continued to be an important raw material until the Middle Ages, at least in Augusta Raurica (Frosdick, 2008). This is another influence from areas north of the Roman Empire. Furthermore, the increasing frequency of equids can best be explained by the Germanic tradition of horsemeat eating (see above).

5. Conclusion The political changes from the mid-3rd to the 8th centuries had a strong impact on the everyday lives of ordinary people. The sophisticated Roman system of producing agricultural goods in villae rusticae to supply the urban and military centres was already weakened in Late Antiquity and finally broke down at the transition to the early Middle Ages. People returned to a system of selfsufficiency and reverted from a market economy to an exchange economy. The great diversity of cereal species in the early Middle Ages,

Fig. 3. Percentages of the number of identified specimens (% of NISP) of cattle, sheep/goat and pig bones at sites from Late Antiquity and the Early Middle Ages in Switzerland.

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9

BaselAvenches, Martinsgasse 300-400 unpublished 6e8, 400 unpublished

Rheinfelden € rbelhof, Go 300-400 € gli et al., Bo 1963

Pfyn, 300400 Brem et al., 2008

Schaan, 300-400 Würgler, 1958

BaselMünsterplatz 19 þ 20, 300-600 unpublished

Schiers, 300-600 HartmannFrick, 1975

Castrum Rauracense 400-700 Frosdick, 2014

LausenBettenach, 500-700 Frosdick, 2014

Schleitheim- Büsserach, Brüel, 500- 400-800 700 unpublished Rehazek, 2002

CourtedouxCreugenat, 400-800 Putelat, 2004

Reinach, 500-800 Frosdick, 2014

DevelierCourtedelle, 500-800 Olive, 2008

520 67 212 11 29 5 845 6 7 852

228 84 123 12 8 23 480 16 16 496

1183 229 1262 27 69 136 2892 222 312 3204

87 60 79

335 115 208 4 30 6 698 1 6 704

430 427 245 1 45 26 1177 20 47 1224

1387 612 1620 10 41 145 3715 40 65 3780

172 133 154 2 18 9 470 4 14 484

1993 619 1173 22 86 21 3914 33 35 3949

2014 1658 1565 18 150 131 5547 5 52 5599

406 318 612 1 18 38 1348 13 22 1370

8074 2713 2523 22 634 57 14,027 21 54 14,081

305 51 296 7 14 17 690 4 18 708

6 6 239 15 46 285

with clear local differences, reflects this development. Farmers did not any longer grow crops to meet the needs of customers in towns or military installations, but they planted the species that grew best locally and suited their own requirements. Movement of peoples brought new crops and handicrafts, like the cultivation of rye and antler working. Only those Roman agricultural innovations that made sense in a small-scale farming context, like the growing of fruit trees or the keeping of poultry, continued to be practised. The state of archaeobiological research has considerably improved in recent years. This has allowed us to trace the outlines of the economic changes that took place in this previously almost

520 189 302 1 20 18 1050 4 6 1056

unknown period. Nevertheless, there are important gaps to be filled. From large parts of Switzerland there are no data available e particularly the west and the south e and chronological gaps exist e especially around 500 AD. For archaeozoology, the entire early Middle Ages are data-deficient, and in archaeobotany, more work needs to be done, in particular, on the last centuries of the Roman era. From many of the site studies compiled here only a limited number of samples were analysed; it would be desirable to have more sites systematically investigated. The authors hope that in a few years' time it will be possible to draw a clearer picture of this fascinating period of change.

Fig. 4. Percentages of the number of identified specimens (% of NISP) of chicken bones at sites from Late Antiquity and the Early Middle Ages in Switzerland.

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Fig. 5. Percentages of the number of identified specimens (% of NISP) of equids and dogs at sites from Late Antiquity and the Early Middle Ages in Switzerland.

Fig. 6. Percentages of the number of identified specimens (% of NISP) of red deer and wild animal bones at sites from Late Antiquity and the Early Middle Ages in Switzerland.

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€ et al., The transition from Antiquity to the Middle Ages in present-day Switzerland: The Please cite this article in press as: Akeret, O., archaeobiological point of view, Quaternary International (2017), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.quaint.2017.05.036