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The use of simulation in courses for language teachers
System, Vol. 13, No. 3, pp. 231-236, 1985 Printed in Great Britain.
IHE
USE
OF
0346-251X/85 $ 3 ( X ) + 0 0 0 1986 Pergamon Press I t d
S I M U L A T I O N IN C O U R S E S TEACHERS
FOR
LANGUAGE
FRAIDA DUBIN
University of Southern California The technique of peer teaching has been utilized in training programs for foreign and second language teachers since audio-lingual days. As a primitive simulation activity, it has certain benefits. More recently, however, simulation-gaming has opened up new vistas. In contrast to traditional educational formats, which would include lectures, discussions, and readings exclusively, simulations provide teachersm-training with opportunities to experience the kinds of activilies which current language teaching theory advocates for programs which foster communicatixe goals. But the subject matter of a foreign or second language class is not the same as that of a T E F L / T E S L or applied linguistics course. What adaptations must be made? This article first gives a rationale for including simulation in teacher training programs, then discusses three broad aims of training simulations: ( 1) embodying issues directly related to professional concerns, (2) fostering cross-cultural sensitivity, and (3) presenting the subject content of special purpose courses. In addition, the article illustrates adapted vs original material as well as three formats: open-ended, sketched, and fully-developed.
I N T R O D U C T I O N : W H Y USE S I M U L A T I O N ? Techniques for introducing background knowledge about language teaching to people or in-service programs whose professional objective is to teach languages to others is a topic which is relatively overlooked in methodological discussions. Indeed, any seasoned conference-goer or observer-in-courses would probably agree that when effective communication of ideas does take place it is often the result of persuasive, charismatic lecturing, or a display of frontal-teaching: one person stands at the front of the room doing all the talking, certainly controlling whatever discussion takes place. But at a time when communicative approaches prevail, it makes sense to be concerned with the presentation of the subject matter of T E S L / T E F L related courses through processes ~hich augment the traditional assigned readings, lectures, and whole group discussions. Hosteler, as in most translations of theory into practice, a shift from a didactic to an expcriential mode is a difficult but challenging task. Fhis article draws on three sources where simulations have been suggested for L2 teacher
2~'2
It,
",i ~:~ ! i i , ' ,
training purposes: the first is Irom a prolessional reference book Io~ I 2 leach,:r,,, lhc ,,ccc.~:,: is from conference sessions, and thc third is from material developed t,.,~ a d \ a n c c d i 7: learners which was later used for in-service t r a i n i n g . In addition, these source-, illu-,l~t, a variety of formats for sintulations, ranging from examples which arc onl3 b~ icfl.,, sketched. through one which is o p e n - e n d e d , thus requiring the participants to add relexant material on the spot, to one which is fully developed in all respects. These illustrations o l simulations all c o n f o r m to Jones' (1982) view that a simulation ,,horrid afford participants the o p p o r t u n i t y to experience reality, but in a safe en\ ironmct~t x~ithottt concern about the consequences which might occur in real-life. With that definition in mind. it is clear that having novice teachers experience the other side of the coin by slud,,in~ new, often exotic languages, does not meet J o n e s ' criteria since these are frequently stressful and quite real experiences. O n the other h a n d , the well-established practice of peer teaching is a s i m u l a t i o n if there is sufficient p r e p a r a t i o n provided in terms of a well-defined issnc that must be resolved along with d e f i n i t i o n s of the roles of various partici!6ants in Ihc classroom situation, teacher as well as a variety of learners. O f course, as a praclice associated with a u d i o l i n g u a l techniques, peer teaching too often concentra'~ed solely ~m the language forms which the teacher was to present, overlooking the d y n a m i c s or the classroom situation. When fully developed, a simulation which encourages a communicalix c a p p r o a c h would give a t t e n t i o n to developing i n t e r a c t i o n a m o n g the participants.
U T I L I Z I N G C O N T E N T M A T T E R IN S I M U L A T I O N S E m b o d y i n g issues directly related to p r o f e s s i o n a l concerns, the s i m u l a t i o n shown in ~his section, though untitled, incorporates two s t a n d a r d features: it includes clear-cut roles and sets up an issue to be resolved. At the same time, it is an o p e n - e n d e d s i m u l a t i o n since the participants are instructed to flesh-out the roles with specific characteristics. In additi~m. although some possible issues are offered, they can be expanded, modified or discarded for ones which the participants create themselves. A l t h o u g h m a n y textbooks used in T E S L / T E F L courses include sections called 'discussion questions' or ' w o r k s h o p activitie3". there has been little use made of the s i m u l a t i o n t e c h n i q u e in these sources.
PRACTICAL APPL ICATIONS The following s i m u l a t i o n appears in a t e a c h e r ' s reference book on course design (Dubin a n d Olshtain, in press). T h e c o n t e n t of the s i m u l a t i o n draws directly on the discussion in the preceding chapter a b o u t materials d e v e l o p m e n t for L2 p e d a g o g y I. \York in small grot,ps: Create a fictional cast of characters based on l,,he list belong. Begin by establishing a spccii'ic ~euing m ~sh~ch these characters live and work (it could be mythical, of course). Then, give each of the character, spe~:ilic characteristics regarding at least the following: age, sex, professional experience, per~onalit} Erait,, qa~L~, designation, educational viewpoint, language-culture background, personal biases. (a) a representative of an educational publishing company. (b) a representative of a governmental bureau or ministr:..'. (c) a group of ELT writers/teachers who have been selected to work as a team (d) an educational administrator to whom the writing team reports. (e) a trend-setter in the field who serves as a consultanl.
fill
tSI
()l. S l \ l t
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IN(()tlRSISI()R
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233
2. Ihe cast of characteis you have created is meeting toda+,, to resolve a COnlCl+LtiOtl ", issue, h could be one of those listed belong+ o~ some other problematic s~tuation v. hich bout group decMes on: (a) The educational administrator, vdthout the knowledge of the teacher`+' ott his .,tatf. has been approached by tile ministry representative and advised that this project should not recei,.e their ,upport. He has hinted that anothe~ publishing company has promised a 'bonu,,' if the project is. in fact, abandoned. Of course, this is co',ert informaiion x~hich cannot bc revealed. At the meeting Ioday, the publisher's representati',e x~ill try to get a firm commim+ent from the group to accept his company's offer. The consultant is also under contract to the publisher. (b) The constihant, a trend-setter in the field, ha., been attempting to convince the ~titers to accept his particular ,+tows. The writers, ho,.,.ever, feel that if their v,'ork is to meet the needs of a ~idc audience, the} should adopt a more eclectic approach+ The consultant has already antagonized the ministry representative, but since he has a long-term contract with the publisher, tie feels that he can freely assert himself. 3.
Establish the i'.,stie el contioxer%. ] hen, consider these questions: \X,ho are the ad,,ocates? ".x.he supper ,, \X+ho arc ~ell-outs
Ihcln? ~\'bo are lhc hold-otllk'? ~l,~'ho are rebels')
4. Share your ideas lot a developed ,,mlulation ~hich includes a cast of character,, and a clcatl\ defined plot with the other groups. Then, listen to their simulations. Select one simulation to carr,, out in full-131own fashion I'Q, as+,igllillg lille ~, a n d COllling IO a con'+,ell'-,tlh r c l ! a r d i n g I h c i',sues.
SIMUI.ATIONS
FOR CROSS-CUI+TURAL
For teachers ;',hose assignments
SENSITIVITY
a r e in ESI+ s e t t i n g s w h e r e it is c o m m o n
in o n e c l a s s f r o m m o r e t h a n a s c o r e o f l a n g u a g e - c u l t u r e teacher preparation professionals
backgrounds,
is c o u r s e x ~ o r k in i n t e r - c u l t u r a l c o m m u n i c a t i o n .
,aho teach abroad
to ha\e
students
a vital aspect of
At the same time, EFL
m u s t a d j u s t t o l i v i n g in a n e w c u l t u r e a n d t o g e t t i n g a l o n g
with culturally different employers, colleagues, and students. Although the two perspectives m a y be d i f f e r e n t , s p e a k e r s at p r o f e s s i o n a l c o n f e r e n c e s h a v e s u g g e s t e d t h e u s e o f s i m u l a t i o n s in c o n n e c t i o n also Harper,
with cross-cultural sensitivity training for both ESL and EFL teachers (see and Raz, this issue).
Focusing on a cross-cultural reported
view of values, and \alue
orientation,
hey+ e x p e r i n - t e n t a l a c t i v i t i e s a n d t a s k s w e r e i n t e g r a t e d
o n e s in a g r a d u a t e
course
for ESL
master
and doctoral
(1984) has
students
at T e a c h e r s
College,
Columbia
University. Although
Frentzen's
s k e t c h o f t h e s i m u l a t i o n s h e u s e d it is q u i t e p o s s i b l e f o r a t r a i n e r t o a d a p t t h e
incident to local conditions particular
it is n o t p r e s e n t e d
Frentzen
with more usual cognitive
and thus make
as directions to the participants,
it e v e n m o r e
from
relevant to the interests of a
group:
gave each group a ,at ilion description of a situation v. here a student from one culture ',.'.as in desperate need for help v, ith a paper. He asks his best friend, a member of the host cuhure, to help him. The best friend v, as facing a difficuh final the next day and had not even begun tc stud+',. Which of the tricnd's ,.:,bligations did the small groups feel wouldJshould be stronger--that to himself or that to his friend? There ~as, of course, no one absolutely correct answer, but. through their discussions, the small groups did bring out not only the fact that many disagreed on t+.hat the friend should do, bul also thai the friend's options ~;ere not necessaril), limited to either v, ork on the paper or refuse altoget hot. A n o t h e r c o n f e r e n c e p r e s e n t e r ( C u r t i s , 1985) a d v o c a t e s a d a p t i n g t h e s i m u l a t i o n s d e v e l o p e d for business executives, trade delegations and government officials for use with EFL teachers who are going abroad. For example, she has demonstrated the use of MINORIAMAJORIA in w h i c h t h e p a r t i c i p a n t s a s s u m e t h e i d e n t i t y o f c i t i z e n s o f t w o c o u n t r i e s , o n e an exploited, have-not land, the other a wealthy world-power. Curtis has noted (personal
c o | n m u n i c a t i o n ) t h a I in the debrieling and discussion stages participant,,trcqucntl3 H~,,, applications of" the simulation experience to {heir own particular needs as ~cachers o t t [:I In M I N O R t A - M A J O R I A , the inslructions are directed to an entire group ~ather thaul I ~ particular individuals. This feature makes it more usable in w o r k s h o p situations x~hc~' the number of attendees may not be known until the last minute. Actually. M I N O R I A M A J O R I A can be used \~ith as fe\\ as seven participants and as many as the root> x~ill hold since it can be run in small groups. AnotheF feature o f M I N O R I A - M A J O R t A ~hicl~ makes it particularly effectivc in a w o r k s h o p situation where the participants do not kla~x~ each other is it,', instruction that each person weal all a r m b a n d for identification. A s s u m i ~ the citizenship o1 one or the other c o u n t r y is thus both a ~isual and a \isceral experience. : \ list of the materials is slto~u bclo~: :'~li/l¢)rlatl~
,%,l~U(.lan s
(gixen only m,nimal supplies) No',~.,,EFilI! (or old llev,~,p~lpel~,) liras> lanlellel, Siding
(given luxurious materials) ( o l o i e d crepe papcl (o[olCd fissile [~;.tpCI PapC~ doilies Scotch lape \la-.k ing tape Sci.',o~., (repF esenl ing technical supcrio~ ii x)
SPECIAl_. P U R P O S E C O U R S E S A N D S I M U L A T I O N The simulation A U T O S A N D Q U O T A S was developed for an L S P course (the Business A r g u m e n t a t i o n class, American Language Institute, University o f Southern California) to assist international students in learning techniques for clearly presenting their ideas to their peers and instructors in both writing and speaking. In essence, it is a course in h o ~ to ' a r g u e ' successfully in an American context. Since the goal o f the class is to learn the appropriate use and form of a r g u m e n t a t i o n in American business and academic settings, the parts of an argument are carefully covered: a clear proposition (thesis or topic sentence); solid evidence for the proposition with supporting information, facts, opinions and statistics; logical reasoning about a subject; and the ability to anticipate opposition and meet those objections with a counter argument. Classroom discussions, presentations and pre-writing activities are used to catch majow problems in thought and organization before writing. Readings are provided from newspapers and journals about a single topic to serve as sources o f information for the arguments that the students write. The goal of presenting a g o o d a r g u m e n t is met \vhen students are able to use sound reasoning and logical development to present a point of view and successfully defend it. But, as in many LSP courses, even highly experienced E S I teachers felt unprepared to take on what was for them quite new subject content. For that reason, at the beginning of the semester when new instructors were assigned to leach the course, it was decided to orient them to the content o f business m a n a g e m e n t in general and argumentation in particular by having them participate, along with seasoned teachers, in the same simulation that their students would take part in later in the semester after m a n y reading assignments and discussions of the topic. Thus, the simulation experience became the teacher trainer.
I HI:: LiSt: OF SI",IUI .+\I ION IN (OURSES FOR lANGUAGE TEACHERS
2~5
In AUTOS A N D QUOTAS two opposing teams attempt to negotiate an agreement on the issue of automobile quotas between Japan and the United States. There are three or four members on each side. Each person has a specific role to play and is instructed to stay 'in character' as much as possible in order to make the simulation a success (Graham 1981). The object of the simulation is fourfold (Diffley 1985): (I) to argue a point of view verbally; (2) to be placed in a 'real world' situation where arguing one's point of view requires immediate responses that substantiate one's claims; (3) to experience different styles of negotiating; (4) to negotiate in a 'real world' environment that may require compromising and altering points of view. In order to add different negotiating styles to the simulation, two cultural variations are introduced at the beginning. The variations model the style of the Japanese and the ,Americans when they are negotiating. The participants follow the instructions for the cultural variation only for the first part of the exercise. It is discontinued in the second part in order to facilitate the possibility of an agreement being arrived at in the negotiations. At the end of the simulation, the participants analyse their performance and that of their opponents. The detailed instructions for each of the roles are given below in part: A M E R I C A N D E L E G A T I O N - - U N D E R S E C R E T A R Y OF T R A D E You will be playing the role of the chief negotiator of the American delegation, a member of the Reagan administration and a trusted ally of the President. You agree with President Reagan :hat an 'open-door' polic.,,, a free-market system is the best type for the U.S.A. You are leading a delegation to Japan with a Republican congressman as your main assistant. Also on your team are two automobile executives. One is a ,,'ice-president from Ford Motor C o m p a n y and the other is a vice-president from General Motors You have been instructed to try to negotiate an arrangement that will slow down imports and give additional time to the U.S. companies to recover. However, a return to the quota system is seen as unacceptable by the Reagan administration. You have a difficult task because two members of your team do not agree with an open-door policy and wish to reinstate the quota system. You have been gi,.en a great deal of flexibility in negotiating an agreement.
AMERICAN DELEGATION--REPUBLICAN CONGRESSMAN You will be pla,,ing the role of a Republican congressman who is the other member of the American Government group with the negotiating team, an influential member of the U.S. Congress. You support President Reagan on most issues, but because of a large working class constituency, you firmly back the quota system because of the possibiliD of large scale tmemployment in your district. Your goal is to convince the Japanese to return to the quota system, in order to protect American jobs, stem the outward flow of dollars and convince Congress that protectionist laths are unnecessar?,. You do not ~ant to see an upsurge in tariffs because it might get out of control and result in countermeasures by other Governments against the U.S. and start a tariff war.
A M E R I C A N D E L E G A T I O N - - \ : I C E - P R E S I D E N T OF FORD MOTORS You will be playing the role of vice-president from Ford Motor C o m p a n y in-charge of U.S. sales and ha,.e experienced first hand the effects of the new 'open-trade' polic3 on this quarter's sales figures and their dramatic drop from last quarter. You wish to see a return to the quota system to protect boff sales and jobs. Your goal is two-fold: one, you must convince your delegation to bargain for a return to the quota system, and two, you must then conxince the Japanese to buy thi~ idea.
A M E R C I A N D E L E G A ] I O N - - V I C E - P R E S I D E N T OF G . \ I You will be pla,.ing the role of vice-president from General Motors in charge of all joint ventures for ,,'our company. You have recentl,, negotiated the purchase of inexpensive Korean cars to sell in the U.S market to compete against
2~6
I b t \ i i ) \ i)t H'4
the J a p a n e s e cars and you ha'.,:e lecerlt]} ~l~llct.l a deal ,.~.ith io.~c, la to build a planl H I ()[CgOt i~l! ~ 5 C ~ , l O i l i k ' ,, p l o d u c t i o n o t low-priced cars. Whether qtlolas exiNt OF IIO[ }Otll c o m p a n y ,,,,'ill do 'aell. Your c a whole. You have been instructed to i;egotiate a s e t t l e m c m that is ba~,cd on an o p e n - t i a d e a e r c c m c n t 5 ,.',~ v, ill c o m p r o m i s e by having some tc~,traini, enacted hut lhL'} ",hould not affect yotu Korean v~lpo3t, 'z t~t~ i,~ not wish [o return to the ssstem de~i,,cd m 1981 thal ~e-,Iric~cd ;oinl-\en/tltC imports.
J A P . X N I . S ~ Dt:l I G A I I O N
MINISTIR
OF 1 R A I ) [
Y o u will be playing the role of Minister of trade in the J a p a n e s e G o v e r n m e n t , h a v i n g a r r a n g e d lor a Japaneset e a m of negotiators to meet with an A m e r i c a n learn to discuss the a u t o m o b i l e i m p o r t - e x p o r t c o n t r ~ ; e r s } . You a n d your d e l e g a t i o n from the G o v e r n m e n t wish to n e g o t i a t e some types of interim a r r a n g e m e n t with the U S. to relieve the pressure on the U.S. and the BTJ. You do not want a return to /he q u o t a system, but instead v,i,,h to set up a system that allows for a gradual increase in a u t o m o b i l e exports to the U.S. Your tear i, that unle~,~, s o m e concession is m a d e to the U.S., the A m e r i c a n Congress will begin i m p l e m e n t i n g strict tariffs that will lead to a protectionist war between the two c o u n t r i e ~
JAPANESE DELE(JAIION--VICE-PRESIDEN]
OF MITSUBISHI
Y o u will be playing the role of the vice president of Mitsubishi M o t o r s , ha~ing been invited b_`' the J a p a n e s e G o v e r n m e n t to participate in t r a d e n e g o t i a t i o n s with an A m e r i c a n t e a m c o n c e r n i n g a u t o m o b i l e q u o t a s . Your goal is to keep the U.S. m a r k e t open as much as possible. In no way does your c o m p a n y wish to return to the q u o t a system because that will again put your firm at a trading d i s a d v a n t a g e with other companies. 5 o u r c o m p a n y is currently selling certain models directly to G.M. and if the q u o t a is re-instituted, these sales will also be restricted according to the previous quota system. If an> restrictions ate decided upon in your negotiations v, ith the Americans. the} must not be based in 1980 import numbers, but must include some means by which your compan> can achi~:,.c g r o w t h in the U.S. market.
JAPANESE DELEGATION--VI('E-PRESIDENT
OF NISSAN
You will be playing the role of a vice-president for Nissan Motors who has been invited by the Japanese G o v e r n m e n t to p a r t i c i p a t e in trade n e g o t i a t i o n s with an A m e r i c a n t e a m c o n c e r n i n g a u t o m o b i l e q u o t a s . Y o u r goal is to stop the price war because it is seriously restricting your overall profits and it is causing problems with the U .S. C o n g r e s s It is to your a d v a n t a g e to a r r a n g e s o m e type of reduced q u o t a to restrict Mitsubishi a n d Isuzu a n d at the same t i m e placate the U.S. auto m a k e r s and politicians. This reduced q u o t a will still w o r k to your a d v a n t a g e in tx~o ways. First, you are currently p r o d u c i n g cars in the U.S. in a j o i n t - v e n t u r e with an A m e r i c a n c o m p a n y a n d these cars will not be affected by the q u o t a , thu,, you will be selling cars over the q u o t a level set for "your c o m p a n y . T h e second a d v a n t a g e for your c o m p a n y is that this restriction on i m p o r t s may reduce the a m o u n t of cars ,,old by your other J a p a n e s e c o m p e t i t o r s . Your personal objectixe is to achieve an a g r e e m e n t that x`'ill a l l o ~ ?ou~ c o m p a n y to keep its edge on the U.S. m a r k e t w i t h o u t a n g e r i n g the U.S. G o v e r n m e n t .
IHE
USE
OF
0346-251X/85 $ 3 ( X ) + 0 0 0 1986 Pergamon Press I t d
S I M U L A T I O N IN C O U R S E S TEACHERS
FOR
LANGUAGE
FRAIDA DUBIN
University of Southern California The technique of peer teaching has been utilized in training programs for foreign and second language teachers since audio-lingual days. As a primitive simulation activity, it has certain benefits. More recently, however, simulation-gaming has opened up new vistas. In contrast to traditional educational formats, which would include lectures, discussions, and readings exclusively, simulations provide teachersm-training with opportunities to experience the kinds of activilies which current language teaching theory advocates for programs which foster communicatixe goals. But the subject matter of a foreign or second language class is not the same as that of a T E F L / T E S L or applied linguistics course. What adaptations must be made? This article first gives a rationale for including simulation in teacher training programs, then discusses three broad aims of training simulations: ( 1) embodying issues directly related to professional concerns, (2) fostering cross-cultural sensitivity, and (3) presenting the subject content of special purpose courses. In addition, the article illustrates adapted vs original material as well as three formats: open-ended, sketched, and fully-developed.
I N T R O D U C T I O N : W H Y USE S I M U L A T I O N ? Techniques for introducing background knowledge about language teaching to people or in-service programs whose professional objective is to teach languages to others is a topic which is relatively overlooked in methodological discussions. Indeed, any seasoned conference-goer or observer-in-courses would probably agree that when effective communication of ideas does take place it is often the result of persuasive, charismatic lecturing, or a display of frontal-teaching: one person stands at the front of the room doing all the talking, certainly controlling whatever discussion takes place. But at a time when communicative approaches prevail, it makes sense to be concerned with the presentation of the subject matter of T E S L / T E F L related courses through processes ~hich augment the traditional assigned readings, lectures, and whole group discussions. Hosteler, as in most translations of theory into practice, a shift from a didactic to an expcriential mode is a difficult but challenging task. Fhis article draws on three sources where simulations have been suggested for L2 teacher
2~'2
It,
",i ~:~ ! i i , ' ,
training purposes: the first is Irom a prolessional reference book Io~ I 2 leach,:r,,, lhc ,,ccc.~:,: is from conference sessions, and thc third is from material developed t,.,~ a d \ a n c c d i 7: learners which was later used for in-service t r a i n i n g . In addition, these source-, illu-,l~t, a variety of formats for sintulations, ranging from examples which arc onl3 b~ icfl.,, sketched. through one which is o p e n - e n d e d , thus requiring the participants to add relexant material on the spot, to one which is fully developed in all respects. These illustrations o l simulations all c o n f o r m to Jones' (1982) view that a simulation ,,horrid afford participants the o p p o r t u n i t y to experience reality, but in a safe en\ ironmct~t x~ithottt concern about the consequences which might occur in real-life. With that definition in mind. it is clear that having novice teachers experience the other side of the coin by slud,,in~ new, often exotic languages, does not meet J o n e s ' criteria since these are frequently stressful and quite real experiences. O n the other h a n d , the well-established practice of peer teaching is a s i m u l a t i o n if there is sufficient p r e p a r a t i o n provided in terms of a well-defined issnc that must be resolved along with d e f i n i t i o n s of the roles of various partici!6ants in Ihc classroom situation, teacher as well as a variety of learners. O f course, as a praclice associated with a u d i o l i n g u a l techniques, peer teaching too often concentra'~ed solely ~m the language forms which the teacher was to present, overlooking the d y n a m i c s or the classroom situation. When fully developed, a simulation which encourages a communicalix c a p p r o a c h would give a t t e n t i o n to developing i n t e r a c t i o n a m o n g the participants.
U T I L I Z I N G C O N T E N T M A T T E R IN S I M U L A T I O N S E m b o d y i n g issues directly related to p r o f e s s i o n a l concerns, the s i m u l a t i o n shown in ~his section, though untitled, incorporates two s t a n d a r d features: it includes clear-cut roles and sets up an issue to be resolved. At the same time, it is an o p e n - e n d e d s i m u l a t i o n since the participants are instructed to flesh-out the roles with specific characteristics. In additi~m. although some possible issues are offered, they can be expanded, modified or discarded for ones which the participants create themselves. A l t h o u g h m a n y textbooks used in T E S L / T E F L courses include sections called 'discussion questions' or ' w o r k s h o p activitie3". there has been little use made of the s i m u l a t i o n t e c h n i q u e in these sources.
PRACTICAL APPL ICATIONS The following s i m u l a t i o n appears in a t e a c h e r ' s reference book on course design (Dubin a n d Olshtain, in press). T h e c o n t e n t of the s i m u l a t i o n draws directly on the discussion in the preceding chapter a b o u t materials d e v e l o p m e n t for L2 p e d a g o g y I. \York in small grot,ps: Create a fictional cast of characters based on l,,he list belong. Begin by establishing a spccii'ic ~euing m ~sh~ch these characters live and work (it could be mythical, of course). Then, give each of the character, spe~:ilic characteristics regarding at least the following: age, sex, professional experience, per~onalit} Erait,, qa~L~, designation, educational viewpoint, language-culture background, personal biases. (a) a representative of an educational publishing company. (b) a representative of a governmental bureau or ministr:..'. (c) a group of ELT writers/teachers who have been selected to work as a team (d) an educational administrator to whom the writing team reports. (e) a trend-setter in the field who serves as a consultanl.
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2. Ihe cast of characteis you have created is meeting toda+,, to resolve a COnlCl+LtiOtl ", issue, h could be one of those listed belong+ o~ some other problematic s~tuation v. hich bout group decMes on: (a) The educational administrator, vdthout the knowledge of the teacher`+' ott his .,tatf. has been approached by tile ministry representative and advised that this project should not recei,.e their ,upport. He has hinted that anothe~ publishing company has promised a 'bonu,,' if the project is. in fact, abandoned. Of course, this is co',ert informaiion x~hich cannot bc revealed. At the meeting Ioday, the publisher's representati',e x~ill try to get a firm commim+ent from the group to accept his company's offer. The consultant is also under contract to the publisher. (b) The constihant, a trend-setter in the field, ha., been attempting to convince the ~titers to accept his particular ,+tows. The writers, ho,.,.ever, feel that if their v,'ork is to meet the needs of a ~idc audience, the} should adopt a more eclectic approach+ The consultant has already antagonized the ministry representative, but since he has a long-term contract with the publisher, tie feels that he can freely assert himself. 3.
Establish the i'.,stie el contioxer%. ] hen, consider these questions: \X,ho are the ad,,ocates? ".x.he supper ,, \X+ho arc ~ell-outs
Ihcln? ~\'bo are lhc hold-otllk'? ~l,~'ho are rebels')
4. Share your ideas lot a developed ,,mlulation ~hich includes a cast of character,, and a clcatl\ defined plot with the other groups. Then, listen to their simulations. Select one simulation to carr,, out in full-131own fashion I'Q, as+,igllillg lille ~, a n d COllling IO a con'+,ell'-,tlh r c l ! a r d i n g I h c i',sues.
SIMUI.ATIONS
FOR CROSS-CUI+TURAL
For teachers ;',hose assignments
SENSITIVITY
a r e in ESI+ s e t t i n g s w h e r e it is c o m m o n
in o n e c l a s s f r o m m o r e t h a n a s c o r e o f l a n g u a g e - c u l t u r e teacher preparation professionals
backgrounds,
is c o u r s e x ~ o r k in i n t e r - c u l t u r a l c o m m u n i c a t i o n .
,aho teach abroad
to ha\e
students
a vital aspect of
At the same time, EFL
m u s t a d j u s t t o l i v i n g in a n e w c u l t u r e a n d t o g e t t i n g a l o n g
with culturally different employers, colleagues, and students. Although the two perspectives m a y be d i f f e r e n t , s p e a k e r s at p r o f e s s i o n a l c o n f e r e n c e s h a v e s u g g e s t e d t h e u s e o f s i m u l a t i o n s in c o n n e c t i o n also Harper,
with cross-cultural sensitivity training for both ESL and EFL teachers (see and Raz, this issue).
Focusing on a cross-cultural reported
view of values, and \alue
orientation,
hey+ e x p e r i n - t e n t a l a c t i v i t i e s a n d t a s k s w e r e i n t e g r a t e d
o n e s in a g r a d u a t e
course
for ESL
master
and doctoral
(1984) has
students
at T e a c h e r s
College,
Columbia
University. Although
Frentzen's
s k e t c h o f t h e s i m u l a t i o n s h e u s e d it is q u i t e p o s s i b l e f o r a t r a i n e r t o a d a p t t h e
incident to local conditions particular
it is n o t p r e s e n t e d
Frentzen
with more usual cognitive
and thus make
as directions to the participants,
it e v e n m o r e
from
relevant to the interests of a
group:
gave each group a ,at ilion description of a situation v. here a student from one culture ',.'.as in desperate need for help v, ith a paper. He asks his best friend, a member of the host cuhure, to help him. The best friend v, as facing a difficuh final the next day and had not even begun tc stud+',. Which of the tricnd's ,.:,bligations did the small groups feel wouldJshould be stronger--that to himself or that to his friend? There ~as, of course, no one absolutely correct answer, but. through their discussions, the small groups did bring out not only the fact that many disagreed on t+.hat the friend should do, bul also thai the friend's options ~;ere not necessaril), limited to either v, ork on the paper or refuse altoget hot. A n o t h e r c o n f e r e n c e p r e s e n t e r ( C u r t i s , 1985) a d v o c a t e s a d a p t i n g t h e s i m u l a t i o n s d e v e l o p e d for business executives, trade delegations and government officials for use with EFL teachers who are going abroad. For example, she has demonstrated the use of MINORIAMAJORIA in w h i c h t h e p a r t i c i p a n t s a s s u m e t h e i d e n t i t y o f c i t i z e n s o f t w o c o u n t r i e s , o n e an exploited, have-not land, the other a wealthy world-power. Curtis has noted (personal
c o | n m u n i c a t i o n ) t h a I in the debrieling and discussion stages participant,,trcqucntl3 H~,,, applications of" the simulation experience to {heir own particular needs as ~cachers o t t [:I In M I N O R t A - M A J O R I A , the inslructions are directed to an entire group ~ather thaul I ~ particular individuals. This feature makes it more usable in w o r k s h o p situations x~hc~' the number of attendees may not be known until the last minute. Actually. M I N O R I A M A J O R I A can be used \~ith as fe\\ as seven participants and as many as the root> x~ill hold since it can be run in small groups. AnotheF feature o f M I N O R I A - M A J O R t A ~hicl~ makes it particularly effectivc in a w o r k s h o p situation where the participants do not kla~x~ each other is it,', instruction that each person weal all a r m b a n d for identification. A s s u m i ~ the citizenship o1 one or the other c o u n t r y is thus both a ~isual and a \isceral experience. : \ list of the materials is slto~u bclo~: :'~li/l¢)rlatl~
,%,l~U(.lan s
(gixen only m,nimal supplies) No',~.,,EFilI! (or old llev,~,p~lpel~,) liras> lanlellel, Siding
(given luxurious materials) ( o l o i e d crepe papcl (o[olCd fissile [~;.tpCI PapC~ doilies Scotch lape \la-.k ing tape Sci.',o~., (repF esenl ing technical supcrio~ ii x)
SPECIAl_. P U R P O S E C O U R S E S A N D S I M U L A T I O N The simulation A U T O S A N D Q U O T A S was developed for an L S P course (the Business A r g u m e n t a t i o n class, American Language Institute, University o f Southern California) to assist international students in learning techniques for clearly presenting their ideas to their peers and instructors in both writing and speaking. In essence, it is a course in h o ~ to ' a r g u e ' successfully in an American context. Since the goal o f the class is to learn the appropriate use and form of a r g u m e n t a t i o n in American business and academic settings, the parts of an argument are carefully covered: a clear proposition (thesis or topic sentence); solid evidence for the proposition with supporting information, facts, opinions and statistics; logical reasoning about a subject; and the ability to anticipate opposition and meet those objections with a counter argument. Classroom discussions, presentations and pre-writing activities are used to catch majow problems in thought and organization before writing. Readings are provided from newspapers and journals about a single topic to serve as sources o f information for the arguments that the students write. The goal of presenting a g o o d a r g u m e n t is met \vhen students are able to use sound reasoning and logical development to present a point of view and successfully defend it. But, as in many LSP courses, even highly experienced E S I teachers felt unprepared to take on what was for them quite new subject content. For that reason, at the beginning of the semester when new instructors were assigned to leach the course, it was decided to orient them to the content o f business m a n a g e m e n t in general and argumentation in particular by having them participate, along with seasoned teachers, in the same simulation that their students would take part in later in the semester after m a n y reading assignments and discussions of the topic. Thus, the simulation experience became the teacher trainer.
I HI:: LiSt: OF SI",IUI .+\I ION IN (OURSES FOR lANGUAGE TEACHERS
2~5
In AUTOS A N D QUOTAS two opposing teams attempt to negotiate an agreement on the issue of automobile quotas between Japan and the United States. There are three or four members on each side. Each person has a specific role to play and is instructed to stay 'in character' as much as possible in order to make the simulation a success (Graham 1981). The object of the simulation is fourfold (Diffley 1985): (I) to argue a point of view verbally; (2) to be placed in a 'real world' situation where arguing one's point of view requires immediate responses that substantiate one's claims; (3) to experience different styles of negotiating; (4) to negotiate in a 'real world' environment that may require compromising and altering points of view. In order to add different negotiating styles to the simulation, two cultural variations are introduced at the beginning. The variations model the style of the Japanese and the ,Americans when they are negotiating. The participants follow the instructions for the cultural variation only for the first part of the exercise. It is discontinued in the second part in order to facilitate the possibility of an agreement being arrived at in the negotiations. At the end of the simulation, the participants analyse their performance and that of their opponents. The detailed instructions for each of the roles are given below in part: A M E R I C A N D E L E G A T I O N - - U N D E R S E C R E T A R Y OF T R A D E You will be playing the role of the chief negotiator of the American delegation, a member of the Reagan administration and a trusted ally of the President. You agree with President Reagan :hat an 'open-door' polic.,,, a free-market system is the best type for the U.S.A. You are leading a delegation to Japan with a Republican congressman as your main assistant. Also on your team are two automobile executives. One is a ,,'ice-president from Ford Motor C o m p a n y and the other is a vice-president from General Motors You have been instructed to try to negotiate an arrangement that will slow down imports and give additional time to the U.S. companies to recover. However, a return to the quota system is seen as unacceptable by the Reagan administration. You have a difficult task because two members of your team do not agree with an open-door policy and wish to reinstate the quota system. You have been gi,.en a great deal of flexibility in negotiating an agreement.
AMERICAN DELEGATION--REPUBLICAN CONGRESSMAN You will be pla,,ing the role of a Republican congressman who is the other member of the American Government group with the negotiating team, an influential member of the U.S. Congress. You support President Reagan on most issues, but because of a large working class constituency, you firmly back the quota system because of the possibiliD of large scale tmemployment in your district. Your goal is to convince the Japanese to return to the quota system, in order to protect American jobs, stem the outward flow of dollars and convince Congress that protectionist laths are unnecessar?,. You do not ~ant to see an upsurge in tariffs because it might get out of control and result in countermeasures by other Governments against the U.S. and start a tariff war.
A M E R I C A N D E L E G A T I O N - - \ : I C E - P R E S I D E N T OF FORD MOTORS You will be playing the role of vice-president from Ford Motor C o m p a n y in-charge of U.S. sales and ha,.e experienced first hand the effects of the new 'open-trade' polic3 on this quarter's sales figures and their dramatic drop from last quarter. You wish to see a return to the quota system to protect boff sales and jobs. Your goal is two-fold: one, you must convince your delegation to bargain for a return to the quota system, and two, you must then conxince the Japanese to buy thi~ idea.
A M E R C I A N D E L E G A ] I O N - - V I C E - P R E S I D E N T OF G . \ I You will be pla,.ing the role of vice-president from General Motors in charge of all joint ventures for ,,'our company. You have recentl,, negotiated the purchase of inexpensive Korean cars to sell in the U.S market to compete against
2~6
I b t \ i i ) \ i)t H'4
the J a p a n e s e cars and you ha'.,:e lecerlt]} ~l~llct.l a deal ,.~.ith io.~c, la to build a planl H I ()[CgOt i~l! ~ 5 C ~ , l O i l i k ' ,, p l o d u c t i o n o t low-priced cars. Whether qtlolas exiNt OF IIO[ }Otll c o m p a n y ,,,,'ill do 'aell. Your c
J A P . X N I . S ~ Dt:l I G A I I O N
MINISTIR
OF 1 R A I ) [
Y o u will be playing the role of Minister of trade in the J a p a n e s e G o v e r n m e n t , h a v i n g a r r a n g e d lor a Japaneset e a m of negotiators to meet with an A m e r i c a n learn to discuss the a u t o m o b i l e i m p o r t - e x p o r t c o n t r ~ ; e r s } . You a n d your d e l e g a t i o n from the G o v e r n m e n t wish to n e g o t i a t e some types of interim a r r a n g e m e n t with the U S. to relieve the pressure on the U.S. and the BTJ. You do not want a return to /he q u o t a system, but instead v,i,,h to set up a system that allows for a gradual increase in a u t o m o b i l e exports to the U.S. Your tear i, that unle~,~, s o m e concession is m a d e to the U.S., the A m e r i c a n Congress will begin i m p l e m e n t i n g strict tariffs that will lead to a protectionist war between the two c o u n t r i e ~
JAPANESE DELE(JAIION--VICE-PRESIDEN]
OF MITSUBISHI
Y o u will be playing the role of the vice president of Mitsubishi M o t o r s , ha~ing been invited b_`' the J a p a n e s e G o v e r n m e n t to participate in t r a d e n e g o t i a t i o n s with an A m e r i c a n t e a m c o n c e r n i n g a u t o m o b i l e q u o t a s . Your goal is to keep the U.S. m a r k e t open as much as possible. In no way does your c o m p a n y wish to return to the q u o t a system because that will again put your firm at a trading d i s a d v a n t a g e with other companies. 5 o u r c o m p a n y is currently selling certain models directly to G.M. and if the q u o t a is re-instituted, these sales will also be restricted according to the previous quota system. If an> restrictions ate decided upon in your negotiations v, ith the Americans. the} must not be based in 1980 import numbers, but must include some means by which your compan> can achi~:,.c g r o w t h in the U.S. market.
JAPANESE DELEGATION--VI('E-PRESIDENT
OF NISSAN
You will be playing the role of a vice-president for Nissan Motors who has been invited by the Japanese G o v e r n m e n t to p a r t i c i p a t e in trade n e g o t i a t i o n s with an A m e r i c a n t e a m c o n c e r n i n g a u t o m o b i l e q u o t a s . Y o u r goal is to stop the price war because it is seriously restricting your overall profits and it is causing problems with the U .S. C o n g r e s s It is to your a d v a n t a g e to a r r a n g e s o m e type of reduced q u o t a to restrict Mitsubishi a n d Isuzu a n d at the same t i m e placate the U.S. auto m a k e r s and politicians. This reduced q u o t a will still w o r k to your a d v a n t a g e in tx~o ways. First, you are currently p r o d u c i n g cars in the U.S. in a j o i n t - v e n t u r e with an A m e r i c a n c o m p a n y a n d these cars will not be affected by the q u o t a , thu,, you will be selling cars over the q u o t a level set for "your c o m p a n y . T h e second a d v a n t a g e for your c o m p a n y is that this restriction on i m p o r t s may reduce the a m o u n t of cars ,,old by your other J a p a n e s e c o m p e t i t o r s . Your personal objectixe is to achieve an a g r e e m e n t that x`'ill a l l o ~ ?ou~ c o m p a n y to keep its edge on the U.S. m a r k e t w i t h o u t a n g e r i n g the U.S. G o v e r n m e n t .