The valuation and purchase of food products that combine local, regional and traditional features: The influence of consumer ethnocentrism

Food Quality and Preference xxx (xxxx) xxx–xxx

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Food Quality and Preference journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/foodqual

The valuation and purchase of food products that combine local, regional and traditional features: The influence of consumer ethnocentrism ⁎

Pilar Fernández-Ferrína, , Aitor Calvo-Turrientesb, Belén Bandec, Miren Artaraz-Miñóna, M. Mercedes Galán-Laderod a

University of Basque Country UPV/EHU, Facultad de Economía y Empresa, C/Comandante Izarduy, 23, 01006 Vitoria-Gasteiz, Spain University of Basque Country UPV/EHU, Spain c University of Navarra/Universidad de Santiago de Compostela, Facultad de Económicas, Campus Universitario, 31009 Pamplona, Spain d University of Extremadura – UEx, Facultad de Ciencias Económicas y Empresariales, Avda. Elvas, s/n, 06006 Badajoz, Spain b

A R T I C L E I N F O

A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Local products Regional products Traditional products Food products Consumer ethnocentrism

Previous literature has addressed the concepts of local products, regional products and traditional products as if they were independent concepts. However, in practice, many food products combine all three concepts. The objectives of this paper are as follows: first, to explore the valuation of food products that have local, regional and traditional features through the analysis of specific product categories; second, to study the possible link between the level of consumer ethnocentrism and the valuation and effective purchase of local-regional-traditional food. The results show that consumers value these products highly and buy them in high proportions. In addition, levels of consumer ethnocentrism are sometimes, but not always, related to the actual purchase of these localregional-traditional food products. This finding highlights the need to include a product’s category in analyses of the effects of consumer ethnocentrism. The majority of previous studies examine the consumer’s valuation and intention to buy local or traditional products at a general or abstract level, which does not allow respondents to evaluate a specific food product that they can find in the market and consume. An important contribution of this work is its level of analysis: we analyze specific food product categories in two different geographic environments in Spain.

1. Introduction A variety of food crises and environmental concerns, combined with movements to support local producers and improve transparency in supply chains, have caused food trends to change since the beginning of the 21st century (Dragon & Albergaria, 2012). As Pieniak, Verbeke, Vanhonacker, Guerrero, and Hersleth (2009) note, there is growing consumer interest in products of local or regional origin and in products that have a traditional character or image. Consumer demand for these types of products may derive from opposition to globalization and industrialization in food production (Jordana, 2000). In this environment, movements such as “Slow Food” have emerged to promote the preservation of local food culture, regional culinary traditions and traditional methods of cultivating, producing and preparing food (Dansero & Puttilli, 2013). Bond, Thilmany, and Keeling Bond (2008) emphasize that the search for alternatives to intensive production systems is one of the main drivers of demand for local, organic and

pesticide-free products. Similarly, Costanigro, Kroll, Thilmany, and Bunning (2014) find that consumers are willing to pay a premium for unconventional products. Local food production, tradition and connection to a product’s region of origin may represent strong elements of local identity and culture (Galli & Brunori, 2013). Where strong local identity and commitment to the region exist, the demand for local products is likely to be greater. This phenomenon can be attributed to consumer ethnocentrism rather than to the product's intrinsic attributes (Groves, 2005). The definitions of local, regional and traditional products are often conflated, causing overlaps and confusion about their differences (Uyttendaele, Herman, Daeseleire, Huyghebaert, & Pussemier, 2012). Meanings usually vary according to context and, as Eriksen (2013, p. 49) notes, imply “different things to different people in different contexts”. Although the concept of a traditional product is related to the notion of local and regional products, these terms are not equivalent (Pieniak et al., 2009).

⁎

Corresponding author. E-mail addresses: [email protected] (P. Fernández-Ferrín), [email protected] (A. Calvo-Turrientes), [email protected] (B. Bande), [email protected] (M. Artaraz-Miñón), [email protected] (M.M. Galán-Ladero). http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.foodqual.2017.09.015 Received 6 February 2017; Received in revised form 21 September 2017; Accepted 21 September 2017 0950-3293/ © 2017 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Please cite this article as: Fernández-Ferrín, P., Food Quality and Preference (2017), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.foodqual.2017.09.015

Food Quality and Preference xxx (xxxx) xxx–xxx

P. Fernández-Ferrín et al.

transfer information about the values and quality of the product (Holcomb et al., 2016; Renting, Marsden, & Banks, 2003).

To the best of our knowledge, these three concepts have not been analyzed together in the literature, despite the fact that many products in the markets simultaneously meet the definitions of local, regional and traditional. Consumers must continually make decisions about whether to buy these products or alternatives. However, little is known about the way consumers actually value such products or how these products meet consumers’ needs. Studies of consumer ethnocentrism, which are generally limited to the international marketing field, have ignored the possible relationship between this variable (i.e., ethnocentrism) and the demand for local-regional-traditional products. For this reason, this study aims to answer two questions:

2.2. Regional products Regional products can be considered local products on a larger scale. They may travel longer distances to the final consumption location or derive from areas with wider borders. However, the geographical proximity between production and consumption, as well as the specific geographical origin of the product, is less important in definitions of regional products. A product’s origin provides added value, which stems from the uniqueness of the culture, traditions, methods, and geographical and natural conditions associated with its production (Chinnakonda & Telford, 2007; Parrott, Wilson, & Murdoch, 2002). The combination of these human, natural, and production factors, which are linked to a specific location, differentiates regional products and gives them organoleptic properties and qualities that are difficult to imitate (Garcia-Galán, Del Moral, & Galera, 2010). Regional products are marketed with a special emphasis on quality (Ilbery & Maye, 2006). They travel along short chains and, regardless of the number of intermediaries or the travel distance, reach the consumer with explicit information about their origins (Renting et al., 2003). This transfer of information is usually accomplished through the packaging and labeling of the product or under Protected Designations of Origin and similar certification schemes (Kneafsey et al., 2013).

RQ1: How are food products that are simultaneously local, regional and traditional valued by consumers? RQ2: Is there a relationship between the valuation and purchase of these products and levels of consumer ethnocentrism? 2. Conceptual framework 2.1. Local products Local products are defined according to the geographical proximity of production to consumption. There is no agreement on the requirements of this proximity, but local products can be considered to be those that are grown, produced, marketed and consumed within a relatively small area (Martinez et al., 2010). Two criteria are usually used for geographical delimitation. The first measures the distance between the location of production and the location of consumption. One of the most widely used criteria is the 100mile radius (Durham, King, & Roheim, 2009), which is considered large enough to be adopted in large cities but also small enough to remain local (Smith & MacKinnon, 2007). Several consumer surveys have indicated that consumers generally associate a radius of 30 or 50 miles with local food, whereas a 100-mile radius is generally applied to food that is considered more regional than local (Groves, 2005; Onozaka, Nurse, & McFadden, 2010). The second criterion is related to political-administrative boundaries, such as counties, states or provinces. Some consumer studies consider local food to be food produced within the same county (Groves, 2005), whereas others consider larger frontiers, such as the state (Darby, Batte, Erst, & Roe, 2008) and even the nation (Brown, 2003). These political-administrative boundaries may have a stronger impact than geographical boundaries on preferences for local products. Lim and Hu (2016) found that when buying meat, a sample of Canadian consumers showed a clear preference for home-province beef versus beef labeled “local” depending on the geographic distance. Local products are associated with higher quality and are considered fresher, more nutritious and tastier than other products. This quality is derived from the geographic proximity between production and consumption, which shortens transport time, thus allowing optimum maturation and the use of fewer preservatives (Galli & Brunori, 2013; Groves, 2005). As an additional benefit of this proximity, local products are associated with values related to sustainability. Several studies claim that local consumption reduces the use of fuels and chemicals as well as greenhouse gas emissions (Karner, 2010; La Trobe, 2002). Furthermore, consumers feel that purchasing local products allows their money to remain within their own community to support local producers, who sometimes operate small or family-owned enterprises. This arrangement is seen as having a positive impact on the local economy and employment (Lang, Stanton, & Qu, 2014; Martinez et al., 2010). The commercialization of these products is accomplished through short chains without intermediaries in which personal interaction between the producer and the consumer conveys authenticity and confidence. In other cases, the minimum possible number of intermediaries is involved. These intermediaries act as guarantors of authenticity and

2.3. Traditional products The identification of a particular origin is a necessary but not sufficient condition to classify a product as traditional; thus, only some local products can be considered traditional. A traditional product is linked to both territory and tradition (Jordana, 2000). Traditional food products are defined by European consumers as those “frequently consumed or associated with specific celebrations and / or seasons, transmitted from one generation to another, made in a specific way according to gastronomic heritage, naturally processed, and distinguished and known because of its sensory properties and associated with a certain local area, region or country” (Vanhonacker et al., 2010, p. 454). This definition presents a pan-European view from the consumer’s perspective and is the result of qualitative and quantitative studies conducted using the framework of the TRUEFOOD European Project (Traditional United Europe Food) (Almli, Verbeke, Vanhonacker, Næs, & Hersleth, 2011; Pieniak et al., 2009). The results of Guerrero et al. (2009) show that from the perspective of European consumers, a product that is considered traditional must contain traditional ingredients and be processed in a traditional way that follows a traditional recipe. Many consumers perceive these products to be simple, basic, natural and pure, with as little manipulation as possible. Based on these perceptions, traditional products appear to have four dimensions: (1) production habits and natural character; (2) origin and locality; (3) processing and elaborating methods; and (4) sensory properties (Guerrero et al., 2009). 2.4. Relationships among the concepts of local products, regional products, and traditional products There is evidence of overlap among the definitions of local, regional, and traditional products, as reflected in Fig. 1. The first circle of this figure represents the local product, which is produced and consumed locally and whose geographical proximity gives it superior quality with regard to taste, freshness, and sustainability. The second circle represents the regional product, which is produced locally, may or may not be consumed outside that environment, and offers superior quality derived from the specific conditions of its identifiable geographical origin. The third circle represents the traditional product, which is produced locally, may or may not be consumed outside that 2

Food Quality and Preference xxx (xxxx) xxx–xxx

P. Fernández-Ferrín et al.

2.5. Consumer ethnocentrism According to Shankarmahesh (2006), consumer ethnocentrism, which remains fervent despite globalization, represents one of the strongest import blockades of our time. This concept was initially formulated to reflect normative beliefs regarding the appropriateness of buying products from one’s own country and the inappropriateness of buying imported products (Shimp, 1984). However, some authors have demonstrated that it is also present at a sub-national level (FernándezFerrín & Bande-Vilela, 2013). From the perspective of ethnocentric consumers, “purchasing imported products is wrong because, in their minds, it hurts the domestic economy, causes loss of jobs, and is plainly unpatriotic; products from other countries (i.e., outgroups) are objects of contempt to highly ethnocentric consumers” (Shimp & Sharma, 1987, p. 280). Although research on consumer ethnocentrism has largely focused on consumer choices between domestic and imported products, a small but growing number of studies are adopting a subnational level of analysis (Fernández-Ferrín, Bande, & Galán-Ladero, 2017; Ouellet, 2007; Poon, Evangelista, & Albaum, 2010). The results of FernándezFerrín and Bande-Vilela (2013), based on a sample of 138 Galician consumers, indicated that consumers’ ethnocentric tendencies had a significant influence on their intentions to buy products from the region. For Oleniuch and Cichocka (2015, p.149), “regional products may constitute a direct response to the needs of the ethnocentric consumer”. The goal of these consumers is to support the economy of their closest environment and to protect jobs at a national (Balabanis, Diamantopoulos, Mueller, & Melewar, 2001; Shimp & Sharma, 1987) or sub-national level (Fernández-Ferrín & Bande-Vilela, 2013; Ouellet, 2007). Bianchi and Mortimer (2015) found that the most influential factor in the consumption of local food among a sample of Australian and Chilean consumers was their attitude toward local products, which, in turn, was affected by their favorable attitude toward supporting local businesses and by their ethnocentrism. Although the literature has not yet studied the relationship between consumer ethnocentrism and the valuation and purchase of local-regional-traditional food products, it is arguable that consumers with ethnocentric tendencies will like these products because of the products’ ability to generate employment wherever they are produced and consumed (i.e., locally). In addition, ethnocentric consumers tend to be more conservative than non-ethnocentric consumers, and the consumption of traditional products fits this traditional view. Finally, it is expected that regional products, which are marketed both inside and outside the region where the consumer resides, will be a source of pride for ethnocentric consumers, who also consider themselves morally obliged to support the national (or subnational) economy. Therefore, we present the following hypothesis:

LOCAL PRODUCTS Geographical proximity Fresh, sustainable, tasty, without intermediaries ..

REGIONAL PRODUCTS Geographical origin Culture, methods of produ on, geographical ons...

Local-regional-t products

onal

TRADITIONAL PRODUCTS Geographical origin + Tr Gastronomic heritage, authen city, simplicity...

Fig. 1. Interrelations between the concepts of local products, regional products and traditional products.

environment, and offers a level of quality that stems from tradition and geographical origin. The overlap of these concepts is reflected in the intersection of the three circles. Products may be produced and consumed locally and may have an identifiable geographical origin; thus, they share the characteristics and quality of both local and regional products. If these products’ raw materials, production and marketing are derived from a certain authenticity and gastronomic inheritance, they will also share the features of traditional products. Lang et al. (2014) asked a sample of 277 American consumers to choose the three characteristics they considered most important when deciding to purchase locally sourced or produced products. Some consumers stated that local products included defining elements of regional or traditional products: 32 percent indicated that the uniqueness of the product to the region or the region’s notable characteristics were among the three most important reasons to buy a product, and another 17 percent sought traditional foods or recipes from the region. The industry stipulates that for a product to be considered traditional, its production must be mainly local (Traditional United Europe Food, 2006). Oleniuch and Cichocka (2015) maintain that regional products incorporate some features that are also attributable to local and traditional products. It is common for items that meet the requirements of all three types of products – local, regional and traditional – to be named using one of these three terms. The choice of terminology varies according to the context and the approach of the marketing policy. Depending whether the emphasis is on the quality derived from the proximity between the product’s production and consumption, its geographical origin, or its tradition, the product will be marketed as local, regional or traditional. It is expected that products that meet these three conditions will be highly valued by consumers. This expectation is based on a series of positive features highlighted by the literature: a product’s local character links the product to sustainable consumption, support for local economies or the proximity between production and consumption (Holcomb et al., 2016; La Trobe, 2002; Martinez et al., 2010); its regional character gives the product superior organoleptic properties and quality (García-Galán, del Moral, & Galera, 2010; Ilbery & Maye, 2006); and its traditional character causes consumers to perceive these products as simple, natural and pure (Guerrero et al., 2009). Therefore, we propose that consumers will value these products very highly.

H2. The level of consumer ethnocentrism will be positively related to the valuation and purchase of local-regional-traditional products. 3. Methodology 3.1. Food products The majority of previous studies have examined consumers’ valuation of and intention to buy local or traditional products at a general and abstract level. This approach does not allow respondents to evaluate a particular food that can be found in the market and that can be consumed. For this reason, and based on previous work, four food products that met the necessary requirements to be considered localregional-traditional products were carefully selected (see Table 1). All of these were Protected Designation of Origin (PDO) products, corresponding to three product categories: cheese, wine and dry-cured ham.

H1. Local-regional-traditional products will be highly valued by consumers.

3

4

Yes, it is made from the milk of Latxa and / or Carranzana sheep.

It has been produced and marketed for centuries.

Does it contain traditional ingredients?

Has it been marketed for a long time?

It has been produced and marketed for centuries.

Yes, it is obtained from different varieties of autochthonous grapes.

Yes, it is produced by traditional methods. Yes, it is produced by traditional methods during the phases of profiling, salting, settling, drying, ripening, and aging in the warehouse. Yes, the Iberian pig has been part of Extremaduran gastronomy since Roman times. It has been produced and marketed for centuries.

Yes, it is made from raw sheep’s milk, vegetable rennet extracted from Cynara Cardunculus thistle, and salt. It has been produced and marketed for centuries.

Yes, it has been linked to the traditional practices of transhumance and grazing in the region.

Yes, since 1990

Yes, since 1925 (it is the oldest Spanish P.D.O.).

Yes, as stated in its slogan: “The ham of Extremadura, the flavor of a tradition”.

Yes, quality is a basic pillar of P.D.O. Each cheese is made with a unique and numbered label, which guarantees the origin, the production process, and the final quality. Yes, since 1999

Yes, quality is a basic pillar of P.D.O. It implies integral work and control during all the steps in the cheese’s production.

Yes, quality is a basic pillar of P.D.O. It offers the highest guarantees regarding the quality and authenticity of its wines.

Yes, it is produced in Extremadura.

Yes, consumers reside Extremadura and both production and consumption take place there.

Extremaduran P.D.O. cheese

Yes, both milk and cheese production are carried out in one of the 36 municipalities of Caceres (Extremadura).

Yes, consumers reside Extremadura and both production and consumption take place there. Yes, it is produced in Extremadura.

Extremaduran P.D.O. Iberian dry-cured ham

Yes, it is an indispensable condition that the farm, the slaughterhouse, and the dryingwinery are in Extremadura.

al., 2013; Parrott et al., 2002) Yes, this land is suitable for quality grape production.

Yes, consumers reside in the Basque Country and both production and consumption take place there. Yes, the Rioja Alavesa variety is produced in the Basque Country.

Basque P.D.O. wine

TRADITIONAL PRODUCT FEATURES (Guerrero et al., 2009; Jordana, 2000; TRUEFOOD, 2006; Vanhonacker et al., 2010) Is it linked to territory and tradition? Yes, as reflected in its slogan: “It is the story of Yes, as proven by archaeological a millennial flavor that transcends time”. remains of wineries and cellars from Roman times. Is it produced in a particular way according to Yes, although millennial tradition coexists Yes, although millennial tradition its gastronomic heritage? with modern techniques. coexists with modern techniques.

REGIONAL PRODUCT FEATURES (Chinnakonda & Telford, 2007; Ilbery & Maye, 2006; Kneafsey et Is its geographic origin an added value because Yes, this is the environment in which Basque shepherds have raised breeds of native of the uniqueness of culture, customs, peculiar sheep with hardly any variation over methods of production and natural more than eight thousand years. geographical conditions? Is it marketed with a special emphasis on Yes, quality is a basic pillar of P.D.O.. It is a quality? natural product of high quality and recognized value, declared as having European Gastronomic Heritage. Is it marketed under the certification of P.D.O.? Yes, since 1987

LOCAL PRODUCT FEATURES (Durham et al., 2009; Groves, 2005; Lim & Hu, 2016) Is it produced fewer than 160 km away from the Yes, consumers reside in the Basque Country consumer? and both production and consumption take place there. Is it within the political-administrative limits of Yes, in most cases. It is produced in the Basque the consumer? Country and Navarre.

Basque P.D.O. cheese

Table 1 Local-regional-traditional food products considered for analysis.

P. Fernández-Ferrín et al.

Food Quality and Preference xxx (xxxx) xxx–xxx

Food Quality and Preference xxx (xxxx) xxx–xxx

P. Fernández-Ferrín et al.

4. Results

These products are commonly consumed and have been produced and commercialized for centuries in two different geographic environments, Basque Country and Extremadura, both in Spain. The intention was not to ask consumers to imagine a local or a regional product in general but rather to direct them to a series of concrete food product categories. However, consumers would not necessarily be aware of the extent to which these products were local, regional or traditional.

4.1. Research Question 1: Assessment of local-regional-traditional products The results of the descriptive analysis of Basque and Extremaduran consumers’ responses allow us to address the first question and verify that the valuation of local-regional-traditional food products is very high, close to six points on a seven-point scale. Basque and Extremaduran consumers gave especially high scores to the taste of the four products as well as to their quality and their natural character, and they were very satisfied with the product overall. The indicator with the lowest score was the quality / price ratio, which is logical considering that the food products are expensive within their respective categories (see Table 2). To compare the assessment of these foods with others that do not meet the requirements of local, regional and traditional products, several paired-samples t-tests were conducted in the Extremaduran sample (see Table 3). The analysis showed that foods that were local, regional and traditional were valued more highly than foods that did not meet these criteria. In particular, in Extremadura, when comparing a localregional-traditional dry-cured ham with another dry-cured ham that can be considered regional and traditional but not local for consumers from Extremadura, the former was significantly more highly valued. When comparing the valuation of a local, regional and traditional cheese with a regional and traditional but not local cheese, significantly higher scores were also observed for the first product. In summary, the results support Hypothesis 1 and show that the assessment of traditional-regional-traditional food products is not only very high but also superior to the assessment of other products that do not meet the three conditions simultaneously. Consumers in Extremadura consider localregional-traditional varieties superior to those that do not meet this triple condition, not only in terms of taste and natural character but also in terms of quality or quality / price.

3.2. Samples 3.2.1. Sample 1 Using a combination of convenience sampling and the snowball sampling procedure, an electronic questionnaire was administered to a sample of 227 consumers residing in the Basque Country. After the substantially incomplete responses were eliminated, 210 cases were obtained and included in the analysis. The age range was from 20 to 81 years, with a mean equal to 44 years (M = 44.1, SD = 11.4); the proportion of women (55 percent) surpassed that of men. The vast majority of respondents (more than 92 percent) came from 21 different populations in the Autonomous Community of the Basque Country. Vitoria-Gasteiz and Bilbao were the most represented populations in the sample.

3.2.2. Sample 2 The second sample was composed of students at the University of Extremadura, Badajoz Campus, specifically at the School of Economics and Business Sciences, the school with the highest number of students. The students, who were attending classes taught by one of this study's co-authors, were asked to complete a questionnaire. A total of 195 questionnaires were collected. All surveyed students resided in Extremadura, and the majority (180) were born in the region, in 37 different towns. Badajoz, the city with the largest population in the region, was the origin of 48.7 percent of respondents. The median age of the respondents was 21.3 years old, and the proportion of women, at 55.4 percent, was greater than the proportion of men. Both groups were asked to complete a questionnaire that included measurement scales of consumer ethnocentrism as related to the political-administrative boundaries corresponding to their autonomous communities. The questionnaire also addressed the valuation and effective purchase of different local-regional-traditional products.

4.2. Research Question 2: The influence of consumer ethnocentrism To address this issue, we first analyzed the levels of ethnocentrism of Basque and Extremaduran consumers in relation to the politicaladministrative boundaries of Basque Country and Extremadura. As shown in Table 4, the average values of the CETSCALE indicators for Basque consumers were, in most cases, below 3 on a seven-point scale. The scores of consumers in Extremadura were somewhat higher, but in no case did they exceed 4. The following indicator received the lowest score: “Basque/Extremaduran consumers who purchase products made in other regions are responsible for the job losses of fellow Basques/ Extremaduran” (MBasque = 1.89, SDBasque = 1.30; MExtremaduran = 2.59, SDExtremaduran = 1.64). The indicator with the highest score was “It may cost me in the long run, but I prefer to support Basque/Extremaduran products” (MBasque = 3.62, SDBasque = 1.90; MExtremaduran = 3.73, SDExtremaduran = 1.63). Second, to study the relationship between the valuation and purchase of local–regional-traditional products and the levels of ethnocentrism of Basque and Extremaduran consumers, two models were compared (Table 5). In the first, which was a simple model, a relationship between the valuation of the food products and the actual purchase was proposed. In the second one, the variable of consumer ethnocentrism was incorporated into the analysis. The intention was to measure the contribution of consumer ethnocentrism to the explanation of the actual purchase of these foods. The first model was tested by a simple regression analysis. To test the second model, we conducted an OLS regression analysis, specifically a mediation analysis using the PROCESS Procedure for SPSS Release 2.16 written by Andrew F. Hayes and available at www.afhayes.com, documented in Hayes (2013). Regarding the first product analyzed, a Basque P.D.O. cheese, the results indicate that the levels of ethnocentrism of Basque consumers – with respect to their Autonomous Community – have a significant effect

3.3. Measurements The scale used to measure consumer ethnocentrism in relation to the political-administrative limits was adapted from the scale employed by Klein, Ettenson, and Krishnan (2005) and Fernández-Ferrín and Bande-Vilela (2013). It is a reduced version of the CETSCALE and contains six indicators. The valuation of the local-regional-traditional food products combines the scales of Chryssochoidis, Krystallis, and Perreas (2007) and Ouellet (2007) and also contains six indicators (see Table 2). These products are very familiar to the respondents since the products have been produced in the region for centuries. Therefore, neither a trial nor a photo of them was considered necessary to obtain an accurate valuation of these products. The scales were seven-point Likert scales with extremes at 1 (completely disagree) and 7 (completely agree). Effective purchase was measured by the survey taker's estimate of the percentage of the local-regional-traditional product's consumption compared to total consumption in this food category. With respect to the reliability of the measurement scales, the Cronbach’s alpha analysis reflects very high levels of internal consistency in the variables’ measurement scales (see Tables 2 and 4).

5

Food Quality and Preference xxx (xxxx) xxx–xxx

P. Fernández-Ferrín et al.

Table 2 Valuation of local-regional-traditional food products.a Sample 1: Basque Country P.D.O. cheeseb

Sample 2: Extremadura P.D.O. winec

SD

Mean

SD

Mean

SD

Mean

SD

6.19 5.57 5.23 6.07 6.09 6.05

1.09 1.36 1.34 1.03 1.01 1.00

6.37 6.03 4.69 6.17 6.21 6.07

1.04 1.13 1.41 0.97 0.94 098

5.89 6.00 5.31 5.98 6.13 5.85

1.27 1.05 1.23 1.13 1.01 1.21

6.29 6.33 5.81 6.42 6.26 6.13

1.25 1.02 1.15 0.97 1.06 1.25

tastes good is natural has a good price/quality ratio is of high quality is a good product seems satisfactory to me

a

Seven-point Likert scales, with extremes at 1 (completely disagree) and 7 (completely agree). Cronbach alpha: 0.86. Cronbach alpha: 0.87. Cronbach alpha: 0.89. Cronbach alpha: 0.89.

c d e

P. D.O. cheesee

Mean It It It It It It

b

P.D.O. Iberian dry-cured hamd

Table 3 Comparison of local–regional-traditional food products with regional-traditional food products.a

It tastes good It is natural It has a good price/quality ratio It is of high quality It is a good product It seems satisfactory to me

Extremaduran P.D.O. Dry-cured ham (1) vs. Non Extremaduran P.D.O. Drycured ham (2)

Extremaduran P.D.O. cheese (3) vs. Non Extremaduran P. D.O. Cheese (4)

Mean (1)

Mean (2)

Mean diferencies

t

Mean (3)

Mean (4)

Mean diferencies

t

5.89 6.00 5.31

5.30 5.40 4.66

0.60 0.57 0.66

5.03** 5.75** 5.77**

6.29 6.33 5.81

5.59 5.79 4.36

0.68 0.60 0.48

6.66** 5.79** 4.36**

5.98 6.13 5.85

5.42 5.42 5.10

0.53 0.70 0.72

5.42** 6.61** 6.01**

6.42 6.26 6.13

6.20 5.23 5.96

0.62 0.56 0.69

6.20** 5.23** 5.96**

a

Seven-point Likert scales, with extremes at 1 (completely disagree) and 7 (completely agree). ** p < 0.001.

a P.D.O. wine. However, in this case, this effect is only direct (c'1 = 4.30, p < 0.05). The results indicate that brand valuation is not influenced by consumers' level of ethnocentrism (a1 = 0.09, p > 0.10), although this valuation has an effect on actual purchase (b1 = 11.75, p < 0.01). When analyzing the effects of ethnocentrism among consumers from Extremadura on their valuation of a local-regional-traditional Iberian dry-cured ham, there is a significant effect of consumer ethnocentrism on the actual purchase of the product. However, in this case, the effect is produced through the valuation of the product, making it an indirect effect (a1 = 0.10, p < 0.05; b1 = 12.18, p < 0.01). Finally, the results show the lack of a significant effect of consumer ethnocentrism on the valuation and effective purchase of the fourth product analyzed, an

on the actual purchase of this local-regional-traditional product, both directly and indirectly (through the valuation of the product). As the level of ethnocentrism increases, so does the product’s valuation (a1 = 0.13, p < 0.01). In turn, this variable has a significant effect on the actual purchase of the product (b1 = 6.50, P < 0.05). In addition to this indirect effect through product valuation, a significant direct effect of consumer ethnocentrism on actual purchasing (c'1 = 8.30, p < 0.01) is observed. The comparison of the fit indices of the two models (R2Model 1 = 0.06; R2Model 2 = 0.18) allows us to verify the significant role of consumer ethnocentrism in the effective purchasing of the first product analyzed. The ethnocentrism of Basque consumers also has a significant effect on their actual purchase of another local–regional-traditional product:

Table 4 Consumer ethnocentrism related to the political-administrative limits.a,b,c

Products from outside Basque Country/Extremadura should only be bought when Basque/Extremaduran equivalents are not available Basque/Extremaduran products come first and foremost A true Basque/Extremaduran should always buy products made in the Basque Country/Extremadura Basques/Extremadurans should not buy products from outside the region since it harms Basque/Extremaduran companies and causes unemployment It may me cost in the long-run but I prefer to support Basque/Extremaduran products Basque/Extremaduran consumers that purchase products made in other regions are responsible for the job losses of fellow Basques/Extremaduran a b c

Cronbach alpha (Basque Country sample): 0.91. Cronbach alpha (Extremadura sample): 0.91. Seven-point Likert scales, with extremes at 1 (completely disagree) and 7 (completely agree).

6

Sample 1: Basque Country

Sample 2: Extremadura

Mean

SD

Mean

SD

2.53

1.74

3.02

1.68

2.54 2.00 2.20

1.72 1.46 1.56

3.41 2.80 2.90

1.82 1.78 1.60

3.62 1.89

1.90 1.30

3.73 2.59

1.63 1.64

7

< 0.01

1.62

SE

p < 0.01

—

p

—

12.84 2.28 < 0.01 −20.97 13.56 0.12 R2 = 0.16; F(1,172) = 31.85, p < 0.01

—

—

Consumer ethnocent. Brand valuation Constant Fit indexes

p 0.05

SE 0.04

p

— — — 5.56 0.17 < 0.01 R2 = 0.03; F(1,170) = 4.44, p = 0.04 Effect SE p 3.05 1.57 0.05 1.81 1.48 0.22 Effect BootSE BootLLCI 1.24 0.55 0.27

0.10

Coeff. 1.48

SE 0.22

12.18 2.32 < 0.01 −22.96 13.86 0.10 R2 = 0.16; F(2,169) = 15.94, p < 0.01 LLCI ULCI −0.05 6.15 −1.10 4.73 BootULCI 2.50

1.81

Coeff.

—

SE

—

p

12.94 2.40 < 0.01 −34.43 15.15 0.02 R2 = 0.15; F(1,159) = 28.93, p < 0.01

—

Coeff.

Consequent: Purchase

Consequent: Valuation

Consequent: Purchase

Consequent: Purchase

Model 1 Valuation → Purchase

p

—

SE

12.04 2.82 < 0.01 −7.58 16.77 0.65 R2 = 0.09; F(1,175) = 18.25, p < 0.01

—

Coeff.

Model 2 Consumer ethnocentrism. → Valuation → Purchase

6.50 2.68 0.02 −16.77 15.81 0.29 R2 = 0.18; F(2,180) = 19.63, p < 0.01 LLCI ULCI 5.97 12.30 5.10 11.49 BootULCI 1.98

8.30

Coeff.

Model 1 Valuation → Purchase

SE

Indirect effects

0.04

p

— — — 5.66 0.12 < 0.01 R2 = 0.05; F(1,181) = 8.64, p < 0.01 Effect SE p 9.14 1.60 < 0.01 8.30 1.62 < 0.01 Effect BootSE BootLLCI 0.85 0.45 0.18

0.13

SE

Extremaduran P.D.O. cheese

Coeff.

Total effects Direct effects

—

Coeff.

Extremaduran P.D.O. Iberian dry-cured ham

Antecedent

Indirect effects

Total effects Direct effects

—

—

Consumer ethnocent. Brand valuation Constant Fit indexes

p

9.46 2.79 < 0.01 −14.13 16.83 0.40 R2 = 0.06; F(1,184) = 11.47, p < 0.01

SE

Coeff.

Antecedent

Consequent: Valuation

Consequent: Purchase

Consequent: Purchase

Model 1 Valuation → Purchase

Model 2 Consumer ethnocentrism → Valuation→Purchase

Model 1 Valuation → Purchase Consequent: Purchase

Basque P.D.O. wine

Basque P.D.O. cheese

Table 5 Direct and indirect effects of consumer ethnocentrism on effective purchase of local-regional-traditional products.

0.05

SE

0.10

p

1.93

SE

0.05

SE

0.83

p

— — — 6.19 0.17 < 0.01 R2 = 0.00; F(1,157) = 0.05, p = 0.83 Effect SE p 2.54 1.68 0.13 2.39 1.54 0.12 Effect BootSE BootLLCI 0.15 0.64 −1.09

0.01

Coeff.

Consequent: Valuation

0.03

p

1.54

SE

0.12 13.32 2.39 < 0.01 −43.67 15.70 0.01 R2 = 0.18; F(2,156) = 16.83, p < 0.01 LLCI ULCI −0.78 5.86 −0.66 5.43 BootULCI 1.47

2.39

Coeff.

Consequent: Purchase p

11.75 2.84 < 0.01 −16.58 16.97 0.33 R2 = 0.13; F(2,171) = 12.43, p < 0.01 LLCI ULCI 1.37 9.27 0.50 8.11 BootULCI 2.52

4.30

Coeff.

Consequent: Purchase

Model 2 Consumer ethnocentrism. → Valuation → Purchase

— — — 5.68 0.14 < 0.01 R2 = 0.02; F(1,172) = 2.82, p=0.10 Effect SE p 5.32 2.00 0.01 4.30 1.93 0.03 Effect BootSE BootLLCI 1.01 0.63 −0.04

0.09

Coeff.

Consequent: Valuation

Model 2 Consumer ethnocentrism. →Valuation → Purchase

P. Fernández-Ferrín et al.

Food Quality and Preference xxx (xxxx) xxx–xxx

Food Quality and Preference xxx (xxxx) xxx–xxx

P. Fernández-Ferrín et al.

food products. Two other concepts are proving to be prominent in the literature and are related to local products. One is regional products, which are products that reach consumers and provide explicit information about their origin (Renting et al., 2003). The other is traditional products, which are produced in a way that is closely linked to their gastronomic inheritance and are associated with certain regions (Vanhonacker et al., 2010). The literature review suggests that each of these three streams of analysis (local products, regional products, and traditional products) delves into the other two to “collect” certain features, which it then attributes to its central concept without abandoning its conceptual framework. That is, research on local products recognizes that some of these products are traditional; research on traditional products recognizes that the vast majority of traditional products are actually local products; and research on regional products recognizes that these products are marketed through short chains, guaranteeing an unequivocal transmission of the origin of the product and a method of production that is sometimes handmade. What is missing in the literature is an external perspective on these three concepts. This is what we have aimed to provide in this study. We observe that although the three concepts are different, they are closely interrelated. The characteristics associated with local products, which consumers increasingly value, can be found in the market in combination with the characteristics that derive from regional products and the positive characteristics associated with traditional products. Consumers frequently purchase products that are local, regional and traditional simultaneously, and their valuations are enhanced through the combination of these features. This phenomenon occurs despite the fact that consumers do not necessarily know precisely what defines a local product, a regional product or a traditional product. We selected four products in three different categories (cheese, wine, and dry-cured ham) that meet these three requirements, and we confirmed our initial perception: consumers’ valuation of these food products is very high, which supports the complementary nature of the three concepts. If we add to a local product that is highly valued by the consumer the fact that the product is also consumed in other regions and if we add explicit information about its origin (i.e., the fact that the product is regional) and traditional character (which is also highly valued by the consumer), we obtain a highly regarded product. Our results clearly show that local-regional-traditional foods are valued more than other foods that do not offer all three characteristics. Among the positive features that these products offer by combining local, regional, and traditional characteristics, the most valued are their natural character, their flavor and their quality. One of the main contributions of this study is its incorporation of three concepts that have previously been independently analyzed in the literature into the same theoretical framework. This study also adopted a level of analysis that consisted of analyzing specific product categories. Additionally, the analysis was conducted in two different geographic environments in Spain. Another important contribution is the incorporation into the same theoretical framework of a fourth concept, consumer ethnocentrism, which was examined at a subnational level. Although some previous studies link the demand for local products to certain ethnocentric tendencies of the consumer, our study constitutes the first attempt in the literature to examine the possible relationship between this variable and the valuation and actual purchase of food products that are local to the consumer (local products), marketed with information on their origins (regional products), and produced according to traditional methods (traditional products). Consumer ethnocentrism seems to play a relevant role in explaining the valuations and the actual purchasing of local-regional-traditional food products. These results are consistent with those of FernándezFerrín and Bande-Vilela (2015), who found that ethnocentric consumers preferred some products (i.e., wine and milk) to be of regional

Extremaduran P.D.O. cheese, although the valuation of this product significantly influences the actual purchase (b1 = 13.32, p < 0.01). As a complementary analysis, a Tobit model was tested. The reason for this further analysis was to prove the consistency of the results obtained when the OLS estimation is used considering that the dependent variable is measured as a percentage. Burkey and Harris (2003) recommend using a two-limit Tobit model in those cases. The analysis, performed with the package Gretl 2016a, shows similar results to the OLS estimation (see Appendix). In short, the analyses show that there is no clear association between the valuation of local-regional-traditional food products and consumers’ levels of ethnocentrism with respect to the political-administrative limits of their Autonomous Communities. Thus, regarding the first product analyzed, a Basque P.D.O. cheese, both a direct effect on the actual purchase and an indirect effect through the valuation of the product are observed. For the second product, a Basque P.D.O. wine, a direct effect is observed, but not an indirect effect. In the third case, an Extremaduran P.D.O. Iberian dry-cured ham, the opposite occurs: an indirect effect is observed, but not a direct one. Finally, in the case of the fourth product analyzed, an Extremaduran P.D.O. cheese, there is no effect of consumer ethnocentrism on product valuation or actual purchase. The results show that the effects of consumer ethnocentrism can vary among categories of food products. This variation can occur within the same geographical scope and among different geographical areas for the same category of products. Specifically, the valuation and purchase of a local-regional-traditional cheese in the Basque Country is affected by the level of ethnocentrism of Basque consumers, whereas the valuation and purchase of a local-regional traditional cheese in Extremadura is not related to the level of ethnocentrism of consumers in Extremadura. Although these results only partially support Hypothesis 2, they show the importance of a variable that, despite presenting reduced values at the subnational level, has significant effects on the valuation and effective purchases of three of the four products analyzed. 5. Discussion Interest in the study of consumer perceptions related to local food is increasing. Numerous studies reveal the lack of a universally accepted definition of a local product; however, a number of defining elements are beginning to solidify (Eriksen, 2013; Renting et al., 2003). A local product is not only one that is produced in a given geographical area, within political-administrative limits or at a certain distance from the consumer; it is also a product that is produced in a certain way, with methods that may be anchored in tradition. Its production is also less intensive, and there is transparency regarding the information that reaches the consumer. In addition, the product is acquired through short marketing channels in which a consumer who wishes to support the local economy and its small production companies sometimes has the option of entering into direct contact with the producer. However, recent studies show that consumer understanding may vary depending on their income or geographical environment. Telligman, Worosz, and Bratcher (2017) analyze the perceptions of a sample of US consumers with various socio-demographic characteristics. This work differs from other studies and finds that race and income level are related to a greater or lesser knowledge of the term “local beef”. These authors find that more consumers with lower incomes and Afro-Americans are unaware of the term in comparison to Caucasians and consumers with higher incomes. Thus, the literature indicates the need to (1) take into account the multidimensional nature of the local food concept; (2) analyze different geographic contexts given the large differences observed, not only among US and European samples but also in terms of the socio-demographic characteristics associated with the geographical environments analyzed within the same country; and (3) study specific categories of 8

Food Quality and Preference xxx (xxxx) xxx–xxx

P. Fernández-Ferrín et al.

origin. However, the preference for regional origin (e.g., “Only from Galicia”) was similar between ethnocentric and non-ethnocentric consumers when considering other products (i.e., potatoes and beef). In addition, the need to apply the study of consumer ethnocentrism to specific geographical environments is evident. The results vary among different product categories and among different geographical environments. Finally, the results show that even for reduced levels of consumer ethnocentrism, significant effects can be observed in the valuation and effective purchasing of certain foodstuffs. Producers of some local-regional-traditional food products should be aware that they have strong support from ethnocentric consumers. Despite its contributions, this study has limitations that should be noted. First, since the samples were mainly selected using convenience sampling, our results should be considered with caution. Second, the use of a sample of students may have contributed to the lack of a significant direct effect of consumer ethnocentrism on the actual purchase of local-regional-traditional products from Extremadura. Thus, future research could replicate our findings using a more representative sample. Finally, future studies could extend the model to include a measure of familiarity or a usage scale to assess the extent to which the consumer is actually familiar with the products included in the analysis.

6. Conclusion We can conclude that food products that combine the characteristics of local, regional and traditional products are highly valued by consumers. This is true of the four food products analyzed in this paper, all of which are Protected Designation of Origin products that are valued particularly for their natural character, their flavor, and their quality. In addition, we can conclude that both the valuations of these products and their actual purchases are sometimes influenced by the levels of ethnocentrism of consumers, but the effects of this variable are not uniform. On the contrary, noticeable differences are observed not only among product categories within the same geographical environment but also among different environments for the same product category. This finding has important theoretical implications. Studies of consumer ethnocentrism should investigate specific categories of food and consider conducting analyses at the sub-national level. Future studies should also consider incorporating other variables in the analysis, such as consumers’ regional identity, nostalgia or place attachment.

Appendix A Model coefficients for the Tobit model

Basque P.D.O. cheese Consequence: Effective purchase Antecedent

Coeff.

Consumer ethnocent. Brand valuation Constant

8.74 1.98 7.62 2.87 −24.80 16.80 Sigma = 30.37, χ2 = 34.25, p < 01

Consumer ethnocent. Brand valuation Constant

SE

Basque P.D.O. wine Consequence: Effective purchase p

Coeff.

SE

p

< 0.01 < 0.01 0.14

5.32 2.54 0.04 16.13 4.34 < 0.01 −40.86 25.95 0.12 Sigma = 42.02, χ2 = 20.51, p < 0.01

Extremaduran P.D.O. Iberian dry-cured ham Consequence: Effective purchase

Extremaduran P.D.O. cheese Consequence: Effective purchase

Coeff.

p

Coeff.

0.23 < 0.01 0.11

2.84 1.76 0.11 17.03 3.11 < 0.01 −68.21 19.71 < 0.01 Sigma = 29.84, χ2 = 34.29, p < 0.01

SE

2.16 1.80 13.13 2.81 −29.24 18.26 Sigma = 29.28, χ2 = 2.92, p = 0.23

SE

p

Chryssochoidis, G., Krystallis, A., & Perreas, P. (2007). Ethnocentric beliefs and countryof origin (COO) effect. Impact of country, product and product attributes on Greek consumers' evaluation of food products. European Journal of Marketing, 41(11/12), 1518–1544. http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/03090560710821288. Costanigro, M., Kroll, S., Thilmany, D., & Bunning, M. (2014). Is it love for local/organic or hate for conventional? Asymmetric effects of information and taste on labels preferences in an experimental auction. Food Quality and Preference, 31, 94–105. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.foodqual.2013.08.008. Dansero, E., & Puttilli, M. (2013). Multiple territorialities of alternative food networks: six cases from Piedmont, Italy. Local Environment: The International Journal of Justice and Sustainability, 19(6), 626–643. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/13549839.2013.836163. Darby, K., Batte, M. T., Erst, S., & Roe, B. (2008). Decomposing local: A conjoint analysis of locally produces foods. American Journal of Agricultural Economics, 90(2), 476–486. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8276.2007.01111.x. Dragon, P., & Albergaria, H. (Eds.). (2012). Political argumentary for the economy of proximity development (ANATOLE Project Report). Retrieved from Association of the Agricultural Chambers of the Atlantic Arc website: http://www.ac3a.fr/AC3A_en. php. Durham, C. A., King, R. P., & Roheim, C. A. (2009). Consumer definitions of “locally grown” for fresh fruits and vegetables. Journal of Food Distribution Research, 40(1), 56–62. Retrieved from http://ageconsearch.umn.edu/bitstream/162116/2/ DurhamKing.pdf. Eriksen, S. N. (2013). Defining local food: constructing a new taxonomy–three domains of proximity. Acta Agriculturae Scandinavica, Section B-Soil & Plant Science, 63(sup1), 47–55. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/09064710.2013.789123.

References Almli, V. L., Verbeke, W., Vanhonacker, F., Næs, T., & Hersleth, M. (2011). General image and attribute perceptions of traditional food in six European countries. Food Quality and Preference, 22, 129–138. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.foodqual.2010.08.008. Balabanis, G., Diamantopoulos, A., Mueller, R. D., & Melewar, T. C. (2001). The impact of nationalism, patriotism and internationalism on consumer ethnocentric tendencies. Journal of International Business Studies, 32(1), 157–175. http://dx.doi.org/10.1057/ palgrave.jibs.8490943. Bianchi, C., & Mortimer, G. (2015). Drivers of local food consumption: a comparative study. British Food Journal, 117(9), 2282–2299. http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/BFJ-032015-0111. Bond, C., Thilmany, D., & Keeling Bond, J. (2008). Understanding consumer interest in product and process-based attributes for fresh produce. Agribusiness, 24(2), 231–252. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/agr.20157. Brown, C. (2003). Consumers' preferences for locally produced food: A study in southeast Missouri. American Journal of Alternative Agriculture, 18(4), 213–224. http://dx.doi. org/10.1079/AJAA200353. Burkey, J., & Harris, T. R. (2003). Modeling a share or proportion with logit or tobit: The effect of outcommuting on retail sales leakages. The Review of Regional Studies, 33(3), 328. Chinnakonda, D., & Telford, L. (2007). Local and regional food economies in Canada: Status report. Retrieved from Government of Canada website: http://publications.gc. ca/collections/collection_2009/agr/A34-7-2007E.pdf.

9

Food Quality and Preference xxx (xxxx) xxx–xxx

P. Fernández-Ferrín et al.

1111/cjag.12062. Martinez, S., Hand, M., Da Pra, M., Pollack, S., Ralston, K., Smith, T., … & Newman, C. (2010). Local food systems: Concepts, impacts and issues (Economic Research Report No. 67). Retrieved from United States Department of Agriculture, Economic Research Service website: https://www.ers.usda.gov/webdocs/publications/err97/7054_ err97_1_.pdf. Oleniuch, I., & Cichocka, I. (2015). Regional food products and region-wise consumer ethnocentrism. Modern Management Review, 20(22), 143–153. http://dx.doi.org/10. 7862/rz.2015.mmr.11. Onozaka, Y., Nurse, G., & McFadden, D. T. (2010). Local food consumers: How motivations and perceptions translate to buying behavior. Choices: The Magazine of Food, Farm, and Resource Issues, 25(1), 1-6. Retrieved from http://www.choicesmagazine. org/magazine/pdf/article_116.pdf. Ouellet, J. F. (2007). Consumer racism and its effects on domestic cross-ethnic product purchase: An empirical test in the United States, Canada, and France. Journal of Marketing, 71(1), 113–128. http://dx.doi.org/10.1509/jmkg.71.1.113. Parrott, N., Wilson, N., & Murdoch, J. (2002). Spatializing quality: Regional protection and the alternative geography of food. European Urban and Regional Studies, 9(3), 241–261. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0967642002009003878. Pieniak, Z., Verbeke, W., Vanhonacker, F., Guerrero, L., & Hersleth, M. (2009). Association between traditional food consumption and motives for food choice in six European countries. Appetite, 53(1), 101–108. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.appet. 2009.05.019. Poon, P., Evangelista, F., & Albaum, G. (2010). Attitudes of migrants towards foreignmade products: An exploratory study of migrants in Australia. Journal of Consumer Marketing, 27(1), 35–42. http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/07363761011012930. Renting, H., Marsden, T., & Banks, J. (2003). Understanding alternative food networks: exploring the role of short food supply chains in rural development. Environment and Planning A, 35, 393–411. http://dx.doi.org/10.1068/a3510. Shankarmahesh, M. N. (2006). Consumer ethnocentrism: an integrative review of its antecedents and consequences. International Marketing Review, 23(2), 146–172. http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/02651330610660065. Shimp, T. A. (1984). Consumer Ethnocentrism: The Concept and Preliminary Test. Advances in Consumer Research, 11, 285–290. Shimp, T. A., & Sharma, S. (1987). Consumer ethnocentrism: Construction and validation of the CETSCALE. Journal of Marketing Research, 24(3), 280–289. http://dx.doi.org/ 10.2307/3151638. Smith, A., & MacKinnon, J. B. (2007). The 100-mile diet: A year of local eating. Toronto: Random House. Telligman, A. L., Worosz, M. R., & Bratcher, C. L. (2017). “Local” as an indicator of beef quality: An exploratory study of rural consumers in the Southern US. Food Quality and Preference, 57, 41–53. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.foodqual.2016.11.001. Traditional United Europe Food (2006, October). TRUEFOOD has a new definition of traditional food products (TFPs). TRUEFOOD info, 1(1). Retrieved from http://www. truefood.eu/files/pages/files/d8_3_4_truefood_info_1.pdf. Uyttendaele, M., Herman, L., Daeseleire, E., Huyghebaert, A., & Pussemier, L. (2012). Definition of the short food supply chain. In A. Huyghebaert, X. Van Huffel, & G. Houins (Eds.), Food Safety of the Short Supply Chain. Proceedings of the FASFC Scientific Committee Symposium 2012, (pp.13-16). Retrieved from Belgian Federal Agency for the Safety of the Food Chain website: In: http://www.afsca.be/ scientificcommittee/publications/brochures/_documents/Proceedings_2012_18102012_2. pdf. Vanhonacker, F., Verbeke, W., Guerrero, L., Claret, A., Contel, M., Scalvedi, Ellipsis., et al. (2010). How European consumers define the concept of traditional food: Evidence from survey in six countries. Agribusiness, 26(4), 453–476. http://dx.doi.org/10. 1002/agr.20241.

Fernández-Ferrín, P., Bande, B., & Galán-Ladero, M. M. (2017). Parental influence on levels of regional ethnocentrism of youth: an exploratory analysis. Spanish Journal of Marketing-ESIC, 21, 52–62. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.sjme.2016.11.001. Fernández-Ferrín, P., & Bande-Vilela, B. (2013). Regional ethnocentrism: Antecedents, consequences, and moderating effects. Food Quality and Preference, 30(2), 299–308. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.foodqual.2013.06.011. Fernández-Ferrín, P., & Bande-Vilela, B. (2015). Attitudes and reactions of Galician (Spanish) consumers towards the purchase of products from other regions. Global Business and Economics Review, 17(2), 131–150. Galli, F., & Brunori, G. (Eds.). (2013). Short food supply chains as drivers of sustainable development (Evidence Document). Retrieved from Foodlinks Project website: http:// www.foodlinkscommunity.net/fileadmin/documents_organicresearch/foodlinks/ CoPs/evidence-document-sfsc-cop.pdf. García-Galán, M., del Moral, A., & Galera, C. (2010). Valoración de la importancia de la denominación de origen desde la perspectiva de la empresa: el caso DO Ribera del Guadiana. Revista Española de Estudios Agrosociales y Pesqueros, 227, 99–123. Retrieved from http://ageconsearch.umn.edu/handle/186505. Groves, A. (2005). The local and regional food opportunity (Research Report). Institute of Grocery Distribution (IGD): Watford. Guerrero, L., Guàrdia, M. D., Xicola, J., Verbeke, W., Vanhonacker, F., ZakowskaBiemans, S., ... Scalvedi, M. L. (2009). Consumer-driven definition of traditional food products and innovation in traditional foods. A qualitative cross-cultural study. Appetite, 52(2), 345–354. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.appet.2008.11.008. Hayes, A. F. (2013). Introduction to mediation, moderation, and conditional process analysis. A regression-based approach. New York: The Guilford Press. Holcomb, R. B., Bendfeldt, E., Lelekacs, J., Velandia, M., Woods, T. A., Goodwin, H. L., & Rainey, R. L. (2016, February). A local foods system glossary: A rose by any other name. In: Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the Southern Agricultural Economics Association, San Antonio, Texas. Retrieved from http://ageconsearch. umn.edu/handle/230079. Ilbery, B., & Maye, D. (2006). Retailing local food in the Scottish-English borders: A supply chain perspective. Geoforum, 37(3), 352–367. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j. geoforum.2005.09.003. Jordana, J. (2000). Traditional foods: challenges facing the European food industry. Food Research International, 33(3), 147–152. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0963-9969(00) 00028-4. Karner, S. (Ed.). (2010). Local food systems in Europe: Case studies from five countries and what they imply for policy and practice (FAAN Project Booklet). Retrieved from Facilitating Alternative Agro-Food Networks website: http://www.faanweb.eu/sites/ faanweb.eu/files/FAAN_Booklet_PRINT.pdf. Klein, J. G., Ettenson, R., & Krishnan, B. C. (2005). Extending the construct of consumer ethnocentrism when foreign products are preferred. International Marketing Review, 23(3), 304–321. http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/02651330610670460. Kneafsey, M., Venn, L., Schmutz, U., Balázs, B., Trenchard, L., Eyden-Wood, T., ... Blackett, M. (2013). Short food supply chains and local food systems in the EU. A state of play of their socio-economic characteristics (Joint Research Center Report). http://dx. doi.org/10.2791/88784. La Trobe, H. (2002). Local food, future directions (FOE Research Report). Retrieved from Friends of the Earth website: http://www.foe.co.uk/sites/default/files/downloads/ local_food_directions.pdf. Lang, M., Stanton, J., & Qu, Y. (2014). Consumers’ evolving definition and expectations for local foods. British Food Journal, 116(11), 1808–1820. http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/ BFJ-03-2014-0117. Lim, K. H., & Hu, W. (2016). How local is local? A reflection on Canadian local food labeling policy from consumer preference. Canadian Journal of Agricultural Economics/Revue canadienne d'agroeconomie, 64(1), 71–88. http://dx.doi.org/10.

10