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The women's role strain inventory: A Chinese translation and psychometric analyses for Taiwanese women
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International Journal of Nursing Studies 45 (2008) 85–94 www.elsevier.com/locate/ijnurstu
The women’s role strain inventory: A Chinese translation and psychometric analyses for Taiwanese women Chiu-Yueh Yanga, Cecile A. Lengacherb,, Jason W. Becksteadb, ShuJen Shiauc a
Graduate Institute of Nursing, School of Nursing, College of Medicine, Fu-Jen University, National Taiwan University, Taiwan b Health Sciences Center, College of Nursing, University of South Florida, 12901 Bruce B. Downs Building, MDC 22, Tampa, FL 33612, USA c School of Nursing, College of Medicine, Fu-Jen University, Taiwan Received 3 November 2005; received in revised form 26 July 2006; accepted 31 July 2006
Abstract Background: To date, there is no instrument that measures role strain experienced by Chinese speaking women engaged in multiple roles of working professionals, and wife/mother. Objectives: The objectives of this study were to: (1) translate the women’s role strain inventory (WRSI) into Chinese; (2) compare the translated version (WRSI-C) to the original English version of the instrument to measure role strain of women who are engaged in multiple roles; and (3) complete a psychometric evaluation of the (WRSI-C) Chinese version of the WRSI in this different culture. Participants: Taiwanese women (N ¼ 448) working as professional nurses, attending classes, and maintaining family responsibilities provided the data. Method: Reliability of the WRSI-C was compared to the English version by comparing Cronbach’s alpha coefficients. Test–retest reliability was assessed using intra-class and Spearman correlations. Validity of the WRSI-C (long form) was assessed using exploratory factor analyses. Results: The WRSI-C was found to be both reliable and valid. Conclusions: The reliability and validity of the WRSI-C appeared to be consistent across English and Taiwanese samples. r 2006 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. Keywords: Women’s role strain; Working women; Nursing professionals
What is already known about the topic?
Lengacher (2003) published reliability and validity of the WRSI for use in studying role strain in English speaking women.
Role strain has been studied in many English speaking cultures, in the United States.
The English version of the WRSI has been validated through several research studies in the United States. Corresponding author. 12901 Bruce B. Downs Blvd., Tampa, FL, 33612, USA. E-mail addresses: [email protected] (C.-Y. Yang), [email protected] (C.A. Lengacher), [email protected] (J.W. Beckstead).
What this paper adds
This
0020-7489/$ - see front matter r 2006 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. doi:10.1016/j.ijnurstu.2006.07.023
research further validates and adds to the developing body of knowledge concerning women’s role strain in the Chinese culture. It also culturally extends the concept of role strain through the Chinese translation of the WRSI-C.
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Provides a reliable and valid instrument for research
ers in the Chinese and Taiwanese cultures to further test related variables to role strain of women. This paper adds to validation of the theoretical constructs of the English version by examination of the psychometric properties of the Chinese version for use in Taiwanese women.
1. Introduction The purpose of this article is to describe the psychometric development and analyses of the newly translated women’s role strain inventory (WRSI) into Chinese. Also, the authors thought it was important to describe and compare similarities and differences in the WRSI across cultures, through complete psychometric evaluation of the Chinese version of the women’s role strain inventory (WRSI-C) in this different population. No role strain inventory has been developed in Chinese that measures the characteristics of role strain women with the multiple role obligations of being employed, mother, spouse, and caregiver. The population for which the instrument was designed is for multiple role women who are working. In addition, the theoretical basis for the development and psychometric evaluation of the English version has been extended to the WRSI-C. 1.1. Conceptual basis and theoretical framework for the instrument and definition of role strain The constructs of Goode’s (1960) scarcity hypothesis and theory on role strain combined with Sieber’s (1974) hypothesis of role accumulation theories served as the theoretical basis for the definition of role strain by Lengacher (2003). Goode’s theory on ‘‘role strain’’ focuses on the negative effects of role strain while Sieber’s theory on ‘‘role accumulation,’’ focuses on the positive effects of role strain. Goode (1960), more specifically related the negative effects of role strain citing that it is a result of the difficulty in meeting role obligations. In order to reduce role strain, the individual must distribute role performances among one’s different roles. Thus, the more roles an individual has, the less time the individual has to distribute resources (time and energy) among their various roles. As members of society, and different cultures, women participate in multiple different roles, with different role demands, resulting in role strain. Role strain may be unique to each member of society and each culture, (Goode, 1960). Goode’s (1960) theory is based upon the assumption that members of society inherently perform expected roles that are necessary in order for a society to continue. Goode proposes the scarcity hypothesis in which people (women and men) who are engaged in numerous social roles may
experience a sense of ‘‘strain’’ when trying to meet the demands of multiple responsibilities. Therefore, in an attempt to reduce role strain, individuals may spread their finite resources thinly over numerous roles, or try to reduce the number of roles they must maintain. With this scarcity hypothesis, four sources of role strain are identified: (a) difficulty in conforming to role demands; (b) difficulty with diverse obligations; (c) difficulty with norms; and (d) difficulty with role partners (Goode, 1960). A solution to reduce role strain is by either reallocating their resources, by entering or leaving role relationships and/or by using role bargaining (Goode, 1960). This theory suggests that women’s strain may vary by their beliefs, attitudes, and values, and this may be impacted by attitudes and values of different cultures such as the Chinese culture. In contrast, Sieber’s (1974) theory of role accumulation suggests that engaging in numerous social roles can have a positive or enhancing effect focusing on rewards or advantages associated with multiple roles. Added roles can increase an individual’s social privileges and overall sense of security. He identified four types of positive outcomes resulting from role strain: (a) role privileges; (b) overall status security; (c) resources for status enhancement and role performance; and (d) enrichment of the personality and ego gratification. These resources can serve as buffering effects so that the adverse effects due to the negative effects of role strain in another role may be reduced. Successful functioning in multiple roles may also lead to the enrichment of personality and ego gratification. Again these resources may vary in relation to the cultural influences and resources available to women, and may be culturally influenced. Therefore, Lengacher (1993) conceptually derived the WRSI from the theory of Goode (1960) and Sieber (1974). From these two theories, the following proposed definition of Lengacher’s construct of role stain emerged, referring to a subjective experience, described as a tension, a driving force, (which could be viewed as a positive or negative force) anxiety and/or frustration a woman may experience due to multiple demands placed upon self or demands by others. This definition based upon the theoretical constructs of Goode and Sieber was used as the basis for the design of the working WRSI. Three subconcepts of role strain were identified after completing a factor analysis, and two of the three validated both Goode’s and Sieber’s theory: (1) role distress refers to the adverse strain associated with multiple roles of working, family/significant others and personal (supporting Goode’s theory); (2) role enhancement refers to a positive response to multiple roles of working family and personal (supporting Sieber’s theory of role accumulation); and (3) role support reflects the importance of support of family, friends, children and significant others supporting the research literature. As
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the concept of role strain is systematically studied, the definition of role strain can be refined to include new knowledge of related factors, situations and populations. The WRSI, (Lengacher, 1993, 1997) was developed to measure the working women’s role strain in relation to the role strain of family/significant others, and employment. Thus, working women in various cultures, may experience an increased sense of distress and/or sense of enhancement as they deal with additional roles as wife, mother, or employee. These positive and negative consequences associated with multiple roles for women influenced Lengacher (1993, 1997) to view women’s role strain as a multidimensional concept. 1.2. Women’s role strain in other cultures Thus women’s role strain appears to be universal; married, working women with the additional responsibility of being a student, experience role overload, stress and conflict, resulting in role strain. In Hong Kong, balancing work and family responsibilities have been identified as a major problem for working women (Aryee et al., 1999; Ng et al., 2002). Furthermore, work–family conflict is a significant problem for these married professional women; they are exhausted from the demands of their multiple roles (Lo et al., 2003). In Taiwan, role strain of women with multiple roles continues to be a major problem. This problem is exacerbated for nursing professionals who must continue their education to remain competitive in the Taiwanese workforce (Chang et al., 2005). Women find that they have to play many roles at the same time, such as student, mother, wife, and professional. Consistent findings in many studies suggest that multiple roles place women in a precarious position for compromised personal health (Erdwins et al., 2001; Grzywacz and Bass, 2003; Rosenbaum and Cohen, 1999). Home (1997) reported this was especially true for nursing students with intense job demands. 1.3. Measuring women’s role strain: the women’s role strain inventory Using the theoretical framework offered by Goode (1960) and Sieber (1974), Lengacher (1993, 1997) developed and tested the WRSI. The WRSI consists of 44 items referring to the experiences of working women. Respondent’s rate their level of agreement with a series of statements using a 5-point Likert scale with labels strongly agree, agree, neither agree nor disagree, disagree, or strongly disagree. Internal consistency estimates of reliability range from .92 to .95 for American women (Lengacher and Sellers, 2003). Validity of the WRSI was initially determined by a content validity index of .91 and through exploratory factor
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analysis. A three-factor solution supported the fit of the WRSI to the theoretical constructs offered by Goode and Sieber. Sixteen items loaded on the factor labeled ‘role distress’ reflected adverse strains associated with multiple role of working, family/significant others/and personal. Sixteen items loaded on the factor ‘role enhancement’ indicating a positive response to multiple roles of working, family, and personal. Twelve items loaded on the third factor, ‘role support’, reflecting the importance of support of family/friend/children and significant others to women experiencing these roles. Negative aspects of role strain or role distress validated the theoretical framework of Goode, in which he identifies that a set of role obligations may cause conflicting demands and role strain. Positive aspects of role strain or role enhancement supports the theoretical perspective Sieber (1974). Role support, indicates the importance of support of family/friends, children and significant others while maintaining multiple roles, an important factor to be considered (Belle, 1982; Campeniello, 1988). 1.4. The purposes The purposes of this study were to: (1) translate the WRSI into Chinese; and (2) estimate the reliability and validity for the translated version (WRSI-C); and (3) compare the Chinese version to the original English version.
2. Methods 2.1. Instrument translation and language equivalence of the WRSI-C Procedures for establishing and testing the equivalence of translated instruments across different cultures or languages have been outlined (see Hilton and Strutkowski, 2002; Mason, 2005). This study integrated the Brislin (1970) translation and back-translation steps with a Maneesriwongul and Dixon (2004) systematic approach for comparing source and back-translated versions. Following the suggestions of Hilton and Strutkowski (2002), item and subscale scores were compared between original and back-translated versions. Different persons participated in various phases of the translation. In addition, the translation processes adhered to below are reported by Behling and Law (2000). After permission was obtained from Lengacher to use the English version of WRSI questionnaire, different persons participated in various phases of the translation. All the persons who participated in the whole translation process were mutually exclusive. First, a health professional with a master’s degree in health science,
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who was bilingual in Chinese and English, made an initial direct translation from the original English questionnaire into Chinese. The Chinese translation sought to maintain the meaning of the original scale. Second, one of the investigators in our study, an experienced nurse researcher, assessed the accuracy of the Chinese language version. Third, 10 women who experienced multiple roles evaluated each item in the Chinese version in terms of linguistic appropriateness. Fourth, a bilingual and bicultural (US and Taiwan) person with a master’s degree in English at an American university who was not familiar with the WRSI, performed a backward translation from Chinese to English. This bilingual person was fluent in English and had previously lived in the US for 5 years and studied in English during her formal education. After the backward translation, in an effort to control translation quality, sufficient and effective communication was implemented in the translating instrument. The developer of the Taiwanese version was an international scholar studying with Dr. Lengacher at the University of South Florida. Dr. Lengacher was asked to compare the formal similarity of words, phrases, sentences, and meaning between the original and target (backward translated English) version. The equivalence of each item in the WRSI-C was appraised by use of the dichotomous yes/no option. The results showed a successfully backward translation from Chinese into English. Fifth, as recommended by Maneesriwongul and Dixon (2004), both the English and Chinese versions were administered to a group of five bilingual multiple role women for comparison, including four nursing researchers, and one psychologist. They were invited to answer the questions in the women’s role strain inventory in English (original version) and Chinese (translated version). Two participants were assigned to complete the target version (in Chinese) first, and three participants were assigned to complete the English version first. Seven to 10 days later, the participants filled out the other version of the WRSI. The ICC (intra-class correlation) and Spearman correlation, along with the Wilcoxon signed rank test were used to compare responses to each item. Both ICC and Spearman correlations exceeded .80, the Wilcoxon signed rank test showed non-significant differences between source English and Chinese versions of WRSI items. Finally, these five women rated the comparability of each item on language and similarity between the original and translated versions using a 7-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (extremely different) to 7 (extremely similar). The mean ratings for all items were larger than 5, and the SDs were less than 2, indicating an acceptable degree of similarity for all individual items. Liu (2002) suggests qualified translators should be familiar and competent with both original and target language, and translators should have knowledge about
subject matter, and instrument development ability. Capitulo et al. (2001) suggests some types of translation error may occur in the translation process, such as adding, deleting, altering phrases or word, and using incorrect grammar and syntax affecting meaning and clarity. To control this, sufficient and effective communication were implemented in the translating instrument. The communication methods employed in this study between two versions developer of Taiwan and United States for women role strain inventory included e-mails and face-to-face discussions. After the inventory was translated and back translated, each item in the WRSIC was evaluated according to its equivalence and appropriateness. 2.2. Sample for reliability testing and construct validity Although in Hong Kong, balancing work and family responsibilities has been identified as a major problem for all working women (Aryee et al., 1999; Ng et al., 2002), it is a significant problem for married professional women (Lo et al., 2003). Therefore, this study will examine the role strain of nursing professionals in Taiwan, because there has been an increase in number of nursing professionals who are pursuing a higher degree. One of the driving forces for this increase is the concern over job promotions, job opportunities, and retuning to school gives nurses more career options. Nursing professionals prefer additional education rather than quitting their job. Role strain of women with multiple roles continues to be a major problem, particularly for nursing in Taiwan, where the supply has always been higher than the demand which is exacerbated for nurses who must continue their education to be competitive in the workforce (Chang et al., 2005), thus creating role strain as they try to complete all their obligations. Therefore, role strain continues to be a major problem for nurses in Taiwan, as they try to complete all their obligations, for school, family and job. This study provides the opportunity to study role strain in Taiwan nurses. The Chinese version of the instrument (WRSI-C) was distributed to working women in the nursing profession from colleges and hospitals in Taiwan. Completed surveys were obtained from a convenience sample of 448 participants. Data were collected from May through the midterm of June 2005. Most women were baccalaureate-nursing students (N ¼ 355, 79.2%), the others were master or doctoral students in nursing. The mean age for the entire sample was 36.56 years (range 24–56) with a standard deviation of 5.88. Most were over 30 (N ¼ 394), and 15 were over age 50. Three hundred and sixteen women (70.54%) had a child below 12 years of age. The majority of women (N ¼ 376, 83.9%) had at least one child; almost half of subjects (48.4%) had two children and 16.1% had no children. Fifty-seven percent lived with their husband and
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children, 22% lived with their husband, children, and parent. The mean hours worked per week was 44.3 with standard deviation of 7.87. 2.3. Reliability of the WRSI-C
Table 1 Means, standard deviations, number of items, and internal consistency estimates of subscales of WRSI Items Mean SD a
Cronbach’s a
Chinese translation version Role distress 16 Role enhancement 16 Role support 12
45.24 50.68 28.20
Original English versionb Role distress Role enhancement Role support
.93 40.16 10.15 .89 49.74 8.93 .86 22.65 7.78 .81
16 16 12
WRSI, the test–retest coefficients of subscales ranged from .90 to .93 (intra-class correlations), and the Spearman correlation coefficients ranged from .92 to .94 for the subscales. 2.4. Validity of the WRSI-C
The Chinese translation of the women’s role strain inventory was considered a new instrument, and therefore internal consistency and test–retest methods were used to estimate reliability. The means, standard deviations, and internal consistency of three subscales for the Chinese version is shown in Table 1, compared to the English version, Lengacher (1997). The internal consistency of the WRSI-C was estimated using Cronbach’s alpha, which measures the dispersion of different items within a single subscale. Items were examined to identify those with negative or low magnitude item-to-scale correlations. The alpha coefficient for the total inventory Chinese version (N ¼ 448) was .92. See Table 1, for comparison to the Lengacher (1997) original working WRSI. The reliability of the Chinese version was similar to the original English version that had a total alpha of .93. When examining subscales for the Chinese version, alpha coefficients ranged from .83 to .85 for the subscales of role distress, role enhancement and role support. This was also quite similar to the English version, where they ranged from .81 to .89. Test–retest reliability was examined using intra-class correlation to estimate the proportion of total score variability due to between person differences. Test–retest reliability testing was carried out for each of the 20 participants within a time interval of 2 weeks from pre-test to post-test. The test–retest estimates employed intra-class correlation and Spearman correlation. For Chinese version of
Version
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.92 9.11 .85 8.12 .84 7.17 .83
Note: RE is the role enhancement, RD the role distress, RS the role support. Principle components analysis with oblique rotation produced these values (N ¼ 448). a Taiwanese working women/students, N ¼ 448. b American women, N ¼ 445 (Lengacher, 1997).
For this stage of instrument development and testing in a new language, the decision was made to use exploratory factor analyses (EFA) to determine if the underlying factor structure would be consistent with the English version. Bartlett’s test of sphericity (BT) and Kaiser–Meyer–Olkin’s (KMO) measure of sampling adequacy indicated that the data were appropriate for EFA (KMO ¼ .896; BT ¼ 7368.15, po.001). EFA was conducted using a principle components method with oblique rotation. Given the hypothesized, three-part structure of the WRSI, we examined the fit of a three factor solution. This solution accounted for 37.16% of the variance in the 44 items. Although this is lower than that reported previously on the original English version, 57% (Lengacher, 1997), the rotated factor loadings are similar for the English version as shown in Tables 2 and 3. In addition, the overall mean for the Chinese version was 124.12, with a standard deviation of 20.37, which was highly comparable to the English version mean of 116.73, and a standard deviation of 21.89. Further measurement of invariance has been identified in a study in which structural equation models were applied to assess the cross cultural validity of the Chinese version (Beckstead et al., 2006). Results of the next study showed that items on the Chinese version did not display invariance properties across the English and Chinese version. In general, items of the Chinese version, loaded on the hypothesized subscales from the English version, and items forming respective subscales showed similar patterns of loadings across factors. A few items exhibited strong loadings (i.e., absolute values of .50 or greater) on more than one factor (see Table 2). In the Chinese version, 16 items (16, 28, 4, 5, 24, 5, 33, 25, 12, 15, 42, 13, 34, 29, 10, 37, 26, 32, and 17) loaded on the hypothesized role distress subscale. The English version also had 16 items, on this subscale; however, there were some item differences. These items indicated that there were adverse strains associated with multiple roles of working, family/significant others and personal. The subscale mean for role distress for the Chinese version was 45.24 and the standard deviation was 9.11. The following item differences were found between the English version, compared to the Chinese version. For the Chinese version, item 37, (maintained good relationships with family) hypothesized as part of role enhancement, displayed loadings both on role enhancement (.66) and also loaded high on the role support subscale (.45). In the Chinese version, item 5 loaded on the role distress
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Table 2 Factor loadings from exploratory factor analysis of WRSI-C Short descriptions of items
16. No special time for myself. 28. I don’t have personal time. 04. I am tired. 24. No time for all roles. 05. I feel strain for not having time to do things with my family 33. Working role causes strain. 25. It’s exhausting to complete household obligation. 12. More strains with my family/children since working 15. Unable to satisfactorily manage routine household tasks 42. No time to complete household tasks. 13. Illness since working 34. Significant others increase role strain 29. Pressure from working, it doesn’t make me feel I am improving 10. I can manage my time for different roles. 37. Maintained good relationships with family. 31. Satisfactory routine for housework 19. Manage time for my family. 40. Special time for myself. 36. Handle additional strain. 41. Church activities and community 20. Adequate time for household tasks. 26. Complete all obligations are not difficult. 08. Participate in community activity 35. Family do not make me feel guilty for having less time for them 03. Feel good about working 09. Having a little personal time 32. Working role does not cause strain 02. Working to please self 11. Someone shares household tasks. 14. Family/friends not emotionally supportive. 39. Family/children don’t demands. 06. Husband not emotionally supportive 38. Family/friends give emotional support. 43. Family get criticism 21. No one contributes to my household tasks. 07. Husband is emotionally supportive 22. Significant others decrease role strain 01. My family criticized 23. Family/friends are supportive. 44. Family/children demands 30. I feel badly that I have eliminated community activities 18. Working to please others 17. Personal health 27. Guilty about eliminating activities of church and community
subscale, whereas this item loaded on the role enhancement subscale for the English version. The Chinese items that changed loadings from the role distress subscale in the English version, were items 35,(loaded on role enhancement) 44 (loaded on role support) and 27 (loaded on role support).
RD
RE
RS
Original subscales
.75 .74 .71 .69 .66 .66 .64 .62 .61 .61 .55 .35 .33
.22 .16 .14 .31 .12 .11 .16 .24 .29 .27 .20 .10 .06
.20 .16 .28 .20 .19 .25 .40 .41 .13 .28 .24 .46 .39
RD RD RD RD RE RD RD RD RD RD RD RD RD
.26 .19 .24 .40 .26 .20 .30 .50 .55 .22 .17
.68 .66 .64 .61 .60 .59 .56 .54 .52 .49 .47
.12 .45 .13 .16 .12 .16 .05 .06 .16 .08 .28
RE RE RE RE RE RE RE RE RE RE RD
.07 .16 .48 .07 .16 .22 .22 .09 .08 .30 .47 .00 .07 .34 .14 .13 .24 .07 .30 .19
.45 .42 .41 .40 .43 .25 .54 .13 .56 .08 .17 .43 .45 .21 .43 .04 .06 .16 .26 .06
.30 .05 .03 .13 .59 .57 .57 .57 .56 .54 .54 .54 .53 .52 .50 .46 .44 .38 .08 .28
RE RE RE RE RS RS RS RS RS RS RS RS RS RS RS RD RD RS RE RD
In the Chinese version 16 items also loaded on the subscale two, role enhancement (10, 37, 31, 19, 40, 36, 41, 20, 26, 8, 35, 3, 9, 32, 2, 38). The mean for the role enhancement subscale was 50.68 and the standard deviation was 8.12. There were differences between the English version and the Chinese
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Table 3 Factor loadings and factor structure for the women’s role strain inventory (English version) (N ¼ 445) Short description of item
RD
RE
RS
25. 28. 42. 24. 16. 33. 35. 30. 04. 27. 15. 29. 32. 12. 20. 13. 31. 26. 34. 44. 19. 40. 43. 01. 18. 17. 21. 09. 10. 08. 06. 14. 41. 39. 36. 22. 23. 37. 05. 03. 38. 11. 02. 07.
.73 .68 .65 .65 .65 .64 .62 .59 .59 .56 .55 .53 .49 .43 .42 .42 .41 .41 .40 .33 .31 .28 .28 .27 .26 .23 .21 .21 .19 .17 .15 .15 .13 .12 .12 .11 .10 .10 .07 .06 .02 .02 .02 .01
.15 .29 .17 .28 .22 .16 .26 .18 .17 .11 .13 .22 .50 .04 .56 .01 .47 .61 .13 .02 .67 .55 .05 .01 .05 .35 .12 .30 .50 .45 .16 .02 .51 .43 .63 .18 .28 .58 .48 .43 .45 .01 .43 .17
.20 .01 .13 .08 .19 .04 .06 .06 .17 .02 .21 .26 .03 .27 .01 .25 .10 .02 .42 .31 .09 .07 .39 .42 .32 .03 .45 .18 .22 .09 .58 .58 .16 .44 .28 .65 .61 .42 .38 .22 .66 .49 .18 .67
It’s exhausting to complete household obligations I do not have personal time No time to complete household tasks No time for all roles No special time for self Working role causes strain Guilt related to no time I have eliminated community activities I am tired Guilt related to community activities Unable to manage household tasks Pressure does improve myself Working role does not cause strain Strains with family Adequate time for household tasks Ill since working Satisfactory routine for household tasks Obligations are not difficult Significant others increase role strain Family/children demands Manage time for my family Special time for self Family gets criticism My family criticizes Working to please Personal health No one contributes to my household tasks Having little personal time Manage my time for roles Participate in community activities Husband not emotionally supportive Family does not support Church activities and community Family does not demand Handle additional strain Significant other decreases role strain Family is supportive Maintained good relationships with family Family strain due to no time Feel good about working Family/friends give support Someone shares household tasks Working to please self Husband/significant other is supportive
version on items 35 and 32. For the Chinese version, item 32, (working does not cause me role strain) loaded on the role distress subscale, compared to loading on role enhancement in the English version. Also, item 35 (family does not make me feel guilty) loaded on the role enhancement subscale, in the Chinese version, and for the English version it loaded on role distress. Item 20 (adequate time for household tasks) hypothesized as
part of role enhancement, showed high loadings on two subscales, role enhancement (.54) and role distress (.50). Also for the Chinese version as compared to the English version, item 26 (to complete all obligations is not difficult) hypothesized as part of the role enhancement subscale in the English version, loaded on both role distress (.55) and role enhancement (.52) in the Chinese version. Item 35 for the Chinese version loaded more
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strongly on the role enhancement subscale, compared to the English version where it loaded on role distress subscale (.47). Twelve (12) items in the Chinese version loaded on the third subscale, role support (11, 14, 39, 6, 38, 43, 21, 7, 22, 1, 23, 44, 30, and18). The mean for the role support subscale was 28.20, and the standard deviation was 7.17. There were differences between the English version and the Chinese version on items 44 and 30. Item 44, (.46) loaded on role support, for the Chinese version compared to its loading on role distress in the English version. Also item 30 (.44) loaded on role support in the Chinese version, compared to loading on role distress in the English version. Also item 21, (no one contributes to my household tasks) hypothesized as part of role support, also loaded on role distress (.54 and .47, respectively). Items 7, 11, 22, 23, 38, and 39 hypothesized as part of role support from the English version, also showed additional loadings on both role enhancement, etc. Cross loadings of items 38 and 39 contribute to the observed correlations among the subscales seen in this and in prior research (Lengacher, 1997). In summary, the internal consistency of the WRSI-C was quite high resulting in high reliability coefficients for the inventory and the subscales. Although there was some variance between the English and Chinese version, the similarity in factors support the construct validity of the instrument. The variance could be related to cultural differences and interpretation of the items.
3. Discussion 3.1. Testing equivalence Critical criteria for translation was adhered to and observed. Liu (2002) suggests qualified translators should be familiar and competent with both original and target language, and translators should have knowledge about subject matter, and instrument development ability; these criteria were adhered to in our translation process. Also Capitulo et al. (2001) suggests some types of translation error may occur in the translation process, such as adding, deleting, altering phrases or word, and using incorrect grammar and syntax affecting meaning and clarity. One limitation was to find bilingual persons with competence in instrument development. To control the translation process, sufficient and effective communications were implemented in translating the instrument between two versions by the developer to reduce translation error. The translation processes adhered to were identified by Behling and Law (2000). They suggest the following steps for translation of an instrument: a bilingual individual translates instrument into the target language; a second bilingual individual translates it back into the source language;
and then compares the source language and the backtranslated language. If a difference exists, repeatedly use another target language draft to compare it with the source language until the discrepancies are eliminated or only minor differences exist. In our research, both versions did not show big differences. We also communicated with the original developer. The WRSI-C appears to have sufficient reliability and validity for use by researchers who wish to measure the construct of role strain in Chinese or Taiwanese women. The reliability of the translated version of WRSI-C was evidenced through the analysis of coefficient alpha and through test-retest reliability by intra-class correlation and Spearmen’s correlations. The overall equivalence of this Chinese version of WRSI was high, as indicated by the level of item and total scale equivalence between the original English version and the translated Chinese version. The use of Wilcoxon signed rank test, Spearmen correlations and intra-class correlation coefficients did increase the rigor and confirmed the equivalence between the Chinese and English versions of the WRSI. 3.2. Psychometric measurement An exploratory factor analysis was used to estimate validity, an appropriate first measure for a newly translated inventory. Strong evidence was demonstrated for construct validity by the identification of three subscales that were similar to the English version of the instrument. In the Chinese version, these subscales validated the theoretical frameworks of Goode (1960) and Sieber (1974) that guided the English version of the WRSI by Lengacher (1997). Subscale items clustered on three subscales. The first factor extracted was the role distress subscale; the clustering on the Chinese version was similar to the English version. This was the strongest factor related to role strain, reflecting the adverse negative effects of role strain and their association with one’s multiple roles of working, family/ significant other. Therefore, culturally, the obligations related to role strain in American women are similar in Taiwanese women. These negative effects, support and validate Goode’s theory of role strain, where he identifies that multiple role obligations cause conflicting demands and role strain. The second factor extracted was role enhancement. Items related to role enhancement clustered on the second factor in the Chinese version similar to the English version. Role enhancement indicates the positive effects of multiple roles, or role strain, through having confidence in being able to handle additional multiple roles. This subscale and items reflect the positive aspect of role strain and validates Sieber’s theory of role accumulation where additional multiple roles are found to be rewarding and motivating. In comparison, there appears to be a similarity between American women and
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Taiwanese women, in that engagement in multiples roles is found to have some positive effects. Role support, the last factor extracted, reflected the importance of family/friends and significant others to help maintain multiple roles. Support has been identified as a major factor in maintaining multiple roles, both in the American culture and the Chinese or Taiwanese (Aryee et al., 1999; Campeniello, 1988). The five items (20, 26, 37, 38, 39) that demonstrated cross loading were similar to the original version of WRSI. Cross loading of item 21 showed slightly different loadings between American and Taiwanese cultures. Item 21, ‘‘No one contributes to my household tasks which puts burden on me’’ loaded first on the role support subscale, but it also loaded on role distress showing that it may have a negative effect or cause role distress. The content of role distress included time, stress, and household tasks. Although the content of item 21 was related to household tasks, it may also be instrumental to social support. Lindsey and Yates (2004) identified the dimensions of social support (including emotional support, instrumental support, informational support, and appraisal support) and this item, ‘‘No one contributes to my household tasksy’’ could indicate that multiple role women may lack instrumental support. Therefore, in this study item 21 is viewed as a part of the role support subscale. In addition, three other items showed cross loadings (7, 22, and 23) and were not similar the original version of WRSI. There were three items that showed primary factor loading on role support, but they also loaded on role enhancement, indicating that the husband, significant others, and friends and family maybe supportive of one’s multiple roles, but also this support may be role enhancing. Item 27, ‘‘I feel guilty about eliminating activities at church and in the community’’ loaded on the role distress subscale in the English version, however, in the Chinese version it loaded on the role support subscale. This may reflect a cultural influence. Western religions and community are not universal in Taiwan. There are little regular religious or church activity for eastern religions, therefore, did not load on role distress as in the English version, but loaded on role support for the Chinese version. Although there were some differences with the EFA for the new Chinese version of the WRSI-C, the factor structure was similar to the English versions and did support the theoretical constructs of Goode and Sieber. 3.3. Limitations An instrument translated from one language to another may not capture cultural construct characteristics unique to each item. This limitation plagues any single translation study and can be remedied through continued cross-cultural psychometric analyses. EFA
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factor analysis showed cross-loadings of some items onto multiple subscales and correlated error variances suggesting the presence of other systematic influences affecting responses. These cross loadings may include attitudes regarding traditional gender roles present in the Taiwanese culture. Another limitation of this study may be the homogeneity of the sample that only nurses participated and other types of working professionals women could be surveyed, to reflect possible professional differences. 3.4. Directions for future research Polit and Beck (2004) also point out that a valid instrument is capable of detecting changes within an individual that result from therapeutic interventions. Data in the current study do not address this concern due to the cross-sectional nature of the design. Longitudinal studies are planned to develop and test a short form of the WRSI in English and Chinese and test how this short form performs in this capacity. One such longitudinal study might involve comparison of the long forms to the short forms in both cultures. Comparisons of test–retest correlations and change scores among the forms would then be used to assess stability and sensitivity to change. Further measurement cross-cultural variance is identified in the study by Beckstead et al. (2006). The WRSI-C is a multidimensional instrument for measuring role strain in Chinese speaking women. By decreasing its length without compromising on reliability and validity compared to the longer instrument, the development of the WRSI-C short form may prove more useful for researchers studying role strain in conjunction with other psychosocial variables such as social support and health outcomes. Acknowledgements The authors would like to thank Tai-Ann Cheng, Hsiu-Tsu Cheng, and Ching-Fang Hsu for permission to use their instruments, and I-Hsuan Chiang for assistance with data collection and data entry.
References Aryee, S., Luk, V., Leung, A., Lo, S., 1999. Role stressors, interrole conflict, and well-being: the moderating influence of spousal support and coping behaviors among employed parents in Hong Kong. Journal of Vocational Behavior 54 (2), 259–278. Beckstead, J., Yang, C., Lengacher, C.A., (in press). Assessing cross-cultural validity of scales: A methodological review and illustrative example. International Journal of Nursing Studies, in press, doi:10.1016/j.ijnurstu.2006.09.002.
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Behling, O., Law, K.S., 2000. Translating Questionnaires and other Research Instruments. Sage, Thousand Oaks, CA. Belle, D., 1982. The stress of caring: women as providers of social support. In: Goldberger, L., Bresnitz, S. (Eds.), Handbook of Stress Theoretical and Clinical Aspects. Free Press, New York, pp. 496–505. Brislin, R.W., 1970. Back-translation for cross-cultural research. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology 1 (3), 185–216. Campeniello, J.A., 1988. When Women Return to School: a Study of Role-Conflict and Wellbeing in Multiple Role Women. University of Massachusetts. Capitulo, K.L., Cornelio, M.A., Lenz, E.R., 2001. Translating the short version of the Perinatal Grief Scale: process and challenges. Applied Nursing Research 14 (3), 165–170. Chang, M., Yu, Y.M., Chen, Y.C., Tien, S.F., 2005. A study of nursing manpower planning in Taiwan. Formosan Journal of Medicine 9 (2), 149–156. Erdwins, C.J., Buffardi, L.C., Casper, W.J., O’Brien, A.S., 2001. The relationship of women’s role strain to social support, role satisfaction, and self-efficacy. Family Relations: Journal of Applied Family & Child Studies 50 (3), 230–238. Goode, W.J., 1960. A theory of role strain. American Sociological Review 25 (4), 483–496. Grzywacz, J.G., Bass, B.L., 2003. Work, family, and mental health: testing different models of work-family fit. Journal of Marriage and Family 65 (1), 248–261. Hilton, A., Strutkowski, M., 2002. Translating instruments into other languages: development and testing processes. Cancer Nursing 25 (1), 1–7. Home, A.M., 1997. Learning the hard way: role strain, stress, role demands, and support in multiple-role women students. Journal of Social Work Education 33 (2), 335–346. Lengacher, C.A., 1993. Development of a predictive model for role strain in registered nurses returning to school. The Journal of Nursing Education 32 (7), 301–307.
Lengacher, C.A., 1997. A reliability and validity study of the Women’s Role Strain Inventory. Journal of Nursing Measurement 5 (2), 139–150. Lengacher, C.A., Sellers, E., 2003. The women’s role strain inventory. In: Strickland, O.L., Dilorio, C. (Eds.), Measurement of Nursing Outcomes. Springer, New York, pp. 109–127. Lindsey, A.M., Yates, B.C., 2004. Social support: conceptualization and measurement instruments. In: Frank-Stromborg, M., Olsen, S.J. (Eds.), Instruments for Clinical Health-Care Research. Jones and Bartlett, Sudbury, MA, pp. 164–199. Liu, H.J., 2002. Translation of instruments for cross-cultural research. Journal of Da-Yeh University 11 (2), 79–88. Lo, S., Stone, R., Ng, C.W., 2003. Work-family conflict and coping strategies adopted professionals in Hong Kong. Women in Management Review 18 (4), 182–190. Maneesriwongul, W., Dixon, J.K., 2004. Instrument translation process: a method issue. Journal of Advance Nursing 48 (2), 175–186. Mason, T.C., 2005. Cross-cultural instrument translation: assessment, translation, and statistical applications. American Annals of the Deaf 150 (1), 67–72. Ng, C.W., Fosh, P., Naylor, D., 2002. Work-family conflict for employees in an East Asian airline: impact on career and relationship to gender. Economic and Industrial Democracy 23 (1), 67–105. Polit, D., Beck, C.T., 2004. Nursing Research: Principles and Practice, seventh ed. Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, Philadelphia, PA, pp. 413–417. Rosenbaum, M., Cohen, E., 1999. Equalitarian marriages, spousal support, resourcefulness, and psychological distress among Israeli working women. Journal of Vocational Behavior 54 (1), 102–113. Sieber, S., 1974. Toward a theory of role accumulation. American Psychological Review 39, 567–578.
International Journal of Nursing Studies 45 (2008) 85–94 www.elsevier.com/locate/ijnurstu
The women’s role strain inventory: A Chinese translation and psychometric analyses for Taiwanese women Chiu-Yueh Yanga, Cecile A. Lengacherb,, Jason W. Becksteadb, ShuJen Shiauc a
Graduate Institute of Nursing, School of Nursing, College of Medicine, Fu-Jen University, National Taiwan University, Taiwan b Health Sciences Center, College of Nursing, University of South Florida, 12901 Bruce B. Downs Building, MDC 22, Tampa, FL 33612, USA c School of Nursing, College of Medicine, Fu-Jen University, Taiwan Received 3 November 2005; received in revised form 26 July 2006; accepted 31 July 2006
Abstract Background: To date, there is no instrument that measures role strain experienced by Chinese speaking women engaged in multiple roles of working professionals, and wife/mother. Objectives: The objectives of this study were to: (1) translate the women’s role strain inventory (WRSI) into Chinese; (2) compare the translated version (WRSI-C) to the original English version of the instrument to measure role strain of women who are engaged in multiple roles; and (3) complete a psychometric evaluation of the (WRSI-C) Chinese version of the WRSI in this different culture. Participants: Taiwanese women (N ¼ 448) working as professional nurses, attending classes, and maintaining family responsibilities provided the data. Method: Reliability of the WRSI-C was compared to the English version by comparing Cronbach’s alpha coefficients. Test–retest reliability was assessed using intra-class and Spearman correlations. Validity of the WRSI-C (long form) was assessed using exploratory factor analyses. Results: The WRSI-C was found to be both reliable and valid. Conclusions: The reliability and validity of the WRSI-C appeared to be consistent across English and Taiwanese samples. r 2006 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. Keywords: Women’s role strain; Working women; Nursing professionals
What is already known about the topic?
Lengacher (2003) published reliability and validity of the WRSI for use in studying role strain in English speaking women.
Role strain has been studied in many English speaking cultures, in the United States.
The English version of the WRSI has been validated through several research studies in the United States. Corresponding author. 12901 Bruce B. Downs Blvd., Tampa, FL, 33612, USA. E-mail addresses: [email protected] (C.-Y. Yang), [email protected] (C.A. Lengacher), [email protected] (J.W. Beckstead).
What this paper adds
This
0020-7489/$ - see front matter r 2006 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. doi:10.1016/j.ijnurstu.2006.07.023
research further validates and adds to the developing body of knowledge concerning women’s role strain in the Chinese culture. It also culturally extends the concept of role strain through the Chinese translation of the WRSI-C.
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Provides a reliable and valid instrument for research
ers in the Chinese and Taiwanese cultures to further test related variables to role strain of women. This paper adds to validation of the theoretical constructs of the English version by examination of the psychometric properties of the Chinese version for use in Taiwanese women.
1. Introduction The purpose of this article is to describe the psychometric development and analyses of the newly translated women’s role strain inventory (WRSI) into Chinese. Also, the authors thought it was important to describe and compare similarities and differences in the WRSI across cultures, through complete psychometric evaluation of the Chinese version of the women’s role strain inventory (WRSI-C) in this different population. No role strain inventory has been developed in Chinese that measures the characteristics of role strain women with the multiple role obligations of being employed, mother, spouse, and caregiver. The population for which the instrument was designed is for multiple role women who are working. In addition, the theoretical basis for the development and psychometric evaluation of the English version has been extended to the WRSI-C. 1.1. Conceptual basis and theoretical framework for the instrument and definition of role strain The constructs of Goode’s (1960) scarcity hypothesis and theory on role strain combined with Sieber’s (1974) hypothesis of role accumulation theories served as the theoretical basis for the definition of role strain by Lengacher (2003). Goode’s theory on ‘‘role strain’’ focuses on the negative effects of role strain while Sieber’s theory on ‘‘role accumulation,’’ focuses on the positive effects of role strain. Goode (1960), more specifically related the negative effects of role strain citing that it is a result of the difficulty in meeting role obligations. In order to reduce role strain, the individual must distribute role performances among one’s different roles. Thus, the more roles an individual has, the less time the individual has to distribute resources (time and energy) among their various roles. As members of society, and different cultures, women participate in multiple different roles, with different role demands, resulting in role strain. Role strain may be unique to each member of society and each culture, (Goode, 1960). Goode’s (1960) theory is based upon the assumption that members of society inherently perform expected roles that are necessary in order for a society to continue. Goode proposes the scarcity hypothesis in which people (women and men) who are engaged in numerous social roles may
experience a sense of ‘‘strain’’ when trying to meet the demands of multiple responsibilities. Therefore, in an attempt to reduce role strain, individuals may spread their finite resources thinly over numerous roles, or try to reduce the number of roles they must maintain. With this scarcity hypothesis, four sources of role strain are identified: (a) difficulty in conforming to role demands; (b) difficulty with diverse obligations; (c) difficulty with norms; and (d) difficulty with role partners (Goode, 1960). A solution to reduce role strain is by either reallocating their resources, by entering or leaving role relationships and/or by using role bargaining (Goode, 1960). This theory suggests that women’s strain may vary by their beliefs, attitudes, and values, and this may be impacted by attitudes and values of different cultures such as the Chinese culture. In contrast, Sieber’s (1974) theory of role accumulation suggests that engaging in numerous social roles can have a positive or enhancing effect focusing on rewards or advantages associated with multiple roles. Added roles can increase an individual’s social privileges and overall sense of security. He identified four types of positive outcomes resulting from role strain: (a) role privileges; (b) overall status security; (c) resources for status enhancement and role performance; and (d) enrichment of the personality and ego gratification. These resources can serve as buffering effects so that the adverse effects due to the negative effects of role strain in another role may be reduced. Successful functioning in multiple roles may also lead to the enrichment of personality and ego gratification. Again these resources may vary in relation to the cultural influences and resources available to women, and may be culturally influenced. Therefore, Lengacher (1993) conceptually derived the WRSI from the theory of Goode (1960) and Sieber (1974). From these two theories, the following proposed definition of Lengacher’s construct of role stain emerged, referring to a subjective experience, described as a tension, a driving force, (which could be viewed as a positive or negative force) anxiety and/or frustration a woman may experience due to multiple demands placed upon self or demands by others. This definition based upon the theoretical constructs of Goode and Sieber was used as the basis for the design of the working WRSI. Three subconcepts of role strain were identified after completing a factor analysis, and two of the three validated both Goode’s and Sieber’s theory: (1) role distress refers to the adverse strain associated with multiple roles of working, family/significant others and personal (supporting Goode’s theory); (2) role enhancement refers to a positive response to multiple roles of working family and personal (supporting Sieber’s theory of role accumulation); and (3) role support reflects the importance of support of family, friends, children and significant others supporting the research literature. As
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the concept of role strain is systematically studied, the definition of role strain can be refined to include new knowledge of related factors, situations and populations. The WRSI, (Lengacher, 1993, 1997) was developed to measure the working women’s role strain in relation to the role strain of family/significant others, and employment. Thus, working women in various cultures, may experience an increased sense of distress and/or sense of enhancement as they deal with additional roles as wife, mother, or employee. These positive and negative consequences associated with multiple roles for women influenced Lengacher (1993, 1997) to view women’s role strain as a multidimensional concept. 1.2. Women’s role strain in other cultures Thus women’s role strain appears to be universal; married, working women with the additional responsibility of being a student, experience role overload, stress and conflict, resulting in role strain. In Hong Kong, balancing work and family responsibilities have been identified as a major problem for working women (Aryee et al., 1999; Ng et al., 2002). Furthermore, work–family conflict is a significant problem for these married professional women; they are exhausted from the demands of their multiple roles (Lo et al., 2003). In Taiwan, role strain of women with multiple roles continues to be a major problem. This problem is exacerbated for nursing professionals who must continue their education to remain competitive in the Taiwanese workforce (Chang et al., 2005). Women find that they have to play many roles at the same time, such as student, mother, wife, and professional. Consistent findings in many studies suggest that multiple roles place women in a precarious position for compromised personal health (Erdwins et al., 2001; Grzywacz and Bass, 2003; Rosenbaum and Cohen, 1999). Home (1997) reported this was especially true for nursing students with intense job demands. 1.3. Measuring women’s role strain: the women’s role strain inventory Using the theoretical framework offered by Goode (1960) and Sieber (1974), Lengacher (1993, 1997) developed and tested the WRSI. The WRSI consists of 44 items referring to the experiences of working women. Respondent’s rate their level of agreement with a series of statements using a 5-point Likert scale with labels strongly agree, agree, neither agree nor disagree, disagree, or strongly disagree. Internal consistency estimates of reliability range from .92 to .95 for American women (Lengacher and Sellers, 2003). Validity of the WRSI was initially determined by a content validity index of .91 and through exploratory factor
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analysis. A three-factor solution supported the fit of the WRSI to the theoretical constructs offered by Goode and Sieber. Sixteen items loaded on the factor labeled ‘role distress’ reflected adverse strains associated with multiple role of working, family/significant others/and personal. Sixteen items loaded on the factor ‘role enhancement’ indicating a positive response to multiple roles of working, family, and personal. Twelve items loaded on the third factor, ‘role support’, reflecting the importance of support of family/friend/children and significant others to women experiencing these roles. Negative aspects of role strain or role distress validated the theoretical framework of Goode, in which he identifies that a set of role obligations may cause conflicting demands and role strain. Positive aspects of role strain or role enhancement supports the theoretical perspective Sieber (1974). Role support, indicates the importance of support of family/friends, children and significant others while maintaining multiple roles, an important factor to be considered (Belle, 1982; Campeniello, 1988). 1.4. The purposes The purposes of this study were to: (1) translate the WRSI into Chinese; and (2) estimate the reliability and validity for the translated version (WRSI-C); and (3) compare the Chinese version to the original English version.
2. Methods 2.1. Instrument translation and language equivalence of the WRSI-C Procedures for establishing and testing the equivalence of translated instruments across different cultures or languages have been outlined (see Hilton and Strutkowski, 2002; Mason, 2005). This study integrated the Brislin (1970) translation and back-translation steps with a Maneesriwongul and Dixon (2004) systematic approach for comparing source and back-translated versions. Following the suggestions of Hilton and Strutkowski (2002), item and subscale scores were compared between original and back-translated versions. Different persons participated in various phases of the translation. In addition, the translation processes adhered to below are reported by Behling and Law (2000). After permission was obtained from Lengacher to use the English version of WRSI questionnaire, different persons participated in various phases of the translation. All the persons who participated in the whole translation process were mutually exclusive. First, a health professional with a master’s degree in health science,
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who was bilingual in Chinese and English, made an initial direct translation from the original English questionnaire into Chinese. The Chinese translation sought to maintain the meaning of the original scale. Second, one of the investigators in our study, an experienced nurse researcher, assessed the accuracy of the Chinese language version. Third, 10 women who experienced multiple roles evaluated each item in the Chinese version in terms of linguistic appropriateness. Fourth, a bilingual and bicultural (US and Taiwan) person with a master’s degree in English at an American university who was not familiar with the WRSI, performed a backward translation from Chinese to English. This bilingual person was fluent in English and had previously lived in the US for 5 years and studied in English during her formal education. After the backward translation, in an effort to control translation quality, sufficient and effective communication was implemented in the translating instrument. The developer of the Taiwanese version was an international scholar studying with Dr. Lengacher at the University of South Florida. Dr. Lengacher was asked to compare the formal similarity of words, phrases, sentences, and meaning between the original and target (backward translated English) version. The equivalence of each item in the WRSI-C was appraised by use of the dichotomous yes/no option. The results showed a successfully backward translation from Chinese into English. Fifth, as recommended by Maneesriwongul and Dixon (2004), both the English and Chinese versions were administered to a group of five bilingual multiple role women for comparison, including four nursing researchers, and one psychologist. They were invited to answer the questions in the women’s role strain inventory in English (original version) and Chinese (translated version). Two participants were assigned to complete the target version (in Chinese) first, and three participants were assigned to complete the English version first. Seven to 10 days later, the participants filled out the other version of the WRSI. The ICC (intra-class correlation) and Spearman correlation, along with the Wilcoxon signed rank test were used to compare responses to each item. Both ICC and Spearman correlations exceeded .80, the Wilcoxon signed rank test showed non-significant differences between source English and Chinese versions of WRSI items. Finally, these five women rated the comparability of each item on language and similarity between the original and translated versions using a 7-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (extremely different) to 7 (extremely similar). The mean ratings for all items were larger than 5, and the SDs were less than 2, indicating an acceptable degree of similarity for all individual items. Liu (2002) suggests qualified translators should be familiar and competent with both original and target language, and translators should have knowledge about
subject matter, and instrument development ability. Capitulo et al. (2001) suggests some types of translation error may occur in the translation process, such as adding, deleting, altering phrases or word, and using incorrect grammar and syntax affecting meaning and clarity. To control this, sufficient and effective communication were implemented in the translating instrument. The communication methods employed in this study between two versions developer of Taiwan and United States for women role strain inventory included e-mails and face-to-face discussions. After the inventory was translated and back translated, each item in the WRSIC was evaluated according to its equivalence and appropriateness. 2.2. Sample for reliability testing and construct validity Although in Hong Kong, balancing work and family responsibilities has been identified as a major problem for all working women (Aryee et al., 1999; Ng et al., 2002), it is a significant problem for married professional women (Lo et al., 2003). Therefore, this study will examine the role strain of nursing professionals in Taiwan, because there has been an increase in number of nursing professionals who are pursuing a higher degree. One of the driving forces for this increase is the concern over job promotions, job opportunities, and retuning to school gives nurses more career options. Nursing professionals prefer additional education rather than quitting their job. Role strain of women with multiple roles continues to be a major problem, particularly for nursing in Taiwan, where the supply has always been higher than the demand which is exacerbated for nurses who must continue their education to be competitive in the workforce (Chang et al., 2005), thus creating role strain as they try to complete all their obligations. Therefore, role strain continues to be a major problem for nurses in Taiwan, as they try to complete all their obligations, for school, family and job. This study provides the opportunity to study role strain in Taiwan nurses. The Chinese version of the instrument (WRSI-C) was distributed to working women in the nursing profession from colleges and hospitals in Taiwan. Completed surveys were obtained from a convenience sample of 448 participants. Data were collected from May through the midterm of June 2005. Most women were baccalaureate-nursing students (N ¼ 355, 79.2%), the others were master or doctoral students in nursing. The mean age for the entire sample was 36.56 years (range 24–56) with a standard deviation of 5.88. Most were over 30 (N ¼ 394), and 15 were over age 50. Three hundred and sixteen women (70.54%) had a child below 12 years of age. The majority of women (N ¼ 376, 83.9%) had at least one child; almost half of subjects (48.4%) had two children and 16.1% had no children. Fifty-seven percent lived with their husband and
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children, 22% lived with their husband, children, and parent. The mean hours worked per week was 44.3 with standard deviation of 7.87. 2.3. Reliability of the WRSI-C
Table 1 Means, standard deviations, number of items, and internal consistency estimates of subscales of WRSI Items Mean SD a
Cronbach’s a
Chinese translation version Role distress 16 Role enhancement 16 Role support 12
45.24 50.68 28.20
Original English versionb Role distress Role enhancement Role support
.93 40.16 10.15 .89 49.74 8.93 .86 22.65 7.78 .81
16 16 12
WRSI, the test–retest coefficients of subscales ranged from .90 to .93 (intra-class correlations), and the Spearman correlation coefficients ranged from .92 to .94 for the subscales. 2.4. Validity of the WRSI-C
The Chinese translation of the women’s role strain inventory was considered a new instrument, and therefore internal consistency and test–retest methods were used to estimate reliability. The means, standard deviations, and internal consistency of three subscales for the Chinese version is shown in Table 1, compared to the English version, Lengacher (1997). The internal consistency of the WRSI-C was estimated using Cronbach’s alpha, which measures the dispersion of different items within a single subscale. Items were examined to identify those with negative or low magnitude item-to-scale correlations. The alpha coefficient for the total inventory Chinese version (N ¼ 448) was .92. See Table 1, for comparison to the Lengacher (1997) original working WRSI. The reliability of the Chinese version was similar to the original English version that had a total alpha of .93. When examining subscales for the Chinese version, alpha coefficients ranged from .83 to .85 for the subscales of role distress, role enhancement and role support. This was also quite similar to the English version, where they ranged from .81 to .89. Test–retest reliability was examined using intra-class correlation to estimate the proportion of total score variability due to between person differences. Test–retest reliability testing was carried out for each of the 20 participants within a time interval of 2 weeks from pre-test to post-test. The test–retest estimates employed intra-class correlation and Spearman correlation. For Chinese version of
Version
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.92 9.11 .85 8.12 .84 7.17 .83
Note: RE is the role enhancement, RD the role distress, RS the role support. Principle components analysis with oblique rotation produced these values (N ¼ 448). a Taiwanese working women/students, N ¼ 448. b American women, N ¼ 445 (Lengacher, 1997).
For this stage of instrument development and testing in a new language, the decision was made to use exploratory factor analyses (EFA) to determine if the underlying factor structure would be consistent with the English version. Bartlett’s test of sphericity (BT) and Kaiser–Meyer–Olkin’s (KMO) measure of sampling adequacy indicated that the data were appropriate for EFA (KMO ¼ .896; BT ¼ 7368.15, po.001). EFA was conducted using a principle components method with oblique rotation. Given the hypothesized, three-part structure of the WRSI, we examined the fit of a three factor solution. This solution accounted for 37.16% of the variance in the 44 items. Although this is lower than that reported previously on the original English version, 57% (Lengacher, 1997), the rotated factor loadings are similar for the English version as shown in Tables 2 and 3. In addition, the overall mean for the Chinese version was 124.12, with a standard deviation of 20.37, which was highly comparable to the English version mean of 116.73, and a standard deviation of 21.89. Further measurement of invariance has been identified in a study in which structural equation models were applied to assess the cross cultural validity of the Chinese version (Beckstead et al., 2006). Results of the next study showed that items on the Chinese version did not display invariance properties across the English and Chinese version. In general, items of the Chinese version, loaded on the hypothesized subscales from the English version, and items forming respective subscales showed similar patterns of loadings across factors. A few items exhibited strong loadings (i.e., absolute values of .50 or greater) on more than one factor (see Table 2). In the Chinese version, 16 items (16, 28, 4, 5, 24, 5, 33, 25, 12, 15, 42, 13, 34, 29, 10, 37, 26, 32, and 17) loaded on the hypothesized role distress subscale. The English version also had 16 items, on this subscale; however, there were some item differences. These items indicated that there were adverse strains associated with multiple roles of working, family/significant others and personal. The subscale mean for role distress for the Chinese version was 45.24 and the standard deviation was 9.11. The following item differences were found between the English version, compared to the Chinese version. For the Chinese version, item 37, (maintained good relationships with family) hypothesized as part of role enhancement, displayed loadings both on role enhancement (.66) and also loaded high on the role support subscale (.45). In the Chinese version, item 5 loaded on the role distress
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Table 2 Factor loadings from exploratory factor analysis of WRSI-C Short descriptions of items
16. No special time for myself. 28. I don’t have personal time. 04. I am tired. 24. No time for all roles. 05. I feel strain for not having time to do things with my family 33. Working role causes strain. 25. It’s exhausting to complete household obligation. 12. More strains with my family/children since working 15. Unable to satisfactorily manage routine household tasks 42. No time to complete household tasks. 13. Illness since working 34. Significant others increase role strain 29. Pressure from working, it doesn’t make me feel I am improving 10. I can manage my time for different roles. 37. Maintained good relationships with family. 31. Satisfactory routine for housework 19. Manage time for my family. 40. Special time for myself. 36. Handle additional strain. 41. Church activities and community 20. Adequate time for household tasks. 26. Complete all obligations are not difficult. 08. Participate in community activity 35. Family do not make me feel guilty for having less time for them 03. Feel good about working 09. Having a little personal time 32. Working role does not cause strain 02. Working to please self 11. Someone shares household tasks. 14. Family/friends not emotionally supportive. 39. Family/children don’t demands. 06. Husband not emotionally supportive 38. Family/friends give emotional support. 43. Family get criticism 21. No one contributes to my household tasks. 07. Husband is emotionally supportive 22. Significant others decrease role strain 01. My family criticized 23. Family/friends are supportive. 44. Family/children demands 30. I feel badly that I have eliminated community activities 18. Working to please others 17. Personal health 27. Guilty about eliminating activities of church and community
subscale, whereas this item loaded on the role enhancement subscale for the English version. The Chinese items that changed loadings from the role distress subscale in the English version, were items 35,(loaded on role enhancement) 44 (loaded on role support) and 27 (loaded on role support).
RD
RE
RS
Original subscales
.75 .74 .71 .69 .66 .66 .64 .62 .61 .61 .55 .35 .33
.22 .16 .14 .31 .12 .11 .16 .24 .29 .27 .20 .10 .06
.20 .16 .28 .20 .19 .25 .40 .41 .13 .28 .24 .46 .39
RD RD RD RD RE RD RD RD RD RD RD RD RD
.26 .19 .24 .40 .26 .20 .30 .50 .55 .22 .17
.68 .66 .64 .61 .60 .59 .56 .54 .52 .49 .47
.12 .45 .13 .16 .12 .16 .05 .06 .16 .08 .28
RE RE RE RE RE RE RE RE RE RE RD
.07 .16 .48 .07 .16 .22 .22 .09 .08 .30 .47 .00 .07 .34 .14 .13 .24 .07 .30 .19
.45 .42 .41 .40 .43 .25 .54 .13 .56 .08 .17 .43 .45 .21 .43 .04 .06 .16 .26 .06
.30 .05 .03 .13 .59 .57 .57 .57 .56 .54 .54 .54 .53 .52 .50 .46 .44 .38 .08 .28
RE RE RE RE RS RS RS RS RS RS RS RS RS RS RS RD RD RS RE RD
In the Chinese version 16 items also loaded on the subscale two, role enhancement (10, 37, 31, 19, 40, 36, 41, 20, 26, 8, 35, 3, 9, 32, 2, 38). The mean for the role enhancement subscale was 50.68 and the standard deviation was 8.12. There were differences between the English version and the Chinese
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Table 3 Factor loadings and factor structure for the women’s role strain inventory (English version) (N ¼ 445) Short description of item
RD
RE
RS
25. 28. 42. 24. 16. 33. 35. 30. 04. 27. 15. 29. 32. 12. 20. 13. 31. 26. 34. 44. 19. 40. 43. 01. 18. 17. 21. 09. 10. 08. 06. 14. 41. 39. 36. 22. 23. 37. 05. 03. 38. 11. 02. 07.
.73 .68 .65 .65 .65 .64 .62 .59 .59 .56 .55 .53 .49 .43 .42 .42 .41 .41 .40 .33 .31 .28 .28 .27 .26 .23 .21 .21 .19 .17 .15 .15 .13 .12 .12 .11 .10 .10 .07 .06 .02 .02 .02 .01
.15 .29 .17 .28 .22 .16 .26 .18 .17 .11 .13 .22 .50 .04 .56 .01 .47 .61 .13 .02 .67 .55 .05 .01 .05 .35 .12 .30 .50 .45 .16 .02 .51 .43 .63 .18 .28 .58 .48 .43 .45 .01 .43 .17
.20 .01 .13 .08 .19 .04 .06 .06 .17 .02 .21 .26 .03 .27 .01 .25 .10 .02 .42 .31 .09 .07 .39 .42 .32 .03 .45 .18 .22 .09 .58 .58 .16 .44 .28 .65 .61 .42 .38 .22 .66 .49 .18 .67
It’s exhausting to complete household obligations I do not have personal time No time to complete household tasks No time for all roles No special time for self Working role causes strain Guilt related to no time I have eliminated community activities I am tired Guilt related to community activities Unable to manage household tasks Pressure does improve myself Working role does not cause strain Strains with family Adequate time for household tasks Ill since working Satisfactory routine for household tasks Obligations are not difficult Significant others increase role strain Family/children demands Manage time for my family Special time for self Family gets criticism My family criticizes Working to please Personal health No one contributes to my household tasks Having little personal time Manage my time for roles Participate in community activities Husband not emotionally supportive Family does not support Church activities and community Family does not demand Handle additional strain Significant other decreases role strain Family is supportive Maintained good relationships with family Family strain due to no time Feel good about working Family/friends give support Someone shares household tasks Working to please self Husband/significant other is supportive
version on items 35 and 32. For the Chinese version, item 32, (working does not cause me role strain) loaded on the role distress subscale, compared to loading on role enhancement in the English version. Also, item 35 (family does not make me feel guilty) loaded on the role enhancement subscale, in the Chinese version, and for the English version it loaded on role distress. Item 20 (adequate time for household tasks) hypothesized as
part of role enhancement, showed high loadings on two subscales, role enhancement (.54) and role distress (.50). Also for the Chinese version as compared to the English version, item 26 (to complete all obligations is not difficult) hypothesized as part of the role enhancement subscale in the English version, loaded on both role distress (.55) and role enhancement (.52) in the Chinese version. Item 35 for the Chinese version loaded more
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strongly on the role enhancement subscale, compared to the English version where it loaded on role distress subscale (.47). Twelve (12) items in the Chinese version loaded on the third subscale, role support (11, 14, 39, 6, 38, 43, 21, 7, 22, 1, 23, 44, 30, and18). The mean for the role support subscale was 28.20, and the standard deviation was 7.17. There were differences between the English version and the Chinese version on items 44 and 30. Item 44, (.46) loaded on role support, for the Chinese version compared to its loading on role distress in the English version. Also item 30 (.44) loaded on role support in the Chinese version, compared to loading on role distress in the English version. Also item 21, (no one contributes to my household tasks) hypothesized as part of role support, also loaded on role distress (.54 and .47, respectively). Items 7, 11, 22, 23, 38, and 39 hypothesized as part of role support from the English version, also showed additional loadings on both role enhancement, etc. Cross loadings of items 38 and 39 contribute to the observed correlations among the subscales seen in this and in prior research (Lengacher, 1997). In summary, the internal consistency of the WRSI-C was quite high resulting in high reliability coefficients for the inventory and the subscales. Although there was some variance between the English and Chinese version, the similarity in factors support the construct validity of the instrument. The variance could be related to cultural differences and interpretation of the items.
3. Discussion 3.1. Testing equivalence Critical criteria for translation was adhered to and observed. Liu (2002) suggests qualified translators should be familiar and competent with both original and target language, and translators should have knowledge about subject matter, and instrument development ability; these criteria were adhered to in our translation process. Also Capitulo et al. (2001) suggests some types of translation error may occur in the translation process, such as adding, deleting, altering phrases or word, and using incorrect grammar and syntax affecting meaning and clarity. One limitation was to find bilingual persons with competence in instrument development. To control the translation process, sufficient and effective communications were implemented in translating the instrument between two versions by the developer to reduce translation error. The translation processes adhered to were identified by Behling and Law (2000). They suggest the following steps for translation of an instrument: a bilingual individual translates instrument into the target language; a second bilingual individual translates it back into the source language;
and then compares the source language and the backtranslated language. If a difference exists, repeatedly use another target language draft to compare it with the source language until the discrepancies are eliminated or only minor differences exist. In our research, both versions did not show big differences. We also communicated with the original developer. The WRSI-C appears to have sufficient reliability and validity for use by researchers who wish to measure the construct of role strain in Chinese or Taiwanese women. The reliability of the translated version of WRSI-C was evidenced through the analysis of coefficient alpha and through test-retest reliability by intra-class correlation and Spearmen’s correlations. The overall equivalence of this Chinese version of WRSI was high, as indicated by the level of item and total scale equivalence between the original English version and the translated Chinese version. The use of Wilcoxon signed rank test, Spearmen correlations and intra-class correlation coefficients did increase the rigor and confirmed the equivalence between the Chinese and English versions of the WRSI. 3.2. Psychometric measurement An exploratory factor analysis was used to estimate validity, an appropriate first measure for a newly translated inventory. Strong evidence was demonstrated for construct validity by the identification of three subscales that were similar to the English version of the instrument. In the Chinese version, these subscales validated the theoretical frameworks of Goode (1960) and Sieber (1974) that guided the English version of the WRSI by Lengacher (1997). Subscale items clustered on three subscales. The first factor extracted was the role distress subscale; the clustering on the Chinese version was similar to the English version. This was the strongest factor related to role strain, reflecting the adverse negative effects of role strain and their association with one’s multiple roles of working, family/ significant other. Therefore, culturally, the obligations related to role strain in American women are similar in Taiwanese women. These negative effects, support and validate Goode’s theory of role strain, where he identifies that multiple role obligations cause conflicting demands and role strain. The second factor extracted was role enhancement. Items related to role enhancement clustered on the second factor in the Chinese version similar to the English version. Role enhancement indicates the positive effects of multiple roles, or role strain, through having confidence in being able to handle additional multiple roles. This subscale and items reflect the positive aspect of role strain and validates Sieber’s theory of role accumulation where additional multiple roles are found to be rewarding and motivating. In comparison, there appears to be a similarity between American women and
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Taiwanese women, in that engagement in multiples roles is found to have some positive effects. Role support, the last factor extracted, reflected the importance of family/friends and significant others to help maintain multiple roles. Support has been identified as a major factor in maintaining multiple roles, both in the American culture and the Chinese or Taiwanese (Aryee et al., 1999; Campeniello, 1988). The five items (20, 26, 37, 38, 39) that demonstrated cross loading were similar to the original version of WRSI. Cross loading of item 21 showed slightly different loadings between American and Taiwanese cultures. Item 21, ‘‘No one contributes to my household tasks which puts burden on me’’ loaded first on the role support subscale, but it also loaded on role distress showing that it may have a negative effect or cause role distress. The content of role distress included time, stress, and household tasks. Although the content of item 21 was related to household tasks, it may also be instrumental to social support. Lindsey and Yates (2004) identified the dimensions of social support (including emotional support, instrumental support, informational support, and appraisal support) and this item, ‘‘No one contributes to my household tasksy’’ could indicate that multiple role women may lack instrumental support. Therefore, in this study item 21 is viewed as a part of the role support subscale. In addition, three other items showed cross loadings (7, 22, and 23) and were not similar the original version of WRSI. There were three items that showed primary factor loading on role support, but they also loaded on role enhancement, indicating that the husband, significant others, and friends and family maybe supportive of one’s multiple roles, but also this support may be role enhancing. Item 27, ‘‘I feel guilty about eliminating activities at church and in the community’’ loaded on the role distress subscale in the English version, however, in the Chinese version it loaded on the role support subscale. This may reflect a cultural influence. Western religions and community are not universal in Taiwan. There are little regular religious or church activity for eastern religions, therefore, did not load on role distress as in the English version, but loaded on role support for the Chinese version. Although there were some differences with the EFA for the new Chinese version of the WRSI-C, the factor structure was similar to the English versions and did support the theoretical constructs of Goode and Sieber. 3.3. Limitations An instrument translated from one language to another may not capture cultural construct characteristics unique to each item. This limitation plagues any single translation study and can be remedied through continued cross-cultural psychometric analyses. EFA
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factor analysis showed cross-loadings of some items onto multiple subscales and correlated error variances suggesting the presence of other systematic influences affecting responses. These cross loadings may include attitudes regarding traditional gender roles present in the Taiwanese culture. Another limitation of this study may be the homogeneity of the sample that only nurses participated and other types of working professionals women could be surveyed, to reflect possible professional differences. 3.4. Directions for future research Polit and Beck (2004) also point out that a valid instrument is capable of detecting changes within an individual that result from therapeutic interventions. Data in the current study do not address this concern due to the cross-sectional nature of the design. Longitudinal studies are planned to develop and test a short form of the WRSI in English and Chinese and test how this short form performs in this capacity. One such longitudinal study might involve comparison of the long forms to the short forms in both cultures. Comparisons of test–retest correlations and change scores among the forms would then be used to assess stability and sensitivity to change. Further measurement cross-cultural variance is identified in the study by Beckstead et al. (2006). The WRSI-C is a multidimensional instrument for measuring role strain in Chinese speaking women. By decreasing its length without compromising on reliability and validity compared to the longer instrument, the development of the WRSI-C short form may prove more useful for researchers studying role strain in conjunction with other psychosocial variables such as social support and health outcomes. Acknowledgements The authors would like to thank Tai-Ann Cheng, Hsiu-Tsu Cheng, and Ching-Fang Hsu for permission to use their instruments, and I-Hsuan Chiang for assistance with data collection and data entry.
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