Theory-to-research-to-theory strategy: A research-based expansion of radical change theory

Library & Information Science Research 35 (2013) 33–40

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Library & Information Science Research

Theory-to-research-to-theory strategy: A research-based expansion of radical change theory Kyungwon Koh University of Oklahoma, School of Library and Information Studies, Bizzell Library, Room 120, 401 West Brooks, Norman, OK 73019-6032 USA

a r t i c l e

i n f o

Available online 13 November 2012

a b s t r a c t Theory use and development in research are significant to all disciplines. Scholarly literature serves as a venue to share the diverse and detailed methods about how theories are used and developed in research. This research study, which investigated information behavior of digital age youth, applied and further developed radical change theory by adopting the theory-to-research-to-theory strategy. Radical change theory guided development of the research questions. The research design incorporated radical change theory to provide structure to the systematic data collection and analysis. Finally, radical change theory was further developed by the study's results. The study's primary finding is the development of a typology of youth information behavior in the digital age. The typology presents innovative information behaviors that operationalize radical change theory's concepts. The typology creation contributes to the expansion of the theory and lays the groundwork for future research. © 2012 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction Theory explains relationships among phenomena by representing a body of generalizations consisting of interrelated assumptions, definitions, constructs, and propositions (Grover & Glazier, 1986; Kerlinger, 1986). Theory development is an essential activity to all scholarly disciplines. Theories build a central body of knowledge in relation to significant questions in a field of study and delineate their disciplinary boundaries (Pettigrew & McKechnie, 2001). Therefore, the progress of any discipline can be measured by the scope and quality of its theories and the extent to which its scholarly community is engaged in theory use and development (Gasser, Cortesi, Malik, & Lee, 2012; Hitt & Smith, 2005; Lenhart et al., 2011; Meleis, 2007; Vakkari & Kuokkanen, 1997). Theory and scientific research exist in a close and interactive relationship. Scientific discoveries are useful when they are organized into coherent wholes, such as theories. As a corollary, “completing isolated research projects that are not cumulative or that do not lead to the development or corroboration of theories has limited usefulness” (Meleis, 2007, p. 188). Conducting empirical research is also crucial for theory testing and development. Theory building is a dynamic process and theory is constantly being tested and modified according to research results (Grover & Glazier, 1986). In addition, theory application helps conduct research studies by providing cohesion, efficiency, and structure to the research design. Therefore, the processes of theory development

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and use are intertwined within research; the relationship between theory and research is dialectic and reciprocal. Theory use and development in research is particularly significant to a relatively young field of study (Hitt & Smith, 2005), such as information behavior. Information behavior investigates “the totality of human behavior in relation to sources and channels of information, including both active and passive information seeking, and information use” (Wilson, 2000, p. 49). Information behavior researchers are among the highest users of theory within the library and information science (LIS) or information science (IS) research communities (Kim & Jeong, 2006; Pettigrew & McKechnie, 2001). Some of the theories applied in information behavior research are derived from other disciplines, such as sociology, education, and communication. At the same time, an increasing number of theories have been developed from within the field to explain various aspects of interactions with information (Fisher, Erdelez, & McKechnie, 2005). 2. Problem statement Despite the continued attention to theory use and development in the field, researchers studying information behavior face a few challenges. First, most theories in this area are still at the modeling stage, i.e., proto-theory or a tentatively proposed set of relationships (Bates, 2005), since information behavior is a relatively new area of research. The existing information behavior theories need to be tested in different contexts continually; the current versions of theories have significant potential to evolve. Second, there are still unexplored areas of information behavior that cannot be explained by the existing theories. Information behavior captures a broad range of information-related phenomena

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(Case, 2007). Therefore, the scope and diversity of theories related to information behavior must cover the broad and holistic nature of individuals' interactions with information. Also, while information behavior researchers often use theories originating from other disciplines, information behavior theories have not been heavily applied or cited outside of the field, except by information behavior researchers publishing in other disciplines (Pettigrew & McKechnie, 2001). In addition, we know much less about the process by which theory is developed and integrated into research or an inquiry procedure. One of the reasons could be “the declining share of theory development articles in recent journal issues” (Kim & Jeong, 2006, p. 548). Although several research studies that conducted content analysis of LIS and IS journal articles provide useful summaries showing the current status of information behavior research and theory use (Fisher & Julien, 2009; Julien, Pecoskie, & Reed, 2011; Kim & Jeong, 2006; Pettigrew & McKechnie, 2001), scant research illuminates the diverse and detailed methods about how theories are used and developed through research in substantive ways. To bridge the theoretical gaps in the field of information behavior, this study provides a detailed example of how a theory can evolve in information behavior research. This research investigated youth information behavior in the digital age by applying and further developing radical change theory. Since its original development in LIS, the radical change theory has proven its usefulness in explaining contemporary information behaviors and resources. Although the theory has potential to explain unexplored areas of information behavior in the digital age, it still needs to be tested in different contexts to increase its explanatory power in various information situations. The purpose of this study is two-fold: (a) to suggest and demonstrate the theory-to-research-to-theory strategy as an interactive and reciprocal inquiry process between theory and research, and (b) to propose a recent expansion of radical change theory that explains transformations in information resources and behaviors in the digital age. Insight gained from the study will spur discussion about the different roles and methodologies that theory plays in information behavior research. Eventually, such discussions lay the groundwork for the advancement of the theoretical framework in the scholarly field. 3. Strategies of theory development Meleis (2007) suggests four major strategies of theory development in relation to the origin of theory in the field of nursing, including: (a) theory-to-practice-to-theory, (b) practice-to-theory, (c) research-to-theory, and (d) theory-to-research-to-theory. The theory-to-practice-to-theory strategy begins by selecting a theory to use in practice and then further refining and developing the theory though practice. In the practice-to-theory strategy, theories are driven by practice situations and are inductively developed. On the other hand, the research-to-theory strategy refers to developing theories that are based on research. In this strategy, theory development is considered a product of research. The development of theory from research is “enhanced by completing research projects that answer questions that are central to the discipline and that are driven by common and shared conceptualizations” (p. 198). Unlike research-to-theory strategy, the theory-to-research-to-theory strategy provides a guiding framework for research inquiries and theory modification. In this case, theory drives research questions and is applied throughout the research process. Study results that answer such research questions inform and modify the original theory. The goals of this approach include testing, refining, and developing theory based on scientific research. The processes used for the theory-to-research-to-theory strategy include:

• Findings are synthesized and used to modify, refine, or develop the original theory. • In some instances, the result may become a new theory (Meleis, 2007, p. 203).

4. Radical change theory Since its original development in the LIS field in the 1990s (Dresang, 1999), radical change theory has been applied to research in various disciplines. The theory was initially developed to explain changes found in literature in print material for youth which reflect the properties of the digital environment. The theory proposed digital age principles, including interactivity, connectivity, and access, which define its major concepts (see Table 1). It also provided a typology of digital age literature for youth to demonstrate how the digital age principles are manifested in contemporary information resources (see Table 2). Radical change theory has played a significant role in guiding investigative studies in various disciplines, such as LIS, education, and English. Previous studies applied the theory in several ways, including observing and interpreting a phenomenon under study through the lens of the theory's perspective to selecting information resources that exhibit concepts of the theory as research instruments. In addition, the theory was used as an analytical framework. The studies benefited from the typology of digital age literature for youth (Table 2), because the typology provides easy and clear operationalization of the theory's concepts, i.e., digital age principles. Later, the theory's applicability was expanded beyond print materials for youth through several research studies, which revealed the explanatory power of radical change theory for information behavior in the digital age. Those studies employed different types of information resources, such as books, visual art materials, or films that reflect the digital age principles; the theory was applied to observe responses to those digital age resources (Abele, 2003; Pantaleo, 2008). Furthermore, versatility of the theory's potential applications was suggested to explain a range of contemporary information behaviors (Dresang, 2005a, 2005b; Dresang & Koh, 2009). The theory provides a promising framework or perspective to study information behavior in the digital age, as it is one of the few theories that focus on both people and resources. Considering information behavior as interactions between people and information, radical change theory provides an appropriate framework with a balance between users and information resources, addressing the synergistic combination in the digital age (Dresang & Kotrla, 2009). Nevertheless, more research studies are needed to expand the applicability of radical change theory and to test its usefulness in various situations, specifically regarding its application to information behavior research. The typology of digital age literature for youth (Table 2) has benefited several research studies, making the application of the theory easy and systematic. The absence of the counterpart typology for information behavior was identified as a potential development area.

Table 1 Concepts of radical change theory: digital age principles (Dresang & Koh, 2009). Digital age principles

Definitions

Interactivity

Dynamic, nonlinear, as well as non-sequential learning and information behavior with an increasing sense of control by end-users A sense of community or a construction of social worlds that emerges from changing perspectives and expanded associations Breaking of longstanding information barriers, providing access to formerly largely inaccessible diverse opinions

Connectivity

• A theory is selected that is compatible with the domain of research to explain a phenomenon. • Theory concepts are redefined and operationalized for research.

Access

K. Koh / Library & Information Science Research 35 (2013) 33–40 Table 2 Radical change typology: literature for youth in the digital age (Dresang, 1999). Radical change types

Indicators

Type one: changing forms of formats

Graphics in new forms and formats Words and pictures reaching new levels of synergy Non-linear organization and format Non-sequential organization and format Multiple layers of meaning Interactive formats Multiple visual and verbal perspectives Previously unheard voices Youth who speak for themselves Subjects previously forbidden Settings previously overlooked Characters portrayed in new, complex ways Unresolved endings

Type two: changing perspectives Type three: changing boundaries

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develop the original theory by creating a typology for youth information behavior in the digital age, which is concomitant to the typology for literature in print form. 6. Research questions Study research questions include the following with an emphasis on answering and discussing the second research question: 1. What are the key characteristics of information behavior of youth in the digital age? (a) How do youth act independently? (b) How do youth form identity and perceive others? (c) How do youth interact socially with others? 2. How can radical change theory be applied and further developed to explain youth information behavior in the digital age? 7. Method

4.1. Example of theory-to-research-to-theory strategy use The presented research adopted the theory-to-research-to-theory strategy to investigate information behavior of youth in the digital age using radical change theory. The study was spurred by radical change theory, which was incorporated throughout the inquiry process. The study findings resulted in a further refined radical change theory, which included developing a new typology for information behavior. 5. Youth information behavior in the digital age The research project investigated information behavior of youth, i.e., the ways young people seek, use, share, and create information. In this study, youth are defined as children and young adults between the ages of five and 18. The ways today's youth interact with information have transformed significantly in the shifting digital information environment. New dimensions today's youth encounter include: “the exponential expansion of information, ever-changing tools, increased digitization of text, and heightened demand for critical and creative thinking, communication, and collaborative problem solving” (American Association of School Libraries (AASL) [AASL], 2009, p. 12). Since the phenomenon of youth information behavior in the digital environment is fairly new and prevalent, it is important to create coherent knowledge that explains new patterns in information behavior of contemporary youth based on scientific research. Nevertheless, few theoretical frameworks and empirical research exist to illuminate changes or key characteristics of digital age, youth information behavior in the field (Dresang & Koh, 2009). Existing models concerning youth are primarily interested in information seeking behaviors and information literacy, i.e., the ability to know when there is a need for information and to be able to locate, evaluate, and use information (AASL & Association for Educational Communications & Technology (AECT) [AECT], 1998). No theoretical framework in the field explains the variety of information behaviors of youth, such as seeking, gathering, managing, circulating, and creating information. Also, existing knowledge about information behavior of digital age youth has been typically informed by anecdotes or based on speculation (Meyers, Fisher, & Marcoux, 2009). This study was designed to help fill the gaps in understanding the information behavior perspective, such as the lack of theoretical frameworks and scientific research that explain information behavior of contemporary youth in the digital age. Pursuing dynamic and reciprocal interactions between theory and research, the study applied radical change theory to explain youth information behaviors throughout the whole research process. It also attempted to test the explanatory power of radical change theory in accounting for youth information behaviors. Furthermore, the study aimed to further

The study adopts the theory-to-research-to-theory strategy since it guides a dynamic and interactive inquiry process between theory and research. The overall research design consists of two qualitative phases: • Phase I: Content analysis of research literature, and • Phase II: Group and individual interviews with youth who heavily engage in information behaviors in the digital environment. Phase I was designed to create an initial typology of youth information behavior in the digital age, which serves as a counterpart for the digital age literature typology provided by the original radical change theory. The goals of phase II included testing the typology on teenagers and adding new insights to phase I findings. The data analysis technique applied in both phases included directed qualitative content analysis, in which a theory guides initial coding but the researcher still allows new themes to emerge directly from the data. 7.1. Phase I: content analysis of research literature Phase I of the study involves conducting content analysis of research literature to identify and categorize key characteristics of youth information behavior. Phase I aimed to develop a typology of digital age, youth information behavior that elaborates the original radical change theory by operationalizing its core concepts. This approach to literature analysis was selected (a) to build upon previous research efforts, and (b) to cover diverse contexts, such as different age groups, tasks, as well as school and daily life settings. Starting with the analysis of literature enabled finding commonalities across the contexts. The generalizability or transferability of the study result, i.e., a new typology, would be high by developing an initial typology through the content analysis of literature that covers diverse contexts. The scope of literature collected covers research studies about information behavior of contemporary youth ages five to 18, published between January 2005 and May 2010 from various disciplines, such as library and information studies, education, communication, media, and literacy studies. Since studies about the topic across scholarly fields are extensive, a selective review was conducted. Data collection stopped when the content became repetitious or irrelevant. Phase I data collection resulted in a total of 40 literature sources. The collected studies cover information behaviors of diverse youth populations (e.g., different age groups, racial, ethnic, and socio-economic backgrounds in several settings, such as, schools, daily life, and digital environments). (See Appendix A for the full list of literature analyzed in phase I.). The collected research literature was analyzed with qualitative data analysis software, Atlas.ti. Using the directed qualitative content analysis approach, a theory guides initial coding to validate or extend

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the theory conceptually while researchers immerse themselves in the data and allow themes or patterns to emerge from the data inductively (Hsieh & Shannon, 2005; Zhang & Wildemuth, 2009). The technique is robust because it allows a dialectic and reciprocal relationship between a theoretical framework and data. In this study, specific coding strategy enabling directed qualitative content analysis method was developed and applied. Through multiple coding cycles, the researcher coded patterns of youth information behavior, as well as the concepts of radical change theory, specifically, interactivity, connectivity, and access, when the behaviors reflected those concepts. The initial coding process was open to exploring all possible patterns of youth information behavior reported in the literature; the researcher coded all passages that appeared to represent a characteristic of youth information behavior. In the subsequent coding cycle, the researcher assigned additional codes to the passages using the predetermined codes of interactivity, connectivity, and access, only when the passages manifested the concepts. By following these procedures, the coding processes captured all patterns of youth information behavior that align and refute the theory of radical change. Therefore, the strategy enabled the researcher to avoid bias which might arise from the pre-selected theoretical framework, i.e., radical change theory.

7.2. Phase II: interviews with youth Phase II of the research consists of group and individual interviews with 12 contemporary young people, ages 12 to 15, who actively engage in innovative information behaviors in the digital environment. The goals of phase II include: (a) testing findings from phase I, (b) obtaining new data from the perspective of youth themselves, and (c) testing the applicability of radical change theory in explaining a specific phenomenon of youth information behavior in the digital age. Taking the purposeful sampling approach, phase II involves carefully selected information-rich participants, who can provide in-depth understanding about the study topic (Patton, 2002). The study identified Scratch, which is a graphical programming language developed for youth to create various digital projects, such as interactive stories, games, simulations, magazines, animations, music, and art. These creations can be shared on the Internet (MIT Media Lab, 2012). Youth, who are active members of Scratch, were identified as likely to be capable of providing deep and detailed descriptions of the topic since they are heavily immersed in digital culture and engaged in dynamic information behaviors embedded in digital media creation practices. The researcher recruited 12 teenagers, who participate in three of the most information-intensive projects in the Scratch community. The interviewees included active members of Scratch who voluntarily initiated and engaged in collaborative information creation and sharing projects, such as interactive school magazines (Interactive Journalism Institute for Middle Schoolers (IJIMS), 2010), an information-sharing website (Lifelong Kindergarten Group, n.d.b), and a digital media library (Lifelong Kindergarten Group, n.d.a). The researcher conducted two face-to-face group interviews and four online individual interviews with the Scratch members. Both group and individual interviews were informed by Dervin's sense-making methodology (SMM) (Dervin, 2007, 2008; Dervin & Devakos, 2010). The SMM interview technique elicited innovative information behaviors embedded in the participants' collaborative information creation practices in the digital environment. Like phase I, phase II data analysis also applied directed qualitative content analysis for the interview transcripts; in addition, phase I results provided a framework for a systematic data analysis for phase II. Table 3 presents a summary of phase I and II, including purpose, procedure, products, instrument, and participants in each study procedure.

8. Findings Findings suggest that contemporary youth engage in interactive and dynamic information behaviors in the digital environment. They exhibit alternative patterns that are parallel with the traditional step-by-step, linear, and hierarchical approach. The study identified a total of 14 patterns or characteristics of youth information behavior in the digital age that reflect the concepts of radical change theory, including interactivity, connectivity, and access. (See Table 4 for a complete list of the characteristics and Table 5 for definitions of each characteristic. The tables provide a summary of the key findings that answer the first research question.) The findings are substantial since they are (a) supported by radical change theory, (b) based on a systematic analysis of cross-disciplinary research literature that covers a range of contexts in phase I, and (c) tested with carefully selected purposeful samples in phase II. Since the study purpose involved identifying new and innovative information behaviors in the digital age, the characteristics presented in this study are not an exhaustive list of youth information behaviors nor are these behaviors exhibited by all youth. According to the research sub-questions, the characteristics that present innovative and non-traditional information behaviors in the digital age were categorized into three types. A typology was created based on the findings. The typology identifies three aspects of youth information behavior, including: (a) intrapersonal processes, (b) identity formation and value negotiation, and (c) social interactions. The typology suggests a holistic perspective for observing youth information behavior as an interplay among the various factors. It also offers an operationalization of how radical change theory's concepts apply to information behavior.

9. Discussion By taking the theory-to-research-to-theory approach, this study's empirical findings are closely connected to the original theory. This section discusses the ways (a) the findings were generated by applying radical change theory, (b) the theory provided insight to the empirical findings, (c) the theory was tested throughout the study, and finally (d) the theory was further developed by the study's result. The findings were generated by applying radical change theory systematically throughout the study. The theory initially stirred identification of the problems and gaps in the field, including lack of theoretical framework and research-based evidence about the changing nature of youth information behavior in the digital age; it also drove the development of the research questions. The research process incorporated radical change theory to discover the findings. Directed qualitative content analysis used the theory's concepts to provide a set of predetermined codes. The directed qualitative content analysis technique not only enabled a dialectic and reciprocal relationship between a theoretical framework and data, but it also helped the researcher minimize potential bias which might arise from the pre-selected theoretical framework. As radical change theory offers a unique point of view to interpret new and changing behavioral patterns, the theory helped deepen the meaning of the empirical findings and provided insight to interpreting qualitative data. For instance, behaviors that were previously attributed to a lack of skill or failure, e.g., interactive seeking and remixing, could be understood as new types of thinking and learning, which reflect the era's properties. From the perspective of radical change theory, the findings provide alternative patterns that have the potential to encourage innovative outcomes for academic, social, and personal growth. Therefore, applying the radical change theory perspective to an observation of contemporary youth information behavior in the digital age permitted understanding of how and why today's youth behave differently, as well as implications of such changing behaviors.

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Table 3 Study procedure. Phase I: content analysis of research literature

Phase II: sense-making methodology (SMM) interviews

Data collection

Data collection

Data analysis

Data analysis

Group interviews (face-to-face) Purposes

Development of an initial typology of digital age youth information behavior

Procedures

Searching and selecting research-based literature 40 items of research literature to be analyzed

Products

Instruments Scholarly literature database

Participants

Directed qualitative content analysis Initial typology (3 types and 13 characteristics) Qualitative data analysis software, Atlas.ti

The researcher

Individual interviews—(online)

• Testing findings from phase I • Obtaining new data from the perspective of youth themselves • Testing the applicability of radical change theory in explaining a specific phenomenon of digital age youth information behavior SMM group interviews SMM individual interviews Directed qualitative content analysis Enhanced typology of digital age 4 Individual interview • 8 Pre-questionnaires youth information behavior transcriptions from audio • 8 individual journals • 2 Group interview transcriptions from recordings (total 140 minutes) audio recordings (total 95 minutes) Atlas.ti • Computer with Skype • Pre-questionnaire software • SMM individual journal • Headset • Audio-recorder • Skype recorder • Eight 8th graders (4 girls and 4 boys) • Four boys ages 12–15 The researcher • The researcher • The researcher

When testing the theory, study findings supported validity of radical change theory in explaining contemporary youth information behavior. The directed qualitative content analysis technique allowed discovery of patterns that both agree with and refute radical change theory. Yet, most of the youth information behaviors observed in this study reflected digital age principles, except for a couple of findings that show some traditional patterns that still persist in the digital age, e.g., rule-bound searchers (Druin, Foss, Hutchinson, Golub, & Hatley, 2010) and young people's use of local people, e.g., parents, teachers, librarians, and friends, as information resources. Therefore, the study concluded that the findings corresponded with radical change theory, which suggests that contemporary information resources and behaviors experience transformations that reflect digital age properties. Furthermore, the findings contributed to the enhancement of the original theory by providing a typology of youth information behavior, which represents and operationalizes how the theory's key concepts are manifested in information behavior. While the comprehensive and flexible concepts of the digital age principles allow the theory's application in a range of situations, the newly developed typology will provide a specific and detailed tool that facilitates easy theory application in information behavior research. As previous studies that applied the original theory largely benefited from the counterpart, literature typology (Table 2), the advantages of employing the new typology while conducting research include: (a) easy identification of new and innovative youth information behaviors to which radical change theory is applicable, and (b) creation of an analytical framework for systematic data analysis. As theories are constantly tested and revised according to research results, the theory's potential application and evolution in future

research abounds. First, the radical change theory coupled with the newly developed typology in this study should be tested further in various contexts to validate its usefulness and explanatory power. Future studies can apply radical change theory with various populations, e.g., diverse ages, gender, culture, and socio-economic status, and different resources in both formal and informal contexts. Also, in-depth studies about each type (Type I: Independent process, Type II: Identity and perspectives, and Type III: Social interaction) or characteristic can be conducted to deepen understanding of each specific behavior. Ultimately, radical change theory is suggested as an overarching conceptual framework for future research direction (Fig. 1). Because it has an explanatory power for information resources and people, radical change theory can provide a holistic framework that investigates dynamic interactions between information resources and information behaviors in the digital age. Furthermore, a long-term research agenda will explore potential associations among digital age information behavior, as well as 21st century literacies and skills (e.g., how digital age information resources and innovative behaviors promote or hinder the development of 21st century skills or literacies). The field of information studies will make an essential difference in society and people's lives when it brings together the allied areas of information behavior, information literacy, and information impact (Kuhlthau, 2008). 10. Conclusion The development of theories unique to information studies is essential to growth of the discipline. Theory use in scholarly research is a distinguishing characteristic of a discipline's academic maturity (McKechnie & Pettigrew, 2002). The study's major significance includes its theoretical contribution to the field of information behavior.

Table 4 Typology of digital age youth information behaviors. Type one Intrapersonal processes

Type two Identity and perspectives

Digital age youth form identity and negotiate value Digital age youth engage in nonlinear and interactive information seeking, use, and creation systems while they interact with a range of activities with an increasing sense of ownership. information from different, often conflicting, information. Characteristics Personalizing Self-expression Interactive seeking Seeking identity-related information Squirreling Negotiating value systems Remixing Sense of empowerment Tinkering Visualizing Proposition

Type three Social interactions Digital age youth expand the boundaries of interpersonal information behavior by connecting to diverse resources, people, and communities to meet their information needs. Networking Access to collective knowledge Collaborative problem solving Socio-emotional support

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Table 5 Definitions of the characteristics. Radical change types

Characteristics

Definitions

Type one: Intrapersonal process

Personalizing

The design of one's own information environment to facilitate access to and use of information concerning personal interests. Dynamic, fortuitous, and self-controlled information seeking behaviors. The way youth extensively gather and keep information in the digital environment by downloading. The creative re-use of information to produce new information or expressive materials. Interactive mode of information production, which starts as an idea; the idea evolves through continual modification, trials and errors, and experimentation. Affinity for visual and graphic display of information, involving the synergistic integration of text, image, and multimedia. The ways youth express themselves by producing and publishing information that reflect their identity and perspectives to the information world. Information seeking regarding identity issues, such as gender, race, and sexuality.

Interactive seeking Squirreling Remixing Tinkering Visualizing Type two: Identity and Self-expression perspectives Seeking identity-related information Negotiating value systems Sense of empowerment Type three: Social interactions

Networking Access to collective knowledge Collaborative problem solving Socio-emotional support

The ways youth process diverse perspectives and deal with ambiguity when interacting with various information, people, and communities. A greater ownership and a sense of agency over information activities as a result of new and innovative behaviors and the nature of the information environment in the digital age. The act of reaching and connecting resources, people, and communities to meet one's information needs through technological networks, such as the Internet or mobile networks. The ways youth access and contribute to the aggregated information that is developed by individuals, especially on the Web Information behavior performed by two or more people working together to complete tasks or develop new information. The ways youth exchange non-work related comments or actions to build rapport and trust during collaborative/collective efforts.

In this relatively new area of research, theories need to be tested in different contexts to increase their applicability for various information situations. The study not only tested, but also further developed radical change theory in youth information behavior. The enhancement of radical change theory throughout the study contributes to bridging the gaps in the field, as the theory's explanatory power covers far less explored areas of information behavior (e.g., alternative patterns in the digital age and a variety of information behaviors across the contexts). The study proposed that refined radical change theory with the newly added typology can serve as a holistic framework that explains a variety of information behaviors, ranging from information seeking and use to sharing and creation. Such behaviors are embedded in young people's practices at home, schools, public places, and online. The researchers also demonstrated the usefulness of the theoryto-research-to-theory strategy. This approach can be replicated in other research studies and can inform discussions about the diverse methodologies of how theories are incorporated and advanced through research. Although the approach explained here is not the only way of applying and further developing a theory in research, theory-to-research-to-theory provides useful guidance for research studies and theory modification. It allows a dynamic and interactive inquiry process between theory and research. The strategy can be used to refine many other theories; it also allows research findings to contribute toward building coherent and accumulated knowledge in the field beyond discrete data or information. Ultimately, the dynamic interaction between theory and research should be extended to demonstrate a close relationship between theory, research, and practice in a field, like information behavior, which has a direct relation with professions and system designs. In that sense, the most integrated approach to theory and research requires completing the practice-theory-research cycle (Meleis, 2007). The potential impact of the combined research and theory strategies will eventually include developments of relevant library and information services, information policies, and other educational approaches that better match individuals' patterns and approaches to information. Acknowledgments I gratefully acknowledge a 2010 Eugene Garfield Doctoral Dissertation Fellowship and a Dissertation Research Grant from Florida State University.

Appendix A. List of literature analyzed in phase I 1. Agosto, D. E., & Hughes-Hassell, S. (2005). People, places, and questions: An investigation of the everyday life information seeking behaviors of urban young adults. Library & Information Science Research, 27, 141–163. 2. Agosto, D.E., & Hughes-Hassell, S (2006a). Toward a model of the everyday life information needs of urban teenagers, part 1: Theoretical model. Journal of the American Society for Information Science & Technology, 57, 1394–1403. 3. Agosto, D. E., & Hughes-Hassell, S. (2006b). Toward a model of the everyday life information needs of urban teenagers, part 2: Empirical model. Journal of the American Society for Information Science & Technology, 57, 1418–1426. 4. Aragon, C. R., Poon, S. S., Monroy-Hernandez, A., & Aragon, D. (2009). A tale of two online communities: Fostering collaboration and creativity in scientists and children. Proceedings of the ACM Conference on Creativity and Cognition, 7, 9–18. 5. Bilal, D., & Bachir, I. (2007a). Children's interaction with cross-cultural and multilingual digital libraries: Understanding interface design representations. Information Processing & Management, 43, 47–64. 6. Bilal, D., & Bachir, I. (2007b). Children's interaction with cross-cultural and multilingual digital libraries: Information seeking, success, and affective experience. Information Processing & Management, 43, 65–80. 7. Bowler, L. (2010). The self-regulation of curiosity and interest during the information search process of adolescent students [Electronic version]. Journal of the American Society for Information Science & Technology. Retrieved from www.interscience.wiley. com 8. boyd, d. (2008). Why youth (heart) social network sites: The role of networked publics in teenage social life. In D. Buckingham (Ed.), Youth, identity, and digital media (pp. 119–142). Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. 9. Chung, J. S., & Neuman, D. (2007). High school students' information seeking and use for class projects. Journal of the American Society for Information Science & Technology, 58, 1503–1517. 10. Dresang, E. T. (2005). The information seeking behavior of youth in the digital environment. Library Trends, 54(2), 178–196. 11. Druin, A., Foss, E., Hutchinson, H. B., Golub, E., & Hatley, L. (2010, April). Children's roles using keyword search interfaces at home. Paper presented at the 28th International Conference

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Fig. 1. Future research agenda applying radical change theory.

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