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‘There is a story to be told…’; A framework for the conception of story in higher education and professional development
Nurse Education Today (2008) 28, 232–239
Nurse Education Today intl.elsevierhealth.com/journals/nedt
‘There is a story to be told. . .’; A framework for the conception of story in higher education and professional development Jenny Moon a, John Fowler
b,c,*
a
Centre for Excellence in Media Practice, Bournemouth University, United Kingdom Leicester City West PCT, United Kingdom c School of Nursing and Midwifery, De Montfort University, 266 London Road, Leicester LE2 1RQ , United Kingdom b
Accepted 11 May 2007
KEYWORDS
Summary The use of ‘story’ in higher education is obvious in some disciplines such as drama, English literature and other art subjects – but there is story in other disciplines, including nursing, which is often unrecognised and undervalued. When something is unrecognised, we have less power to work with it and exploit its potential. This paper identifies a theoretical structure for the use of story in higher education and provides illustrative examples from nursing and other academic disciplines. c 2007 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Story; Experiential learning; Reflection
Introduction: story in education Story has many uses in education. Story can capture the holistic and lived experience of the subject being taught, it can tap into imagination, emotions and form new and meaningful connections between existing areas of knowledge. Stories can work in the mind of students in the way that traditional lectures do not. It may sometimes be * Corresponding author. Address: School of Nursing and Midwifery, De Montfort University, 266 London Road, Leicester LE2 1RQ, United Kingdom. Tel.: +44 116 201 3899; fax: +44 116 201 3821. E-mail address: [email protected] (J. Fowler).
a vehicle to facilitate learning rather to impart knowledge (Moon, 2004; Fowler, 2006) and is a valuable tool for the enhancement of reflective learning (Moon, 2004, 2006a). It is interesting to note that stories are learnt and stored in memory differently from other material. There is a holistic or picture memory which is more effective than that of isolated facts. This is evident in the manner in which stories are learnt in the processes of oral storytelling (Moon, 2006b). The need for an organizing framework for story became evident when one of the authors (Moon) was reviewing the literature for the construction of a book on learning journals. It was difficult to make sense of the relationship between story and
0260-6917/$ - see front matter c 2007 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. doi:10.1016/j.nedt.2007.05.001
‘There is a story to be told. . .’; A framework for the conception of story in higher education journals, when ‘story’ has so many different meanings in educational contexts. The vocabulary varies as do the uses to which story is put. To take some examples McDrury and Alterio, 2003 discuss ‘story in higher education’, with a focus solely on the personally experienced stories of the learners who are, in this case, either professionals or students on vocational programmes. In similar situations, Connelly and Clandinin (1990) talk of ‘narratives’ and Mortiboys (2005) talks of ‘storytelling’. Others, often but not always in the professional field, use the term ‘critical incident analysis’ (eg Brookfield, 1987; Cowan, 1998). In other situations there is a general use of case study material that may be constructed from someone’s real experience (Fowler, 1981, 1995). Others talk of ‘senarios’ (eg Institute of Reflective Practice, 2005). Case studies, critical incidents and ‘senarios’, whether experienced or fiction, are stories. When these common pedagogical practices are viewed as they are – as story – we gain a different perspective on them and may see different possibilities for their development. In contrast, in various publications, Bolton (1994, 1999) uses the word ‘story’ for different activities in research, educational and therapeutic contexts and Sparkes (2002) uses the words ‘telling tales’ for a similarly wide range of activities that include qualitative research activities on the lives of sports people. Sparkes’ ‘tales’ are fiction as well as descriptions of real experiences and this raises the issue of the difference between ‘fact’ and ‘fiction’ and the potential role for fiction. ‘Fact’ and ‘fiction’ are not discrete categories. As an example, learning journal entries may seem to be ‘fact’. . ... but then sensible students will modify their accounts of observed events to suit what they perceive to be the criteria for assessment or perceived tutor preferences (Salisbury, 1994). ‘Modification’ is fictionalization. We consider this further: knowing and the representation of that knowing are constructive processes (Moon, 2004). We make sense of the world in relation to what we know already. We could say that all fiction is generated on the basis of the inner experience of the writer – and that in reading a story, we are making meaning from our reading by matching it to our own inner experiences. The attribution of meaning even to a word has come about through experience. The processes of representation of an idea, of retelling it and of reading or hearing a story are all processes of interpretation – or reshaping (Lamarque, 1990; Moon, 2004). ‘Reshaping’, ‘interpreting’ and even listening are acts of fiction. This is important in the construction of the framework below.
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What is a story – some defining boundaries Story in education is, therefore, a complex network of ideas – so complex that it is difficult to grasp the field for theoretical or practical purposes. We present, in this section, a framework to organize the conception of story in educational situations. In order to make a start on the framework, we need to set some boundaries around the meaning of story in education. Some are: Story can be fiction, personal experience or experience of others but we recognize a insubstantial distinction between fiction and non-fiction in story; There is a sense that a story is a discrete event with some coherence and unity – a ‘grasping together’ (Ricoeur, 1984); It will usually have a distinct beginning, a middle and a form of closure and if not a beginning, it will have a middle and closure; There may be stories within stories like Russian dolls; Stories may be oral or written – but also depicted in dance, drama, mime in music, in cartoons, in film, on television, in cave drawings, comic strips (Beard and Wilson, 2002) – though mostly we refer to the written word here; We are also going to make the assumption that the word ‘story’ is used in an educational context mainly when the material is to be shared with others or communicated. This is not to ignore the fact that individually we spend much of our thinking time as individuals, making up stories to support and justify our human actions.
The development of a framework for story We present an outline of the framework as a summary of the whole, after which we elaborate and illustrate the parts of it. In the framework, story is:
Personal story The description and maybe reflection on specific personally experienced events (or critical incidents etc.) that have some unity and coherence.
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‘Known’ story told in a professional, workplace, educational or similar setting These are the stories told informally or formally among people who share experiences such as within a profession, workplace, or the within their role of learners on an educational programme and so on. The stories are about events or experiences that relate to the common interests of the tellers or those who listen.
Non fiction but ‘not personally known’ story These are the material of education (elements of the curriculum) and the media – they are stories that are at a distance from the individuals, but that are taken to be ‘true’ or authentic accounts within a real experience or context (e.g. of shared profession, workplace etc.).
Fiction and fantasy Fictitious stories are those that are accounts of events that have not actually happened as described. As we have said, fiction is made up of elements of experience that are interpreted and reinterpreted by the presenter of the story and re-interpreted by the listener in relation to some elements of the experience.
Stories that are grouped Stories may not be told alone. Sometimes a group of stories is deliberately combined to produce a greater value than the sum of the parts. The component stories may be fiction as well as fact and there may be an effort to summarise or reflect on the collection. This form might be described as a portfolio.
Storytelling We add storytelling as a category because the very act of telling has educational value and may be more significant than the content. (Storytelling can be a generic term that may be used to describe any kind of work with story. We do not use it in this way.)
Some more theoretical issues With the vocabulary of story described in the framework, we can return to the issue of the ‘differences’ between fiction and non-fiction.
J. Moon, J. Fowler This issue is important in relation to the argument that there is a valuable place for fiction in educational settings. With the language of the framework in place, we can note some links between the categories. One person’s personal story becomes another’s ‘known story’ when the first person communicates their story to a group. Correspondingly, a group’s ‘known stories’, when they are communicated to another group, become the new group’s non-fiction – not known and not personal stories. The framework also allows us to see that the use of fiction widens the context from the world as perceived by the individual – into the social, political and historical context of that individual, or beyond – into a consideration of ‘otherness’ as Greenhalgh and Collard, 2003, xiii put it. Bruner talks of fiction stories developing the ‘outer landscape of action and the inner one of thought’ Bruner, 1986, 14. The telling and hearing of myth, traditional and modern tales (even ’soaps – (Crossley, 2002)) is a means by which we learn what it is to live in our present society (Claxton, 1999).
Story in higher education – a practical application of the framework for story Personal story Learning journals and many processes of reflection on self and on personal events (for example in personal development planning) fit into this section, though we may not initially see the material as ‘story’. Taking the view of a journal as a series of stories makes it possible to work with the material of a journal in new ways. Taking an incident in a journal as a story means that we can examine it in ways that are less encumbered by its context in the journal. It is as if the incident can be turned over in the hands, examined from different sides, looked at from underneath or looked at afresh. It can be passed over to others for examination. We link here into other disciplines and what they can do with a personal story. This form of story can be explored further in creative writing (e.g. Hunt and Sampson, 1998 and Hunt, 2000) or it can be enacted in drama (Neelands, 1992; Boal, 1995) where the provider of the story can learn from seeing it acted out – as can others. Personal story is widely used in vocational and professional development and an examples of this is from nurse education (Fowler and Rigby, 1994). The story in this case is ‘told’ through sculpting
‘There is a story to be told. . .’; A framework for the conception of story in higher education and not, initially through words. It is a role play technique with either a student or the tutor taking on the role of a ‘sculptor’ directing the various poses. The sculptor places students physically in relation to each other, the closeness of the physical distance equating with the closeness of the emotional relationships displayed in the story. The poses are then changed according to new scenes. At each change the students are asked to briefly reflect upon their experience. Over a period of setting about six or eight poses the sculptor might tell a story of a family moving through a period of time, sometimes days, sometimes years, the story reflecting a real life experience. The strength of the sculpting technique in the relating of the story is that it involves the students physically and emotionally. Students appear to accept and engage in this activity far more readily than traditional role play. This is possibly because words are not used in the main part of the sculpting exercise and students do not feel as though they are acting some false role, they are in fact entering the role as themselves. Using this unusual technique a life changing experience can be relived within a two hour classroom session. Any life experience that involves two or more people can be retold using sculpting. Examples are the admission of a mother into hospital, the effects of sudden illness on a family or the death of a significant person. The story activity helps students to revisit their previous experiences and learn from them in ways that relate to their emotional and psychological being. For fuller discussion of the technique, see Fowler and Rigby (1994). Others whose work relates to the use of personal story are Bolton (1994), Winter et al. (1999), Bolton (1999), McDrury and Alterio (2003), Alterio and McDrury (2003) and Alterio (2004), Drake and Elliot (2005).
‘Known’ story told in a professional, workplace, educational or similar setting This is the section into which the case study will often fit. We have said that the boundary between material that the stories that are told by ‘known’ others and others not-known is soft and for some cases may not need to exist. However, on occasions, it may matter greatly where privacy or confidentiality are involved. We have discussed elsewhere how different people’s view of the same story can seem like many different fictions (Whelan et al., 2001).
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We look at the case study, first from the angle of nursing. Much of professional expertise develops from the accumulation of years of clinical experience. Case studies are examples of isolated experience and can be a source of valuable reflective learning for the writer, and a vicarious experience for the reader. Case studies can be holistic in nature in that they tell the story of a person life over many years. In a discussion of ‘Betty’, for example, a story is told of the way that her life was affected over a 20 year period by a chronic mental illness (Fowler, 1981). It tells of the effect that Betty’s illness had upon her life, those of her family, her friends and the impact upon the health and social services. Other case studies focus on a critical incident or a specific aspect of time. The story of George is an example of this (Fowler, 1995). George was an 80 year old man in the last stages of his life. He was admitted to a hospice and the case study tells the story of his last two weeks of life. It captures a holistic experience which is often difficult to ‘teach’ in a classroom. Such material helps students to see the bigger picture of the patient, the management system or institution and the implications of the involvement on other factors. Once the basis of a case study is developed, it can be elaborated in many directions. Bolton (1994) suggests further ways of ‘getting into the story’ by writing what a character might be thinking at a particular point; what might be a diary entry for a character; interviewing a character; transcribing a phone conversation from one character to another at a particular point in the story and so on. We also refer to Linden’s work to illustrate this section because it usefully demonstrates a link to the next section of the framework (not personally known non-fiction) (Linden, 1999). Linden describes the collection of the experiences of supervision of PhD students in the course of a two day seminar on supervision issues. Four hundred and forty-four stories were collected – some from supervisors and others from students. The scripts of the stories were then used as the basis for the learning in the second day, in which the aim was to sensitise the supervisors to issues that affected their students. Linden’s example is similar to some of the work in organizations which can be adapted to educational contexts (eg Nymark, 2000; Snowden, 2003 and Alterio and McDrury, 2003). Case studies do not belong only to professional subjects, but can be part of any discipline has practical implications for people and their lives – geography, history, engineering, the sciences, arts and media studies included.
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Non fiction but ‘not personally known’ story We have pointed out that once a ‘personally known’ story is passed on to another and repeated – it is not personally known. It may be presented as case study material or as an anecdote or as research findings that may be used to educate others. The first example returns to the work of Linden (1999) whose work is described above. The workshops on the second day used the general principles illustrated in the collected stories as the basis for work on competence development in the further training of supervisors. In an example within the health service, Greenhalgh and Collard (2003) describe the use of story in the professional development of multi-professional teams in diabetes care. The story material was collected and developed by health workers with responsibility for the management and health outcomes of diabetes in a Bangladeshi community. Stories typified situations and issues that were encountered. These were collated in a work-book and then used by other groups for whom the material was, in effect, non-fictional case story. The stories were focused on themes such as diagnosis, loneliness and lack of support and so on. Methods for the work with the stories are suggested and the aim was a change in the practice of participants. In one of the authors work as a nursing lecturer, students are presented with a story that gave a certain amount of information and they were asked to make decisions based upon that information. They are then given further information, as might occur in real life, and asked to make further decisions. A management game was developed using this technique (Fowler, 1985). The aim of the game is to help the student nurse appreciate the issues involved in allocating patients to particular beds, prioritising allocation on the basis of the patients illness, age, and other cultural issues. Thus a real life experience is recounted in a simulated way with the students experiencing the situation and making appropriate decisions. Fowler (2001, 188) is a further of the use of simulated experiences which help students to appreciate the interplay of reliability and validity in various research designs. The story is told of a research problem, ‘evaluation of hand washing techniques following the use of the toilet’ and various research scenarios are presented to the students. The students then have to consider the reliability and validity of each approach. The benefits of the story approach in these situations are that they enable the student to interact, reflect and learn
J. Moon, J. Fowler from simulated experiences, in a more interesting manner.
Fiction and fantasy We have said that once the source of information is unknown by the recipient of the information, whether it is ‘fact’ or ‘fiction’ may not matter if the aim is to learn from the material. The fictionalising of case material may actually be a deliberate process to meet ethical requirements – but the focus of this section is not on ‘fictionalising’, but on the use of ‘made up’ material. Discussions about fiction, artistry and non-fiction are explored more fully in Hunt (2000 – see the conclusion) and in Chapter 7 of Winter et al. (1999). This chapter is subtitled ‘The strange absence of the creative imagination in professional education’. The ‘absence’ may largely be due to tensions between those who treat the ‘made up’ as ‘only imagination’ with no place in formal education or professional development. The current writers see the use of fiction as a relatively untapped, but valuable resource in education. Fiction is ‘free’, it can go anywhere, it can be used to make any point. It can focus attention on specific issues or identify subtle issues for learning. It can also work freely with emotional material that may not be possible with ‘real life’ stories’ (Noddings, 1996). It can take us into the ‘what if’s’, the ‘supposing . . .’ realms. Made up stories can be twisted and turned to serve their purposes. New endings can be developed, removed and altered. An example of this category is the use of analogy as a means of helping students understand alternative perspectives on a situation. A fantasy narrative is used to tell the story of a ward sister entering a new ward and having a vision of how it could be (Fowler, 1987). The story describes the next two years in which she attempts to introduce change management to achieve her vision. The students learn the value of the vision as a means of directing practice. A further example is that of a camp fire analogy (Fowler and Dooher, 2001). Fiction can have a place in science too. Gough (1993) describes the use of fiction to explore and stimulate thinking on a topic. He argues that the reading of science fiction and postmodern texts model human interrelationships with the environment and understandings of ‘nature’ and ‘reality’ more effectively than much of the expository scientific writing. A similar idea is put forward by (Gundmundsdottir, 1995) who talks of the use of
‘There is a story to be told. . .’; A framework for the conception of story in higher education stories to learn about different cultural perspectives. In either of these cases, a learning journal could be a useful adjunct for the ‘sense-making’ process. We have said that story may often have a role in helping students to learn. Moon (2004) uses story to help students and their teachers to work with reflective writing. She provides a story, which is then repeated in several versions at deeper and deeper levels of reflection. In the exercise, participants discuss in groups how reflective the pieces are as they read them in a sequential manner, and they then consider the nature of deepening reflection. This use of story enables an alternative approach to the seemingly ineffective attempts to ‘tell’ students what reflection is or looks like. The use of story to ‘get round’ situations in which description in words fails, has much potential.
Stories that are grouped We use two very different examples for this section, though there seems to be potential for a much wider application of this idea. Winter et al. (1999), working in the field of professional development, discuss the use of short stories as a means of capturing the ‘uncertainty, instability, uniqueness and value conflict’ (p3) which Schon (1983, 1987) has done so much to characterise as central issues in professional work. They also describe the development of ‘patchwork texts’ as means of exploration of topics in professional development. A patchwork text is broader than story. While a story aims to ‘round off’ with an ending, a patchwork text is open-ended. It is made up of pieces of writing, some of which may be fiction. The aim is that the pieces have relationships to each other, in providing contrasting perspectives on a topic, in different modes. There is room for art, philosophy, science, academic writing – anything – with the unities existing in the individual pieces as well as overall. In the academic context, the patchwork texts tended to consist of five or six pieces of writing of around a page long with, perhaps, a brief reflective commentary. It is interesting to note that assessment criteria for the work match closely the characteristics for the taking of a deep approach to reflection (A Generic Framework for Reflective Writing – Moon, 2004). The second example comes from a research context. Moon (2004) researched the learning on nontraditional students in higher education. Part of this entailed working with higher education staff
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in further education institutions. Such staff are usually overburdened with teaching load, and to ask them to give up more time to interviews was inappropriate. Moon developed a ‘story-development workshop’ that would both elicit the information about student learning that she required but also act as a rewarding staff development workshop on student learning. The workshop is totally based in group work around the development of a case study of a typical non-traditional student. Short inputs – usually in the form of exercises on theoretical concepts in learning, alternate with the group applying the idea to the fictitious emerging case study. From the inputs and the discussion a story evolves and the data, the conversation and the learning process is rich and – because it is a story – lasting. In a further example in this section, Sparkes (2002) uses a collection of a wide variety of stories about sport as data for qualitative research. He looks at many approaches in this field, including the scientific stories, realist and confessional stories, poetry, drama and fictional sources to provide a rich picture that effectively includes the affective aspects of sport alongside the many others.
Storytelling In this category, we put the emphasis on the process of conveying the story, and not on the content. Storytelling is a valuable skill in the teaching and communication processes which are vital to teachers The ability to hold attention and engage listeners in a story is central to good teaching – and, as we have suggested, learners learn in more holistic and memorable ways from a story told to them. However, in these days of employability skills, storytelling can have value for students as well. The practice of staid sessions of script-read-out from the text in front-of-theface, oral presentations – is common. When students are taught to tell stories, they learn skills of self expression, posture, and voice, but storytelling is also a skill for later professional situations in which they might teach, coach etc – or even for when they are parents! In the educational context, storytelling skills can be used: as a method for the development of teaching skills (all teachers, including higher education); as a method of helping students with presentation skills;
238 as a specific skill and area of knowledge for students of English, other languages, drama, music, dance, education, childhood studies etc; as a skill for parenting or early years teachers; as a form of entertainment and as a vehicle for innovation and creativity in the curriculum.
Conclusion We have presented a framework that starts to enable an easier recognition of the role of story in education because it provides an initial means of organizing the kinds of story used in particular circumstances and it helps to organize the manner in which we talk of story. We have provided examples of the use of story that are presented in words and by other means. A next step in this thinking about story is to plot the ways in which story is used in education which in turn can be followed by consideration of how it can be used to greater effect. This is currently the subject matter of thinking. It will be the subject matter of further writing.
References Alterio, M., 2004. Collaborative journaling as a professional development tool. Journal of Further and Higher Education 28 (3), 321–333. Alterio, M., McDrury, 2003. Collaborative learning using reflective storytelling. In: Zepke, N., Nugent, D., Leach, L. (Eds.), Reflection to Transformation. Dunmore Press Ltd, Palmerston North. Beard, C., Wilson, J., 2002. The Power of Experiential Learning. Routledge Falmer, London. Boal, A., 1995. The Rainbow of Desire. Routledge, London. Bolton, G., 1994. Stories at Work. Fictional-critical writing as a means of professional development. British Journal of Educational Research 20 (1), 55–68. Bolton, G., 1999. The Therapeutic Potential of Creative Writing – Writing Myself, London, Jessica Kingsley. Brookfield, S. (1987) Developing Critical Thinking, Milton Keynes, SRHE/OUP. Bruner, 1986. Actual Minds Possible Worlds. Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA. Claxton, G. 1999. Wise Up: The Challenge of Lifelong Learning. London, Bloomsbury. Connelly, F., Clandinin, D., 1990. Stories of experience and narrative inquiry. Educational Researcher 19 (4), 2–14. Cowan, J. 1998. On Becoming an Innovative University Teacher, Milton Keynes, SRHE/Open University Press. Crossley, M., 2002. Introducing narrative psychology. In: Horrocks, C., Milnes, K., Robersts, B., Robinson, D. (Eds.), Narrative, Memory and Life Transitions. University of Huddersfield Press, Huddersfield. Drake, S., Elliot, A. 2005. Creating a New Story to Live by Though Collaborative Reflection, Concentric Storying and Using the Old/New Story Framework, Paper Presented at the
J. Moon, J. Fowler Senario-Based Learning Conference, Institute for Reflective Practice Gloucester, 2005. Fowler, J., 1981. The ups and down in the life of Betty. Nursing Times 77 (4), 146–150. Fowler, J., 1985. A game of patients. Nursing Times 81 (42), 32–33. Fowler, J., 1987. Sister vision’s dream – a leadership fable. Nursing Times 83 (4), 37–38. Fowler, J. 1995. Taking Theory into Practice. Professional Nurse. Jan. pp. 226–230. Fowler, J., 2001. Evaluating practice development – research. In: Dooher, J., Clark, A., Fowler, J. (Eds.), The Handbook of Practice Development Quay Books. Mark Allen Pub, Wiltshire, pp. 186–193. Fowler, J., 2006. The Use of Experiential Learning in Nurse Education, Unpublished PhD Thesis, De Montfort University. Fowler, J., Dooher, J., 2001. Qualitative evaluation of clinical supervision. In: Butterworth, T., Cutcliffe, J., Proctor, B. (Eds.), Themes in Clinical Supervision. Routledge, London, pp. 240–255. Fowler, J., Rigby, P., 1994. Sculpting with people – an experiential learning experience. Nurse Education Today 14, 400–405. Gough, N., 1993. Environmental education, narrative complexity and postmodern science/fiction. International Journal of Science Education 15 (5), 607–625. Greenhalgh, T., Collard, A., 2003. Narrative-based Healthcare: Sharing Stories. BMJ books, London. Gundmundsdottir, S., 1995. The narrative nature of pedagogical content knowledge. In: McEwan, H., Egan, H. (Eds.), Narrative in Teaching, Learning and Research. Teacher’s College Press, New York. Hunt, C., 2000. Therapeutic Dimensions of Autobiography. Jessica Kingsley, London. Hunt, C., Sampson, F., 1998. The Self on the Page. Jessica Kingsley, London. Institute of Reflective Practice (2005) Conference: ‘SenarioBased Learning’, Gloucester, UK. Lamarque, P., 1990. Narrative and invention: the limits of fictionality. In: Nash, C. (Ed.), Narrative in Culture. Routledge, London. Linden, J., 1999. The contribution of narrative to the process of supervising PhD students. Studies in Higher Education 24 (3), 351–364. McDrury, J., Alterio, M., 2003. Learning Through Storytelling. Routledge Falmer, London. Moon, J., 2004. A Handbook of Reflective and Experiential Learning. Routledge Falmer, London. Moon, J., 2006a. Learning Journals, Second ed. Routledge, Falmer, London. Moon, J. 2006b. Workshop on Storytelling in Higher Education, Various Locations, unpublished. Mortiboys, A., 2005. Teaching with Emotional Intelligence. Routledge, London. Neelands, J., 1992. Learning through Imagined Experience: The Role of Drama in the National Curriculum. Hodder and Stoughton, London. Noddings, N., 1996. Stories and Affect in Teacher Education. Cambridge Journal of Education 26 (3), 435–447. Nymark, S. 2000. Organisational Storytelling, Oslo Foglaget Ankerhus. Ricoeur, P., 1984. Time and Narrative. University of Chicago Press, Chicago. Salisbury, J., 1994. Becoming qualified – an Ethnography of a Post-Experience Teacher Training Course, PhD thesis, University of Wales, Cardiff. Schon, D., 1983. The Reflective Practitioner. Jossey-Bass, San Francisco.
‘There is a story to be told. . .’; A framework for the conception of story in higher education Schon, D., 1987. Educating the Reflective Practitioner. JosseyBass, San Francisco. Snowden, D. 2003. Narrative patterns – the perils and possibilities of using story in organisations. In: Lesser, E. Prusak, K. Creating Value with Knowledge, Oxford, OUP. Sparkes, A., 2002. Telling Tales in Sport and Activity, Leeds, Human Kinetics.
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Whelan, K., Huber, J., Rose, C., Davies, A., Clandinin, D., 2001. Telling and retelling our stories on the professional development landscape. Teachers and Teaching: Theory and Practice 7 (2), 143–156. Winter, R., Buck, A., Sobiechowska, P., 1999. Professional Experience and the Investigative Imagination. Routledge, London.
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Nurse Education Today intl.elsevierhealth.com/journals/nedt
‘There is a story to be told. . .’; A framework for the conception of story in higher education and professional development Jenny Moon a, John Fowler
b,c,*
a
Centre for Excellence in Media Practice, Bournemouth University, United Kingdom Leicester City West PCT, United Kingdom c School of Nursing and Midwifery, De Montfort University, 266 London Road, Leicester LE2 1RQ , United Kingdom b
Accepted 11 May 2007
KEYWORDS
Summary The use of ‘story’ in higher education is obvious in some disciplines such as drama, English literature and other art subjects – but there is story in other disciplines, including nursing, which is often unrecognised and undervalued. When something is unrecognised, we have less power to work with it and exploit its potential. This paper identifies a theoretical structure for the use of story in higher education and provides illustrative examples from nursing and other academic disciplines. c 2007 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Story; Experiential learning; Reflection
Introduction: story in education Story has many uses in education. Story can capture the holistic and lived experience of the subject being taught, it can tap into imagination, emotions and form new and meaningful connections between existing areas of knowledge. Stories can work in the mind of students in the way that traditional lectures do not. It may sometimes be * Corresponding author. Address: School of Nursing and Midwifery, De Montfort University, 266 London Road, Leicester LE2 1RQ, United Kingdom. Tel.: +44 116 201 3899; fax: +44 116 201 3821. E-mail address: [email protected] (J. Fowler).
a vehicle to facilitate learning rather to impart knowledge (Moon, 2004; Fowler, 2006) and is a valuable tool for the enhancement of reflective learning (Moon, 2004, 2006a). It is interesting to note that stories are learnt and stored in memory differently from other material. There is a holistic or picture memory which is more effective than that of isolated facts. This is evident in the manner in which stories are learnt in the processes of oral storytelling (Moon, 2006b). The need for an organizing framework for story became evident when one of the authors (Moon) was reviewing the literature for the construction of a book on learning journals. It was difficult to make sense of the relationship between story and
0260-6917/$ - see front matter c 2007 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. doi:10.1016/j.nedt.2007.05.001
‘There is a story to be told. . .’; A framework for the conception of story in higher education journals, when ‘story’ has so many different meanings in educational contexts. The vocabulary varies as do the uses to which story is put. To take some examples McDrury and Alterio, 2003 discuss ‘story in higher education’, with a focus solely on the personally experienced stories of the learners who are, in this case, either professionals or students on vocational programmes. In similar situations, Connelly and Clandinin (1990) talk of ‘narratives’ and Mortiboys (2005) talks of ‘storytelling’. Others, often but not always in the professional field, use the term ‘critical incident analysis’ (eg Brookfield, 1987; Cowan, 1998). In other situations there is a general use of case study material that may be constructed from someone’s real experience (Fowler, 1981, 1995). Others talk of ‘senarios’ (eg Institute of Reflective Practice, 2005). Case studies, critical incidents and ‘senarios’, whether experienced or fiction, are stories. When these common pedagogical practices are viewed as they are – as story – we gain a different perspective on them and may see different possibilities for their development. In contrast, in various publications, Bolton (1994, 1999) uses the word ‘story’ for different activities in research, educational and therapeutic contexts and Sparkes (2002) uses the words ‘telling tales’ for a similarly wide range of activities that include qualitative research activities on the lives of sports people. Sparkes’ ‘tales’ are fiction as well as descriptions of real experiences and this raises the issue of the difference between ‘fact’ and ‘fiction’ and the potential role for fiction. ‘Fact’ and ‘fiction’ are not discrete categories. As an example, learning journal entries may seem to be ‘fact’. . ... but then sensible students will modify their accounts of observed events to suit what they perceive to be the criteria for assessment or perceived tutor preferences (Salisbury, 1994). ‘Modification’ is fictionalization. We consider this further: knowing and the representation of that knowing are constructive processes (Moon, 2004). We make sense of the world in relation to what we know already. We could say that all fiction is generated on the basis of the inner experience of the writer – and that in reading a story, we are making meaning from our reading by matching it to our own inner experiences. The attribution of meaning even to a word has come about through experience. The processes of representation of an idea, of retelling it and of reading or hearing a story are all processes of interpretation – or reshaping (Lamarque, 1990; Moon, 2004). ‘Reshaping’, ‘interpreting’ and even listening are acts of fiction. This is important in the construction of the framework below.
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What is a story – some defining boundaries Story in education is, therefore, a complex network of ideas – so complex that it is difficult to grasp the field for theoretical or practical purposes. We present, in this section, a framework to organize the conception of story in educational situations. In order to make a start on the framework, we need to set some boundaries around the meaning of story in education. Some are: Story can be fiction, personal experience or experience of others but we recognize a insubstantial distinction between fiction and non-fiction in story; There is a sense that a story is a discrete event with some coherence and unity – a ‘grasping together’ (Ricoeur, 1984); It will usually have a distinct beginning, a middle and a form of closure and if not a beginning, it will have a middle and closure; There may be stories within stories like Russian dolls; Stories may be oral or written – but also depicted in dance, drama, mime in music, in cartoons, in film, on television, in cave drawings, comic strips (Beard and Wilson, 2002) – though mostly we refer to the written word here; We are also going to make the assumption that the word ‘story’ is used in an educational context mainly when the material is to be shared with others or communicated. This is not to ignore the fact that individually we spend much of our thinking time as individuals, making up stories to support and justify our human actions.
The development of a framework for story We present an outline of the framework as a summary of the whole, after which we elaborate and illustrate the parts of it. In the framework, story is:
Personal story The description and maybe reflection on specific personally experienced events (or critical incidents etc.) that have some unity and coherence.
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‘Known’ story told in a professional, workplace, educational or similar setting These are the stories told informally or formally among people who share experiences such as within a profession, workplace, or the within their role of learners on an educational programme and so on. The stories are about events or experiences that relate to the common interests of the tellers or those who listen.
Non fiction but ‘not personally known’ story These are the material of education (elements of the curriculum) and the media – they are stories that are at a distance from the individuals, but that are taken to be ‘true’ or authentic accounts within a real experience or context (e.g. of shared profession, workplace etc.).
Fiction and fantasy Fictitious stories are those that are accounts of events that have not actually happened as described. As we have said, fiction is made up of elements of experience that are interpreted and reinterpreted by the presenter of the story and re-interpreted by the listener in relation to some elements of the experience.
Stories that are grouped Stories may not be told alone. Sometimes a group of stories is deliberately combined to produce a greater value than the sum of the parts. The component stories may be fiction as well as fact and there may be an effort to summarise or reflect on the collection. This form might be described as a portfolio.
Storytelling We add storytelling as a category because the very act of telling has educational value and may be more significant than the content. (Storytelling can be a generic term that may be used to describe any kind of work with story. We do not use it in this way.)
Some more theoretical issues With the vocabulary of story described in the framework, we can return to the issue of the ‘differences’ between fiction and non-fiction.
J. Moon, J. Fowler This issue is important in relation to the argument that there is a valuable place for fiction in educational settings. With the language of the framework in place, we can note some links between the categories. One person’s personal story becomes another’s ‘known story’ when the first person communicates their story to a group. Correspondingly, a group’s ‘known stories’, when they are communicated to another group, become the new group’s non-fiction – not known and not personal stories. The framework also allows us to see that the use of fiction widens the context from the world as perceived by the individual – into the social, political and historical context of that individual, or beyond – into a consideration of ‘otherness’ as Greenhalgh and Collard, 2003, xiii put it. Bruner talks of fiction stories developing the ‘outer landscape of action and the inner one of thought’ Bruner, 1986, 14. The telling and hearing of myth, traditional and modern tales (even ’soaps – (Crossley, 2002)) is a means by which we learn what it is to live in our present society (Claxton, 1999).
Story in higher education – a practical application of the framework for story Personal story Learning journals and many processes of reflection on self and on personal events (for example in personal development planning) fit into this section, though we may not initially see the material as ‘story’. Taking the view of a journal as a series of stories makes it possible to work with the material of a journal in new ways. Taking an incident in a journal as a story means that we can examine it in ways that are less encumbered by its context in the journal. It is as if the incident can be turned over in the hands, examined from different sides, looked at from underneath or looked at afresh. It can be passed over to others for examination. We link here into other disciplines and what they can do with a personal story. This form of story can be explored further in creative writing (e.g. Hunt and Sampson, 1998 and Hunt, 2000) or it can be enacted in drama (Neelands, 1992; Boal, 1995) where the provider of the story can learn from seeing it acted out – as can others. Personal story is widely used in vocational and professional development and an examples of this is from nurse education (Fowler and Rigby, 1994). The story in this case is ‘told’ through sculpting
‘There is a story to be told. . .’; A framework for the conception of story in higher education and not, initially through words. It is a role play technique with either a student or the tutor taking on the role of a ‘sculptor’ directing the various poses. The sculptor places students physically in relation to each other, the closeness of the physical distance equating with the closeness of the emotional relationships displayed in the story. The poses are then changed according to new scenes. At each change the students are asked to briefly reflect upon their experience. Over a period of setting about six or eight poses the sculptor might tell a story of a family moving through a period of time, sometimes days, sometimes years, the story reflecting a real life experience. The strength of the sculpting technique in the relating of the story is that it involves the students physically and emotionally. Students appear to accept and engage in this activity far more readily than traditional role play. This is possibly because words are not used in the main part of the sculpting exercise and students do not feel as though they are acting some false role, they are in fact entering the role as themselves. Using this unusual technique a life changing experience can be relived within a two hour classroom session. Any life experience that involves two or more people can be retold using sculpting. Examples are the admission of a mother into hospital, the effects of sudden illness on a family or the death of a significant person. The story activity helps students to revisit their previous experiences and learn from them in ways that relate to their emotional and psychological being. For fuller discussion of the technique, see Fowler and Rigby (1994). Others whose work relates to the use of personal story are Bolton (1994), Winter et al. (1999), Bolton (1999), McDrury and Alterio (2003), Alterio and McDrury (2003) and Alterio (2004), Drake and Elliot (2005).
‘Known’ story told in a professional, workplace, educational or similar setting This is the section into which the case study will often fit. We have said that the boundary between material that the stories that are told by ‘known’ others and others not-known is soft and for some cases may not need to exist. However, on occasions, it may matter greatly where privacy or confidentiality are involved. We have discussed elsewhere how different people’s view of the same story can seem like many different fictions (Whelan et al., 2001).
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We look at the case study, first from the angle of nursing. Much of professional expertise develops from the accumulation of years of clinical experience. Case studies are examples of isolated experience and can be a source of valuable reflective learning for the writer, and a vicarious experience for the reader. Case studies can be holistic in nature in that they tell the story of a person life over many years. In a discussion of ‘Betty’, for example, a story is told of the way that her life was affected over a 20 year period by a chronic mental illness (Fowler, 1981). It tells of the effect that Betty’s illness had upon her life, those of her family, her friends and the impact upon the health and social services. Other case studies focus on a critical incident or a specific aspect of time. The story of George is an example of this (Fowler, 1995). George was an 80 year old man in the last stages of his life. He was admitted to a hospice and the case study tells the story of his last two weeks of life. It captures a holistic experience which is often difficult to ‘teach’ in a classroom. Such material helps students to see the bigger picture of the patient, the management system or institution and the implications of the involvement on other factors. Once the basis of a case study is developed, it can be elaborated in many directions. Bolton (1994) suggests further ways of ‘getting into the story’ by writing what a character might be thinking at a particular point; what might be a diary entry for a character; interviewing a character; transcribing a phone conversation from one character to another at a particular point in the story and so on. We also refer to Linden’s work to illustrate this section because it usefully demonstrates a link to the next section of the framework (not personally known non-fiction) (Linden, 1999). Linden describes the collection of the experiences of supervision of PhD students in the course of a two day seminar on supervision issues. Four hundred and forty-four stories were collected – some from supervisors and others from students. The scripts of the stories were then used as the basis for the learning in the second day, in which the aim was to sensitise the supervisors to issues that affected their students. Linden’s example is similar to some of the work in organizations which can be adapted to educational contexts (eg Nymark, 2000; Snowden, 2003 and Alterio and McDrury, 2003). Case studies do not belong only to professional subjects, but can be part of any discipline has practical implications for people and their lives – geography, history, engineering, the sciences, arts and media studies included.
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Non fiction but ‘not personally known’ story We have pointed out that once a ‘personally known’ story is passed on to another and repeated – it is not personally known. It may be presented as case study material or as an anecdote or as research findings that may be used to educate others. The first example returns to the work of Linden (1999) whose work is described above. The workshops on the second day used the general principles illustrated in the collected stories as the basis for work on competence development in the further training of supervisors. In an example within the health service, Greenhalgh and Collard (2003) describe the use of story in the professional development of multi-professional teams in diabetes care. The story material was collected and developed by health workers with responsibility for the management and health outcomes of diabetes in a Bangladeshi community. Stories typified situations and issues that were encountered. These were collated in a work-book and then used by other groups for whom the material was, in effect, non-fictional case story. The stories were focused on themes such as diagnosis, loneliness and lack of support and so on. Methods for the work with the stories are suggested and the aim was a change in the practice of participants. In one of the authors work as a nursing lecturer, students are presented with a story that gave a certain amount of information and they were asked to make decisions based upon that information. They are then given further information, as might occur in real life, and asked to make further decisions. A management game was developed using this technique (Fowler, 1985). The aim of the game is to help the student nurse appreciate the issues involved in allocating patients to particular beds, prioritising allocation on the basis of the patients illness, age, and other cultural issues. Thus a real life experience is recounted in a simulated way with the students experiencing the situation and making appropriate decisions. Fowler (2001, 188) is a further of the use of simulated experiences which help students to appreciate the interplay of reliability and validity in various research designs. The story is told of a research problem, ‘evaluation of hand washing techniques following the use of the toilet’ and various research scenarios are presented to the students. The students then have to consider the reliability and validity of each approach. The benefits of the story approach in these situations are that they enable the student to interact, reflect and learn
J. Moon, J. Fowler from simulated experiences, in a more interesting manner.
Fiction and fantasy We have said that once the source of information is unknown by the recipient of the information, whether it is ‘fact’ or ‘fiction’ may not matter if the aim is to learn from the material. The fictionalising of case material may actually be a deliberate process to meet ethical requirements – but the focus of this section is not on ‘fictionalising’, but on the use of ‘made up’ material. Discussions about fiction, artistry and non-fiction are explored more fully in Hunt (2000 – see the conclusion) and in Chapter 7 of Winter et al. (1999). This chapter is subtitled ‘The strange absence of the creative imagination in professional education’. The ‘absence’ may largely be due to tensions between those who treat the ‘made up’ as ‘only imagination’ with no place in formal education or professional development. The current writers see the use of fiction as a relatively untapped, but valuable resource in education. Fiction is ‘free’, it can go anywhere, it can be used to make any point. It can focus attention on specific issues or identify subtle issues for learning. It can also work freely with emotional material that may not be possible with ‘real life’ stories’ (Noddings, 1996). It can take us into the ‘what if’s’, the ‘supposing . . .’ realms. Made up stories can be twisted and turned to serve their purposes. New endings can be developed, removed and altered. An example of this category is the use of analogy as a means of helping students understand alternative perspectives on a situation. A fantasy narrative is used to tell the story of a ward sister entering a new ward and having a vision of how it could be (Fowler, 1987). The story describes the next two years in which she attempts to introduce change management to achieve her vision. The students learn the value of the vision as a means of directing practice. A further example is that of a camp fire analogy (Fowler and Dooher, 2001). Fiction can have a place in science too. Gough (1993) describes the use of fiction to explore and stimulate thinking on a topic. He argues that the reading of science fiction and postmodern texts model human interrelationships with the environment and understandings of ‘nature’ and ‘reality’ more effectively than much of the expository scientific writing. A similar idea is put forward by (Gundmundsdottir, 1995) who talks of the use of
‘There is a story to be told. . .’; A framework for the conception of story in higher education stories to learn about different cultural perspectives. In either of these cases, a learning journal could be a useful adjunct for the ‘sense-making’ process. We have said that story may often have a role in helping students to learn. Moon (2004) uses story to help students and their teachers to work with reflective writing. She provides a story, which is then repeated in several versions at deeper and deeper levels of reflection. In the exercise, participants discuss in groups how reflective the pieces are as they read them in a sequential manner, and they then consider the nature of deepening reflection. This use of story enables an alternative approach to the seemingly ineffective attempts to ‘tell’ students what reflection is or looks like. The use of story to ‘get round’ situations in which description in words fails, has much potential.
Stories that are grouped We use two very different examples for this section, though there seems to be potential for a much wider application of this idea. Winter et al. (1999), working in the field of professional development, discuss the use of short stories as a means of capturing the ‘uncertainty, instability, uniqueness and value conflict’ (p3) which Schon (1983, 1987) has done so much to characterise as central issues in professional work. They also describe the development of ‘patchwork texts’ as means of exploration of topics in professional development. A patchwork text is broader than story. While a story aims to ‘round off’ with an ending, a patchwork text is open-ended. It is made up of pieces of writing, some of which may be fiction. The aim is that the pieces have relationships to each other, in providing contrasting perspectives on a topic, in different modes. There is room for art, philosophy, science, academic writing – anything – with the unities existing in the individual pieces as well as overall. In the academic context, the patchwork texts tended to consist of five or six pieces of writing of around a page long with, perhaps, a brief reflective commentary. It is interesting to note that assessment criteria for the work match closely the characteristics for the taking of a deep approach to reflection (A Generic Framework for Reflective Writing – Moon, 2004). The second example comes from a research context. Moon (2004) researched the learning on nontraditional students in higher education. Part of this entailed working with higher education staff
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in further education institutions. Such staff are usually overburdened with teaching load, and to ask them to give up more time to interviews was inappropriate. Moon developed a ‘story-development workshop’ that would both elicit the information about student learning that she required but also act as a rewarding staff development workshop on student learning. The workshop is totally based in group work around the development of a case study of a typical non-traditional student. Short inputs – usually in the form of exercises on theoretical concepts in learning, alternate with the group applying the idea to the fictitious emerging case study. From the inputs and the discussion a story evolves and the data, the conversation and the learning process is rich and – because it is a story – lasting. In a further example in this section, Sparkes (2002) uses a collection of a wide variety of stories about sport as data for qualitative research. He looks at many approaches in this field, including the scientific stories, realist and confessional stories, poetry, drama and fictional sources to provide a rich picture that effectively includes the affective aspects of sport alongside the many others.
Storytelling In this category, we put the emphasis on the process of conveying the story, and not on the content. Storytelling is a valuable skill in the teaching and communication processes which are vital to teachers The ability to hold attention and engage listeners in a story is central to good teaching – and, as we have suggested, learners learn in more holistic and memorable ways from a story told to them. However, in these days of employability skills, storytelling can have value for students as well. The practice of staid sessions of script-read-out from the text in front-of-theface, oral presentations – is common. When students are taught to tell stories, they learn skills of self expression, posture, and voice, but storytelling is also a skill for later professional situations in which they might teach, coach etc – or even for when they are parents! In the educational context, storytelling skills can be used: as a method for the development of teaching skills (all teachers, including higher education); as a method of helping students with presentation skills;
238 as a specific skill and area of knowledge for students of English, other languages, drama, music, dance, education, childhood studies etc; as a skill for parenting or early years teachers; as a form of entertainment and as a vehicle for innovation and creativity in the curriculum.
Conclusion We have presented a framework that starts to enable an easier recognition of the role of story in education because it provides an initial means of organizing the kinds of story used in particular circumstances and it helps to organize the manner in which we talk of story. We have provided examples of the use of story that are presented in words and by other means. A next step in this thinking about story is to plot the ways in which story is used in education which in turn can be followed by consideration of how it can be used to greater effect. This is currently the subject matter of thinking. It will be the subject matter of further writing.
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