This girl can #jointhemovement: Effectiveness of physical functionality-focused campaigns for women’s body satisfaction and exercise intent

Body Image 24 (2018) 26–35

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This girl can #jointhemovement: Effectiveness of physical functionality-focused campaigns for women’s body satisfaction and exercise intent Kate E. Mulgrew a,∗ , Karen McCulloch a , Emily Farren a , Ivanka Prichard b , Megan S.C. Lim c,d,e a

School of Social Sciences, University of the Sunshine Coast, Maroochydore DC, Queensland, Australia School of Health Sciences, Flinders University, South Australia, Australia c Centre for Population Health, Burnet Institute, Melbourne, Australia d School of Population Health and Preventive Medicine, Monash University, Melbourne, Australia e Melbourne School of Population and Global Health, University of Melbourne, Parkville, Australia b

a r t i c l e

i n f o

Article history: Received 7 February 2017 Received in revised form 23 November 2017 Accepted 29 November 2017 Keywords: Media campaign Physical functionality satisfaction Appearance satisfaction Social comparison Exercise Body functionality

a b s t r a c t We tested the effectiveness of exposure to two functionality-focused media campaigns, This Girl Can and #jointhemovement, in improving state appearance and physical functionality satisfaction, exercise intent, and protecting against exposure to idealised imagery. Across two studies, 339 (Mage = 24.94, SD = 4.98) and 256 (Mage = 26.46, SD = 5.50) women viewed the campaign or control video, followed by images of models who were posed or physically active, or images of landscapes. State satisfaction and exercise intent was measured at pre-test, post-video, post-images, and 1-week follow-up. Social comparison was measured at post-images. Viewing either campaign produced higher appearance satisfaction and exercise intentions than the control video. Effects weren’t maintained after viewing idealised imagery or 1 week later. Further, the campaigns did not decrease social comparisons when viewing idealised imagery. Results can inform agencies about campaign effectiveness and suggest that women benefit from campaigns that feature non-idealised depictions of women exercising. Crown Copyright © 2017 Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction Body image is influenced by a variety of sociocultural factors (Thompson, Heinberg, Altabe, & Tantleff-Dunn, 1999) with media effects noted as particularly deleterious (Grabe, Ward, & Hyde, 2008). However, there is potential for media to transmit positive body image ideals and strategies for women to engage in adaptive, healthy behaviours (e.g., enjoyable physical activity), and self-care. Here, we explore the effectiveness of two recent functionalityfocused media campaigns on women’s appearance and physical functionality satisfaction, intentions to exercise, social comparison, and response to idealised images of women in a posed or active stance. One way through which the impact of the media may be understood is via body conceptualisation theory (Franzoi, 1995). This theory argues that the body can be viewed as either a passive

∗ Corresponding author at: School of Social Sciences, University of the Sunshine Coast, Locked Bag 4, Maroochydore DC, Queensland, 4558, Australia. E-mail address: [email protected] (K.E. Mulgrew). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bodyim.2017.11.007 1740-1445/Crown Copyright © 2017 Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

object with a focus on its aesthetic value, that is, body-as-object (BAO) or as an active entity with a focus on the body’s capabilities, that is, body-as-process (BAP; Franzoi, 1995). Objectification Theory (Fredrickson & Roberts, 1997) similarly proposes that through socialisation processes such as sexualised commentary women come to value their own body based predominantly on its physical appearance, as opposed to their personal qualities and body functionality. The experience of self-objectification can trigger body dissatisfaction, lowered mood, and disordered eating (Fredrickson & Roberts, 1997). Media ideals are one powerful socialisation process with social comparison thought to explain women’s body dissatisfaction in response to viewing idealised images (Dittmar & Howard, 2004). Social comparison theory proposes that individuals have an innate tendency to compare themselves with similar others as a means to evaluate one’s own attributes (Festinger, 1954). Upward comparisons towards targets that are perceived as superior and unattainable can create a discrepancy between a viewer’s actual and ideal physiques that leads to self-objectification and negative psychological outcomes (Tiggemann & Polivy, 2010; Want, 2009).

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Following from these theories, we consider approaches to improving women’s body image by encouraging them to focus on their body functionality. Body functionality refers to everything that the body can do and is a critical component of body appreciation and positive body image (Abbott & Barber, 2011; Franzoi, 1995; Tylka & Wood-Barcalow, 2015). In this paper we focus on the physical functionality of the body which can be displayed via exercise. To date, body image media research has focused predominantly upon female models presented as objectified posed and passive objects to be viewed, for example, the focus on thin-ideal in the meta-analysis of Grabe et al. (2008). However, the cultural ideal of women’s bodily attractiveness is becoming more muscular and toned (Homan, McHugh, Wells, Watson, & King, 2012; Thompson, van den Berg, Roehrig, Guarda, & Heinberg, 2004). Thus, an athletic and active, albeit still idealised form, is now commonplace (Homan, 2010) and is often presented as a ‘heathier’ alternative with a focus on fitness (e.g., Webb et al., 2017) compared to the traditional thinideal. Researchers have argued that an emphasis on the functionality of the body may help women to be less focused on aesthetic concerns and ward off self-objectification (Franzoi, 1995; Fredrickson & Roberts, 1997). Indeed, correlational studies have found that women who placed greater emphasis on the functionality of their bodies reported less negative mood and body-esteem problems (Abbott & Barber, 2010; Wasylkiw & Butler,2014). Appreciation of one’s functionality has also been correlated with a range of positive experiences such as intuitive eating, holding a broad conceptualisation of beauty, components of self-compassion, and life satisfaction (Alleva, Tylka, & Kroon Van Diest, 2017). The benefits of functionality may however breakdown when women are exposed to imagery of women displaying the physical functionality of their bodies in an idealised manner. Experimental findings have shown that images of models who are presented in a physically active context, but are still attractive and thin, elicit the same negative impact upon women’s body dissatisfaction as images of models that are presented in more traditional posed forms (Mask, Blanchard, & Baker, 2014; Mulgrew & Hennes, 2015; Mulgrew & Tiggemann, 2016; Robinson et al., 2017; Tiggemann & Zaccardo, 2015). One potential explanation is that regardless of whether the model is posed or physically active, women have been socialised to focus on appearance dimensions (Mulgrew & Hennes, 2015; Tiggemann & Zaccardo,2015). Alternatively, images focused on physical fitness capacities may maintain a focus on thinness and body tone, which can provide a further unachievable standard for women to accomplish (Mask et al., 2014). Thus, evidence to date suggests that idealised depictions of women can trigger negative body image outcomes, regardless of the context in which they are presented. However, there remains only a small number of experimental studies which have explicitly compared active versus posed depictions and therefore we consider both styles in the current study. Exposure to non-idealised depictions of women exercising may produce better outcomes via encouraging women to focus on their body functionality. Recent research has examined whether encouraging women to focus on the functionality component of their own body (Alleva, Martijn, Jansen, & Nederkoorn, 2014; Alleva, Martijn, Van Breukelen, Jansen, & Karos, 2015; Alleva, Veldhuis, & Martijn, 2016) or the physical functionality of a model’s body (Mulgrew & Tiggemann, 2016) might mitigate negative body image outcomes. A functionality focus may help individuals to view the body in a more holistic manner (Alleva et al., 2015) with a focus on what the body can do rather than how it looks. Alleva et al. (2014, 2015, 2016) have developed and refined a writing task wherein respondents write about the various functions of their body such as movement, health, and relationships, and how these functions are personally mean-

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ingful. Initially, Alleva et al. (2014) found that a single-session of the functionality-focused writing task requiring 100 words did not decrease undergraduate women’s body dissatisfaction, although decreases were noted for older women aged 30–50 years. An expanded three session version of the writing task, each session lasting 15 min, used in a later study resulted in increased body satisfaction, and less self-objectification for young adult women who reported body dissatisfaction (Alleva et al., 2015). Completion of a 15-min single session functionality writing task was also found to offer some protective benefits to functionality satisfaction and body appreciation when viewing posed and idealised images, but did not extend to appearance satisfaction (Alleva et al., 2016). Using a focus on physical functionality domains (e.g., health, physical ability, well-functioning body), Mulgrew and Tiggemann (2016) found that reflections on a model’s physical functionality, comparisons to idealised models across physical functionality elements, or functional fitness style images produced poorer body image outcomes than aesthetic-based analogues. Therefore, when it comes to some aspects of physical capacities, women may have difficulty in separating the functional and appearance elements of their own and other’s bodies. ‘Fitspirational’ images are one such example of the mixture between a physical functionality and appearance focus, with idealised images of women either in posed or active forms, which are viewed for fitness inspiration on social media. Tiggemann and Zaccardo (2015) found that appearance comparisons fully mediated the effect of ‘fitspiration’ images on body image, suggesting that negative effects were compounded when women viewed the fitness models as more attractive than themselves. Interestingly, women in this study reported being more inspired to exercise after viewing the fitspiration images. Similarly, Robinson et al. (2017) found that the women in their study also increased in their intentions to exercise, but this did not translate into actual exercise behaviour in a lab setting. These authors suggested that a more naturalistic test of whether these images increase levels of exercise is needed. Exposure to campaigns which focus on ‘everyday’ women exercising may model a healthier approach to exercise and encourage women to reflect upon and improve the functionality of their bodies (Daniels, 2009, 2012; Wasilenko, Kulik, & Wanic, 2007). We therefore tested whether exposure to less idealised depictions of women engaging in exercise may also produce the same increased exercise intentions as has been noted with exposure to idealised depictions. We also examined changes to actual exercise behaviour (Study 2) across the following week to allow women to exercise in natural settings. Franzoi (1995) originally suggested that encouraging women to participate in physical activity may shift a self-objectified object orientation to one where a woman can appreciate her body’s functionality, encourage physical competence, and improve bodyesteem. Correspondingly, women who had more conversations about exercise reported greater body appreciation (Wasylkiw & Butler, 2014). Meta-analytic research has demonstrated small to moderate effect sizes for the efficacy of exercise interventions designed to improve body satisfaction (Campbell & Hausenblas, 2009). However exercise type moderates this relationship, as cardio-based exercise has been related to self-objectification, disordered eating, and poorer body esteem whereas yoga participation was associated with lower self-objectification (Prichard & Tiggemann, 2008). Thus, only certain types and reasons for exercise are associated with positive body image outcomes (Campbell & Hausenblas, 2009; Prichard & Tiggemann,2008). Peer influence may also modify this relationship, as women were found to exercise more and reported greater body satisfaction when in the proximity of a normal-fit peer or unfit peer, whilst those who exercised near an ultra-fit peer exercised less (Wasilenko et al., 2007). That is, self-evaluation that occurs through either upward or downward

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social comparison processes has been implicated in increasing or decreasing women’s exercise behaviour (Wasilenko et al., 2007). 1.1. Rationale for research This study extends the research on functionality-based interventions. Mulgrew and Tiggemann (2016) suggested it is the context of the functionality-based focus that needs to be addressed. Media campaigns such as ‘This Girl Can’ (TGC; Sport England, 2015) and #jointhemovement (JTM; Queensland Government, 2016) show a diverse range of women demonstrating realistic depictions of exercise in a non-objectified manner. Women with a range of body sizes, shapes, and abilities are shown engaging in exercise where they are sweating with body fat jiggling. These depictions may encourage women to view their bodies in functionality terms and normalise how the body looks during exercise. In turn, women may report greater intentions to exercise. The current study investigated (a) the impact of exposure on immediate physical functionality and appearance satisfaction, and intentions to exercise; and (b) whether these outcomes offered any protective benefits for women when faced with a body image ‘threat’ in the form of idealised imagery. Previous research found that exposure to the 75 s Dove Evolution commercial showing the unrealistic nature of idealised magazine images mitigated drops in body satisfaction when viewing idealised music videos in young adult women (Quigg & Want, 2011) or viewing thin-ideal imagery in adolescent girls (Halliwell, Easun, & Harcourt, 2011, but see also Cragg, Mulgrew, & KannisDymand, 2017, who found no effect). We therefore examined whether these campaigns could also serve to offset the landscape of negative media imagery by providing more positive role models for women. We examined effects across idealised depictions of women in both posed and physically active images. We tentatively expected similar outcomes across image type but tested whether the physical functionality-focused campaigns may differentially affect the way women viewed the active images. A secondary aim was to examine changes to exercise intentions and exercise behaviour 1–2 weeks later to assess any longevity of effects. Finally, social comparison across appearance and functionality domains were assessed. By presenting non-idealised depictions of women exercising, wherein the physical capabilities of the body are shown, the level of harmful upward social comparison may be disrupted. Across two studies, we exposed women to the TGC (Study 1) and JTM (Study 2) campaigns (or a control video) and assessed their intentions to exercise, appearance satisfaction, and physical functionality satisfaction before and after the videos. We then exposed them to images of idealised posed or active models, or neutral magazine-style images and again measured their satisfaction as well social comparison. We hypothesised that women who viewed the campaign would have higher satisfaction with their appearance, physical functionality, exercise intent, and 1-week exercise behaviour, compared to women who viewed the control video. We also tentatively hypothesised that women may obtain a protective benefit from the previously viewed campaign when looking at idealised images, such that they would have better appearance and physical functionality satisfaction, and less appearance or physical functionality social comparison, than women who viewed the control video. We also expected that greater levels of both types of social comparison would be related to poorer satisfaction after viewing the idealised images. 2. Study 1 TGC: method 2.1. Participants Participants were 339 females aged 17–35 years (M = 24.94, SD = 4.98) recruited from an Australian university (44%) and the

general community (55%). Body mass index (BMI) ranged from 14.88 to 50.69 (M = 23.68, SD = 4.66). Participants were predominantly Caucasian (89.4%) and were currently completing, or had completed, university or trade study (87.8%). Most participants reported reading a paper-based or online magazine in the past month (57.5%). The majority (63%) of participants reported being consistently physically active, defined as a minimum of 3 sessions per week, 27% reported irregular exercise, and 10% were consistent non-exercisers. 2.2. Materials 2.2.1. Demographic form Participant’s self-reported their age, height, weight, ethnicity, educational level, and magazine consumption in the previous month. 2.2.2. Campaign The TGC (Sports England, 2015) campaign depicts women exercising in a variety of contexts such as swimming, running, and dancing, who are of varying age, ability, and body shape, set to upbeat music. The women are portrayed in a realistic, nonobjectified manner with motivational slogans throughout such as “I jiggle therefore I am” and “Sweating like a pig, feeling like a fox”. The control video was an advertisement for an electric car with a similarly upbeat feel but contained no people. Both videos lasted 1.5 min. 2.2.3. Images The 8 posed and 8 active images previously used by Mulgrew and Tiggemann (2016) portrayed young, thin, and attractive female models. Models in the posed condition were highly staged with a focus on the appearance of the body, i.e., body presented an object to be viewed. Models in the active condition were displaying the physical capabilities of their bodies by engaging in exercise, i.e., the physical process elements were emphasised. Both sets of models were dressed in revealing clothing such as swimsuits or crop-tops. The images were matched on level of body exposure, perceived attractiveness and thinness, and were rated as representative of object or physical process descriptions (Mulgrew & Tiggemann, 2016). The 8 landscape images did not contain humans. Each image was presented for 14 s within a 2 min and 9 s computerised slideshow. 2.2.4. State satisfaction and exercise intent Eight items were derived from prior research to assess state changes in appearance and physical functionality satisfaction (Mulgrew & Hennes, 2015; Mulgrew & Tiggemann,2016). Four items assessed appearance satisfaction: overall appearance/overall weight/shape/body fat. Four items assessed physical functionality satisfaction: body tone/physical strength/body movement/what the body can do. One item was developed based upon Ajzen’s (2006) theory of planned behaviour and measured women’s intent to exercise over the following week (“How strong are your intentions to exercise over the next week?”). Participants were asked to report how they felt “right now” on a 10-point Likert scale anchored with polar statements not at all and very much. Higher scores were reflective of greater appearance and physical functionality satisfaction and exercise intent. To avoid demand characteristics the study presented distractor mood items consistent with other body image research designs (Knobloch-Westerwick & Crane, 2012). All items were randomised. The Cronbach’s alphas for pre-test appearance satisfaction (␣ = .95) and physical functionality satisfaction (␣ = .92) were similar to those reported by Mulgrew and Tiggemann (2016).

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2.2.5. Amount of appearance and functionality comparison Six items from previous research (Mulgrew & Tiggemann, 2016) assessed participants’ amount of social comparison to the images. Four items assessed how much women thought about and compared their general appearance and specific body parts (␣ = .96) and two items assessed how much they thought about and compared the physical functionality of their body while viewing the models (␣ = .85). Responses were recorded via a 10-point Likert scale anchored with not at all and very much. Scores across respective items were averaged to create a total score of appearance-based social comparison and a total score representing the amount of physical functionality-based social comparison. Higher scores indicated greater levels of comparison.

2.2.6. Memory check Participants were asked to pay close attention to the videos and images as they would be asked questions about the content. A single digit number was included within the videos and image and participants were prompted to remember it and then to recall it at the completion of the video/image set. Participants who did not provide a response or incorrectly recalled the numbers were deleted from the sample (n = 61).

2.3. Procedure The institution of the first author granted ethics approval. University participants were accessed through lectures, announcements, and a first year course credit program. Participants from the general community were recruited through social networking sites including those of the researchers, colleagues, and community groups. A cover story suggested the researchers were interested in the media’s impact on women’s physical and psychological health, but participants were not informed of the hypotheses or the multiple conditions. Upon entering the online study, participants responded to demographic questions and pre-test state measures prior to random allocation to view one of the videos. Participants then completed the mid-point state measures before being randomly assigned to view one of the image sets. Participants then completed post-image state measures followed by the appearance and physical functionality comparison questions. Participants were

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provided with the contact details of three support services should the content of the survey raise any difficulties for them. 3. Results G*Power software version 3.1 (Faul, Erdfelder, Lang, & Buchner, 2007) demonstrated that the final sample size for both studies was sufficient to detect a small effect size (.25) with the power of .80 and an alpha level of .05 based upon analysis of covariance (ANCOVA). 3.1. Preliminary analyses All state measures were highly inter-correlated within each set and therefore combined to produce one overall measure of appearance satisfaction, rs from .79 to .93, and one measure of physical functionality satisfaction, rs from .63 to .94. There were no significant differences on BMI, age, or pre-test state measures between women in different Video or Image conditions, suggesting random allocation to conditions. Participants were removed if they took less than 5 min or more than 40 min to complete the survey (n = 12). Most participants completed the survey within this time range with the upper limit selected as one that might reasonably represent the responses of a non-research savvy participant. The mean time to complete the survey by remaining participants was 14.05 min (SD = 6.23 min). 3.2. Effects of viewing campaign ANCOVAs were conducted with Video (TGC vs control video) as the independent variable, post-video state measures as dependent variables, and respective pre-test scores and BMI as covariates. Effect size, f, can be interpreted as a small (.10), medium (.25), or large (.40; Faul et al., 2007) effect. Full descriptive statistics are found in Table 1. 3.2.1. Physical functionality satisfaction There was no significant difference between women who viewed the TGC video (M = 5.97, SE = 0.05) and the control video (M = 5.83, SE = 0.05) in post-video functionality satisfaction, F(1, 333) = 2.70, p > .05, f = .09.

Table 1 Covariate-Adjusted Appearance Satisfaction, Physical Functionality Satisfaction, Exercise Intent, and 1-Week Exercise Behaviour Scores as a Function of Video and Image Type (Study 1). Campaign/Video TGC

Control Image Condition

Variables

Posed M (SE)

Active M (SE)

Landscape M (SE)

Posed M (SE)

Active M (SE)

Landscape M (SE)

Appearance Satisfaction Post-video Post-images

5.39 (0.09) 4.96 (0.08)

5.37 (0.10) 4.97 (0.09)

5.11 (0.09) 5.21 (0.08)

5.26 (0.09) 5.05 (0.08)

5.11 (0.09) 5.02 (0.08)

5.13 (0.10) 5.25 (0.09)

Physical Functionality Satisfaction Post-video Post-images

5.93 (0.09) 5.71 (0.09)

5.99 (0.10) 5.60 (0.11)

5.98 (0.09) 5.75 (0.11)

5.90 (0.09) 5.76 (0.10)

5.78 (0.09) 5.43 (0.10)

5.82 (0.10) 5.00 (0.11)

Exercise Intent Post-video Post-images

8.45 (0.09) 8.31 (0.10)

8.31 (0.10) 8.12 (0.12)

8.62 (0.10) 8.19 (0.10)

8.19 (0.10) 8.48 (0.11)

8.15 (0.10) 8.42 (0.11)

8.26 (0.11) 8.31 (0.12)

Amount App. Comparison Amount Funct. Comparison

6.33 (0.34) 5.98 (0.31)

5.56 (0.40) 5.65 (0.37)

– –

6.10 (0.37) 5.65 (0.34)

5.72 (0.37) 6.13 (0.34)

– –

Note. M = mean; SE = standard error; TGC = This Girl Can campaign; Amount Funct. Comparison = Amount of state physical functionality social comparison; Amount App. Comparison = Amount of state appearance social comparison. Post-video scores are covariate adjusted by body mass index and respective pre-test satisfaction or intent scores. Post-image scores are covariate adjusted by body mass index, and respective pre-test and post-video satisfaction or intent scores. Comparison scores are adjusted by body mass index.

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3.2.2. Appearance satisfaction Women who viewed the TGC video reported higher post-video scores of appearance satisfaction (M = 5.53, SE = 0.05) than women who viewed the control video (M = 5.17, SE = 0.06), F(1, 334) = 16.49, p < .001, f = .22. 3.2.3. Exercise intention Post-video exercise intent was significantly higher in response to TGC (M = 8.47, SE = 0.06) compared to control video (M = 8.20, SE = 0.06), F(1, 335) = 9.70, p < .01, f = .17. 3.3. Protective benefit of campaign To test the second set of hypotheses, analyses were performed to examine whether viewing the videos would offer any protective benefits when women then viewed idealised images. ANCOVAs were conducted with Video and Image as independent variables, BMI, pre-test and post-video scores as covariates, and respective post-image scores as the dependent variable. Significant effects were followed up via pairwise comparisons across each level of the independent variable. 3.3.1. Physical functionality satisfaction There was no significant Video by Image interaction, F(2, 331) = 1.59, p > .05, f = .10, no significant main effect of Video, F(1, 331) = 0.49, p > .05, f = .04, however there was a significant main effect of Image, F(2, 331) = 5.36, p < .01, f = .18. Women who viewed the active images had significantly poorer post-image physical functionality satisfaction (M = 5.43, SE = 0.07) than women who viewed the scenery (M = 5.88, SE = 0.07, p = .001) or posed images (M = 5.74, SE = 0.07, p = .05). The latter two conditions were not significantly different (p > .05). 3.3.2. Appearance satisfaction There was no significant Video by Image interaction, F(2, 331) = .04, p > .05 f = .01, no main effect of Video, F(1, 331) = .68, p > .05, f = .04, but a significant main effect of Image, F(2, 331) = 4.51, p = .01, f = .16. Women who viewed the scenery images reported significantly higher post-image appearance satisfaction (M = 2.23, SE = .06) than women who viewed either the active (M = 4.99, SE = .06, p < .01) or posed images (M = 5.00, SE = .06, p = .01). The latter two conditions were not significantly different (p > .05). 3.3.3. Amount of functionality and appearance comparison Video by Image ANCOVAs were conducted on the outcome variables of state physical functionality comparison and state appearance comparison, with BMI as a covariate. There were no significant effects found for either measure, all F values < 1.00. Partial correlations were used to test the relationship between social comparison to the posed or active images and post-image satisfaction scores, controlling for BMI, pre- and mid-test satisfaction scores. These correlations were conducted for each video condition to examine whether the correlations were weaker for women who viewed the TGC video. A probability cut-off of .025 (.05/2) was used to account for the number of analyses. Greater levels of appearance-based comparisons were related to less satisfaction with appearance after viewing the posed images in both the TGC (r = −.31, p = .01) and control video (r = −.38, p < .01) and after viewing the active images in the control video condition (r = −.37, p < .01). Greater levels of physical functionality-based comparison were associated with less satisfaction with appearance after viewing the active images in the control video condition (r = −.33, p = .01). No other correlations, including those with post-video physical functionality satisfaction, were significant.

4. Discussion Viewing the brief TGC campaign resulted in significantly better appearance satisfaction and exercise intentions than viewing the control video. Despite these positive outcomes, viewing the TGC video did not appear to offer a consistent protective benefit when faced with a body image ‘threat’ in the form of idealised images of models. Women experienced lower physical functionality satisfaction when exposed to the active images, and lower appearance satisfaction when exposed to either the posed or active images, compared to women who viewed the scenery images. A brief campaign is likely not salient enough to counteract a history of exposure to, and internalisation of, idealised and objectified media content. Social comparison levels were equally high across both image types, regardless of which video women had previously viewed. Finally, greater levels of comparison were associated with poorer outcomes after viewing the idealised images, although effects were not consistent across conditions. One factor not considered here was the levels of previous exposure to the campaign. Familiarity with the clip may allow women time to reflect upon the meaning of the content and incorporate the message into their daily lives. Further, during data collection, an Australian analogue of the clip was released. The aim of Study 2 therefore was to replicate the findings of Study 1 with the similarlythemed clip. We asked women to describe the perceived purpose of the clip to see whether the expected concepts of encouraging physical activity across diverse body shapes would be identified. A general research question about whether participants were familiar with the clip was also tested. We also included a more nuanced measure of social comparison which took into account the direction of social comparison to the idealised imagery. We expected that greater engagement in appearance- or physical functionalitybased upward social comparison, that is, perception that one is worse off than the models viewed, would be associated with poorer outcomes. Finally, we added a 1-week follow-up measure of actual exercise behaviour in addition to exercise intentions. 5. Study 2 JTM: method 5.1. Participants Participants were 256 women aged 17–35 years (M = 26.46, SD = 5.50), recruited from an Australian regional university (39%) and the general community (61%). Most women were Caucasian (90.7%), were currently studying or had completed some type of study (79%), with an average BMI of 25.15 (SD = 5.02, range 15.62–43.36). The sample were reasonably active with 62.5% consistently exercising at least 3 times per week, 27.5% were irregular exercisers, and 10% were regular non-exercisers. The sample were active media consumers with most reading a paper-based or online magazine in the last month (62.3%). 5.2. Materials and procedure The images and questions for state satisfaction, exercise intention, demographics, memory check, and amount of social comparison to the images were the same as Study 1. The procedure was also the same with the exception of the different campaign and questions about women’s familiarity and views on the clips. Participants were also invited to participate in an online 1-week follow-up study with data across the stages linked via a code. At 1-week follow-up, participants were asked to report the amount of exercise they had completed from the prior week. No information was gathered about whether participants had previously completed Study 1, although data collection for Study 2 commenced four months after Study 1 closed, reducing the likelihood any carry-over effects.

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Table 2 Covariate-Adjusted Appearance Satisfaction, Physical Functionality Satisfaction, and Exercise Intent Scores as a Function of Video and Image Type (Study 2). Campaign/Video JTM

Control Image Condition

Variables

Posed M (SE)

Active M (SE)

Landscape M (SE)

Posed M (SE)

Active M (SE)

Landscape M (SE)

Appearance Satisfaction Post-video Post-images

5.44 (0.13) 4.89 (0.11)

5.17 (0.12) 4.77 (0.11)

5.19(0.13) 5.03 (0.11)

5.07 (0.13) 4.86 (0.11)

5.08 (0.13) 5.06 (0.11)

5.00 (0.13) 5.02 (0.12)

Functionality Satisfaction Post-video Post-images

6.19 (0.12) 5.93 (0.12)

5.96 (0.11) 5.49 (0.11)

6.13 (0.12) 5.94 (0.11)

6.07 (0.12) 5.92 (0.12)

6.13 (0.11) 5.80 (0.12)

6.07 (0.12) 5.94 (0.13)

Exercise Intent Post-video Post-images

8.50 (0.09) 8.09 (0.09)

8.45 (0.08) 8.40 (0.09)

8.54 (0.09) 8.38 (0.10)

8.13 (0.09) 8.44 (0.10)

8.44 (0.09) 8.38 (0.09)

8.40 (0.10) 8.37 (0.10)

Amount App. Comparison Amount Funct. Comparison Direction App. Comparison Direction Funct. Comparison

5.49 (0.43) 5.56 (0.43) 4.54 (0.30) 5.79 (0.31)

6.75 (0.41) 6.72 (0.40) 3.69 (0.28) 4.24 (0.29)

– – – –

5.64 (0.43) 4.96 (0.43) 4.29 (0.30) 4.71 (0.31)

4.97 (0.43) 5.44 (0.42) 4.21 (0.30) 4.75 (0.30)

– – – –

Note. M = mean; SE = standard error; JTM = #jointhemovement campaign; App. = appearance; Funct. = functionality. All scores are covariate adjusted by body mass index and pre-test physical functionality satisfaction. In addition, post-video scores are covariate adjusted respective pre-test satisfaction or intent scores. Post-image scores are covariate adjusted by respective pre-test and post-video satisfaction or intent scores.

5.2.1. Direction of social comparison Two items were used to assess the direction of state social companion. Women were asked to indicate if they felt their appearance (item 1) and their physical functionality, defined as health, fitness, and strength (item 2), was much better (1) to much worse (10) than the models previously viewed. 5.2.2. Campaign Part of the larger Start Playing Stay Planning campaign, the #jointhemovement video (1:44 min, Queensland Government, 2016) shows a positive and realistic representation of the female body shape engaging in exercise. The campaign aims to encourage women to lead an active lifestyle. The advertisement included women from different ethnic backgrounds, ages, and body shapes. The control video was an advertisement for dog food lasting 1:42 min which contained no people and no associations to body image or sport. 5.2.3. Familiarity and purpose of video Women were asked whether they had previously seen the video and to describe the perceived purpose of the video.

6. Results 6.1. Preliminary analyses High inter-correlations between the four items of appearance satisfaction (rs .79 − .88), and physical functionality satisfaction (rs .76 − .80) resulted in the items being combined to form a combined measure of appearance satisfaction and a combined measure of physical functionality satisfaction. Participants were excluded if they took less than 6 min or more than 50 min to complete the survey (n = 12). The remaining participants took an average of 16 min (SD = 5.53 min) to complete the survey. There were no differences across image or video conditions for age or BMI. There were no significant differences across the image conditions for pre-test satisfaction scores, however there was a significant difference between video conditions on physical functionality pre-test, which was used as a covariate across all analyses. Prior exposure to the campaign was poor with only 19% of partic-

ipants reporting having previously seen JTM. Descriptive statistics for all analyses are shown in Table 2. 6.2. Effects of viewing campaign A series of between-groups ANCOVAs were conducted with Video as the independent variable, pre-test scores and BMI as covariates, and post-video appearance satisfaction, physical functionality satisfaction, exercise intent, and exercise behaviour as dependent variables. 6.2.1. Physical functionality satisfaction There were no differences in post-video scores between women who viewed JTM (M = 6.10, SE = 0.06) and control video (M = 6.10, SE = 0.07), F(1, 253) < .01, p > .05, f < .01. 6.2.2. Appearance satisfaction Women who viewed JTM reported higher post-video scores (M = 5.26, SE = 0.77) than women who viewed the control video (M = 5.03, SE = 0.08), F(1, 253) = 3.82, p = .05, f = .12, although this finding was only at the p = .05 level. 6.2.3. Exercise intent Women who viewed JTM had significantly stronger intentions to exercise (M = 8.49, SE = 0.05) than women who viewed the control video (M = 8.32, SE = 0.05), F(1, 252) = 4.51, p = .03, f = .13. 6.2.4. Exercise behaviour There was no significant difference in actual exercise behaviour at one-week follow-up between women who viewed JTM (M = 4.99 h, SE = 1.22, n = 23) or the control video (M = 6.06 h, SE = 1.16, n = 25), F(1, 47) = 0.35, p > .05, f = .09. 6.3. Protective benefits of campaign As per Study 1, the potential protective benefits of viewing the video were tested via a series ANCOVAs with Video and Image as independent variables, BMI, pre-test and post-video scores as covariates, and the respective post-image scores as the dependent variable. Significant effects were further analysed via pairwise comparisons between each level of the independent variable.

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6.3.1. Functionality satisfaction There was no significant Video by Image interaction, F(2, 247) = 1.07, p > .05, f = .09, or a main effect of Video, F(1, 247) = 1.01, p > .05, f = .06, but there was a main effect of Image, F(2, 247) = 3.70, p = .02, f = .17. Women who viewed the active images reported significant poorer post-image scores on physical functionality satisfaction (M = 5.65, SE = 0.08) compared to women who viewed the posed images (M = 5.93, SE = 0.08, p = .02) or the scenery images (M = 5.94, SE = 0.09, p = .01). The latter two conditions were not significantly different (p > .05). 6.3.2. Appearance satisfaction There was no significant Video by Image interaction, F(2, 248) = 1.28, p > .05 f = .10, no main effect of Video, F(2, 248) = 0.76, p > .05 f = .05, or main effect of Image, F(1, 248) = 0.84, p > .05, f = .08. 6.3.3. Amount of appearance and functionality comparison Video by Image ANCOVAs were conducted on the outcome variables of state functionality comparison and state appearance comparison with BMI and pre-test functionality satisfaction as covariates. For appearance comparison, there was a significant Video by Image interaction, F(1, 171) = 5.48, p = .02, f = .18, which was further examined by comparing the level of comparisons to each image type. Women reported higher appearance comparisons to the active images if they had previously viewed the JTM video compared to if they had watched the control video, F(1, 87) = 7.41, p < .01, f = .29. There was no difference in appearance comparisons to the posed images between the two videos. For physical functionality comparisons, there was no significant interaction, but a significant main effect for Image, F(1, 170) = 4.27, p = .04, f = .16, which showed that physical functionality comparison was higher for women who viewed the active images (M = 6.08, SE = 0.28) compared to the posed images (M = 5.20, SE = 0.30). There was also a significant main effect of Video, F(1, 170) = 4.18, p = .04, f = .16, which showed that functionality comparison was higher for women who viewed the JTM video (M = 6.08, SE = 0.28) compared to the control video (M = 5.20, SE = 0.30). 6.3.4. Direction of appearance and functionality comparison Partial correlations were conducted between post-image satisfaction and direction of comparison scores with an ␣ = .025 (i.e., .05/2, to control for the number of analyses). Pre- and mid-test satisfaction scores were used as covariates. Viewing JTM did not appear to modify comparison processes, especially with subsequent viewing of posed imagery. Greater upward appearance comparison was associated with lower satisfaction with appearance across JTM, r = −.58, p < .001, and control, r = −.44, p < .01, videos, and less satisfaction with physical functionality across JTM, r = −.41, p = .01, and control, r = −.42, p < .01, videos. Similarly, greater upward physical functionality-based comparison was associated with less satisfaction with appearance across JTM, r = −.43, p < .01, and control, r = −.38, p = .01, videos, and less satisfaction with physical functionality across JTM, r = −.37, p = .02, and control, r = −.43, p < .01, videos. Less consistent results were found when viewing posed images. Increased appearance comparison was associated with less satisfaction with physical functionality for JTM video condition, r = −.36, p < .025. No other effects were noted. 6.3.5. Perceived purpose of campaign A research assistant conducted a basic thematic analysis (Braun & Clarke, 2006) which was then examined by the first author. Any discrepancies in identified themes were discussed. One major theme with 3 sub-themes emerged from the 118 responses, which are shown in Table 3 (Supplementary File). Each response

could contain multiple themes. The most common theme, mentioned by 84% of women, was that the campaign’s purpose was to empower/motivate/encourage women to exercise and lead a healthy lifestyle. A sub-theme to emerge (noted by 43% of women) extended this motivational theme by noting that exercise is encouraged across a diverse range of women, and specifically noted a range of body shapes, abilities, ethnicities, and ages. Six respondents specifically noted that the women in the campaign could serve as more relatable and realistic role models. A second sub-theme, noted by 11% of women, was that the campaign showed exercise to be fun. The final sub-theme, noted by only 2.5% of women, was the campaign encouraged women to exercise for reasons other than appearance such as health or enjoyment.

7. Discussion Results were similar to Study 1: women who viewed the brief functionality-focused JTM campaign had higher post-video intentions to exercise and satisfaction with the appearance of their body (at p = .05), but not satisfaction with physical functionality, compared to women who viewed the control video. The increased exercise intentions did not translate into greater exercise behaviour at one-week follow-up. Viewing JTM also did not offer a protective advantage when women were exposed to idealised media imagery. The JTM video also appeared to result in increased physical functionality-based comparisons, particularly to the active images. Correlations showed that greater upward comparison, whether appearance or functionality based, was reasonably consistently related to poorer outcomes when viewing the images, even when women had previously viewed the JTM advertisement. Most women had not previously seen the advertisement (81%), which was surprising given that it was being shown on prime-time, free-to-view television in Australia at the time of data collection. Recognition rates from other Australian campaigns have been higher (e.g., 27%, 29%, and 52% across sexual health campaigns, Lim, Gold, Bowring, Pedrana, & Hellard, 2015). This lack of awareness may reflect the increasing popularity of paid subscription services such as Netflix which do not include advertisements. However, qualitative analysis showed that women were aware of the key messages. As expected, the themes of encouraging women of all body shapes and sizes to engage in exercise were identified by participants. As noted in the public health literature, simple awareness is not sufficient, but rather the extent to which the viewer is interested in, and engages with, the content (Randolph & Viswanath, 2004). Both campaigns do have an active online and social media presence which includes still images, tips for increasing physical activity, and links to public events. Multifaceted approaches to message dissemination are likely to be most effective.

8. General discussion Collectively, results show that the two recent media campaigns with a focus on physical functionality, This Girl Can and #jointhemovement, can produce immediate benefits in young women’s appearance satisfaction and intention to exercise, however these results were not maintained when exposed to a body image ‘threat’ in the form of idealised images of models. Further, they did not help to mitigate negative social comparison processes. It is likely that a brief media campaign was not sufficient and women will need greater assistance in overcoming a lifetime’s worth of exposure to idealised imagery in the media. Regardless, the campaigns are important in encouraging a broad conceptualisation of beauty; a central tenant of positive body image movements (e.g., Tylka & Wood-Barcalow, 2015).

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Both campaigns were effective in the short term in producing greater satisfaction with how the body looks, as compared to viewing a control video, albeit some differences were small. No benefits were found for satisfaction with what the body can do. Previous research has found that an emphasis on various components of functionality of the body can result in positive outcomes across both appearance and/or functionality satisfaction (e.g., Abbott & Barber, 2010; Alleva et al., 2015; Daniels, 2009, 2012; Franzoi, 1995). Here, we extend the findings to public health campaigns and demonstrate positive outcomes in some domains only. Body conceptualisation theory states that by focusing on the body’s active, dynamic, and instrumental components rather than viewing the body in a passive and objectified manner, women may become less concerned about bodily appearance and place a greater value on what the body can do, believed to improve body satisfaction (e.g., Abbott & Barber, 2010; Franzoi, 1995). Participants who viewed JTM commented on the diverse representations of women in the video but women may need more assistance in viewing and reflecting upon their bodies in functionality terms, despite recognising that an appreciation of functionality is important for positive body image (Wood-Barcalow, Tylka, & Augustus-Horvath, 2010). Finally, it may be that images of happy and active women are still seen as an unachievable ideal, similar to the idealised athletic ideal (Mask et al., 2014), particularly if women are not currently active, do not feel empowered by the campaign, or feel that it still contains objectifying features. Future research could explore these arguments by disentangling feelings of satisfaction from desire to be active and self-efficacy to achieve fitness goals. The benefits to appearance satisfaction are promising and generally consistent with previous research that has found women who viewed images of athletes of average weight reported greater feelings of body satisfaction than women who viewed ‘active’ models who were thinner and presented in sexualised ways (Daniels, 2009, 2012; Homan et al., 2012). Our qualitative analysis revealed that women valued the non-idealised and realistic appearance of the women in the videos. Exposure to women of varied body shapes, sizes, and abilities appears to have allowed viewers to reflect more positively upon their own appearance. The benefits of viewing either campaign to increase intentions to exercise in the following week is also promising. Other research has found that women felt more inspired to improve their fitness and eat healthily after viewing fitspiration images although actual behaviour was not assessed and exposure also resulted in body dissatisfaction and poor mood (Tiggemann & Zaccardo, 2015). Therefore, the campaigns of TGC and JTM appear more effective in terms of improving exercise intentions and appearance satisfaction outcomes. Although intentions to exercise increased, actual exercise behaviour in the week following the study did not differ between conditions. One reason may be that 63% of women considered themselves regular exercisers and therefore may not have needed to increase their exercise behaviours. However, it is likely that this value is over-inflated, as only 43% of Australian adults actually meet the National Physical Activity Guidelines for exercise (Australian Bureau of Statistics, 2013). Our simple measure of exercise did not take into account intensity, exact number of sessions, or length of those sessions. Regardless, the television campaigns did not offer a prescriptive plan regarding exercise engagement. A meta-analysis reported that perceived behavioural control is the strongest predictor of exercise behaviour whereby perceived access to necessary resources and opportunities will determine if the behaviour is performed (McEachan, Conner, Taylor, & Lawton, 2011). Additional information is contained on the campaign websites but the current results suggest that future campaigns should include more targeted messages about how to specifically engage in an exercise regime. Importantly, these campaigns should contain information about healthy levels of exercise, perhaps by referring to

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respective government recommendations. Campaigns should also trigger non-appearance motivations for exercise, given the associations with obligatory or excessive exercise and eating disorder symptoms (Mond, Hay, Rodgers, & Owen, 2006). In terms of the second set of hypotheses, neither campaign offered any protective benefit when women were exposed to idealised media imagery. The expectation that exposure to a realistic, non-objectifying video encouraging women to value the physical functionality of their bodies would improve body image outcomes was based on past work showing a range of positive outcomes associated with a functionality body focus (e.g., Alleva et al., 2014, 2015). However, an important distinction is that Alleva and colleagues asked women to reflect upon their own functionality whereas our study presented clips of other women displaying physical functionality. Women may have limited experience in focusing on the functionality of their own and other women’s bodies compared to a long history of exposure to idealised media images with a focus on the aesthetic value of the body. Therefore, a 90 s video may not provide long-lasting outcomes, especially when women are likely to experience regular thin-ideal exposure on a daily basis and have internalised such standards. Future research may benefit from lengthier or repeated exposure to TGC/JTM or similar campaigns to extend an improvement in body satisfaction. These campaigns should also encourage women to reflect positively upon the functionality of their own body. Mere exposure to a functionality-based campaigns may not be enough to change deeply ingrained sociocultural views regarding body image. Past successful media literacy campaigns found to protect woman against body dissatisfaction have required participants to actively engage in recalling media-literacy information (Yamamiya, Cash, Melnyk, Posavac, & Posavac, 2005). Although in Study 2 women were asked to report on the video’s message, more questions might be needed to trigger deeper reflection upon the messages. Women were aware of the purpose of the clip was to encourage exercise and to provide realistic role models yet this did not translate into a protective effect when viewing idealised imagery. Mulgrew and Tiggemann (2016) found that women still experienced poor body image outcomes when encouraged to reflect upon the physical functionality of a model’s body. Together, these results suggest that less idealised depictions of women displaying the physical functionality of their body can improve appearance satisfaction but this effect may not be strong enough to withstand exposure to idealised depictions. Regardless, this brief qualitative component is an important first step in ensuring that women are viewing the video in a positive way. Past research using a similar methodology did find that exposure to a short positive body image advertisement, the Dove ‘Evolution’ campaign, mitigated negative effects of then viewing idealised depictions in music video clips (Quigg & Want, 2011) or idealised imagery (Halliwell et al., 2011), although other research found no benefits (Cragg et al., 2017). There may be a closer connection between the themes of the Dove commercial, e.g., how professional make-up, lighting, and image modifications are used to create idealised imagery, and exposure to thin-ideal content within the same video medium. However, it was expected that the realistic depictions of women displaying body competence via exercise would similarly serve as a protective mechanism when viewing idealised images of women in action. These differences may be due to the change in medium from video campaign to still images or participants being more aware of and familiar with the Dove advertisement. Further research could compare the three campaigns to determine whether appearance-focused media literacy is more effective than functionality-based ones. Support was not found for the comparison hypotheses as women engaged in similar levels of comparison regardless of which video they viewed before exposure to the idealised models. Wor-

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ryingly, there was some evidence that viewing JTM video resulted in increased functionality-based comparisons to the posed images and increased appearance-based comparisons when viewing active images. Correlations showed that greater upward comparison, whether appearance or physical functionality based, were related to poorer outcomes when viewing the images, even when women had previously viewed the JTM advertisement. The findings were surprising considering the potential for TGC and JTM to provide viewers with footage of ‘everyday’ women which could then help to counteract exposure to idealised images. The campaigns may also trigger a self-improvement focus, which has been shown to be protective when viewing thin-ideal models (Halliwell & Dittmar, 2005). Alternatively, the campaigns may have inadvertently encouraged greater comparison to idealised imagery if the videos primed women to reflect upon their bodies. We did not assess viewers’ social comparison to the women in the campaigns, which would be a fruitful area for research. Collectively these results demonstrate the challenge in shifting ingrained social comparison processes which may occur rapidly and without much awareness. 8.1. Limitations, future research directions, and implications A few limitations should be noted. First, awareness of the campaigns was either not tested or was not good. Further research could examine whether women’s awareness and engagement with the material would influence results, as repeated exposure may reinforce the campaign messages. Consumer opinions are important to evaluate as other positive body image interventions such as disclaimer labels have not been well received (e.g., Paraskeva, Lewis-Smith, & Diedrichs, 2017). Second, posthoc analyses revealed some differences in mood items that served as distracters. Post-video sadness levels were significantly lower in both campaigns as compared to the control videos. No differences were found across other distractors of anger, happiness, and thoughtfulness. We tentatively suggest that the upbeat music of the campaigns may account for this finding, but suggest that mood be considered more carefully in future studies of this kind. Third, the benefits of the online delivery of this study such as large reach and anonymity does also have potential problems with lack of control in the form of distraction and influence of others. The memory tests sought to control for fluctuating attention but problems such as interference between number recall and Likert response scales may remain. Fourth, future research may consider including self-objectification. A potential benefit of viewing the body in functionality terms is a reduction in objectification (Franzoi, 1995; Fredrickson & Roberts, 1997) which in turn may encourage women to exercise for non-aesthetic reasons. Relatedly, our measures of exercise intentions and behaviour did not capture the reasons for which women exercised. Appearance-motivated exercise is associated with negative body image yet is often the primary motive for women exercising (Prichard & Tiggemann, 2008). Applied to our results, although no change in exercise behaviour was found, women may have been equally inspired by the campaign but discouraged by the exposure to the idealised images, which resulted in a null outcome. Alternatively, the campaigns gave no concrete tips for increasing physical activity and may therefore benefit from providing specific strategies to increase or initiate exercise behaviour using theoretical paradigms such as Theory of Planned Behaviour (Ajzen, 1988). Although previous correlational research supports the positive outcomes between a functionality-focus and body image and exercise outcomes (e.g., Abbott & Barber, 2010; Wasylkiw & Butler,2014), there are inconsistencies within the experimental research (Alleva et al., 2015; Mulgrew & Tiggemann, 2016). As suggested by Mulgrew and Tiggemann (2016), a focus on one’s

own physical functionality may be useful but this breaks downs when making physical functionality-based comparisons, viewing functionality-focused imagery of active women, or thinking about other’s physical functionality. The work of Alleva and colleagues defined functionality in a much more holistic way by including bodily functions such as eating and sleeping, and using the body within personal relationships. More research using body conceptualisation theory (Franzoi, 1995) is needed, particularly given the increasing popularity of the online fitspiration trend which presents a functionality-focus, albeit in an idealised form. These idealised fitness functionality depictions often retain a strong aesthetic focus. The use of non-idealised imagery of average women remains an important direction for future research which in turn can inform the development of public health campaigns. Finally, our expectation was that women would respond positively to the videos based on their focus on realistic depictions of active female bodies. However, it should be noted that the videos contain other themes, such as encouraging women to engage in stereotypically masculine pursuits and behaviours such as being strong and sweaty, and still contain a focus on the body and need for exercise. One woman is depicted exercising wearing lipstick which may be viewed as objectifying by some viewers. Therefore, more research is needed into women’s qualitative responses to these videos to determine whether the content is inspirational or objectifying and whether they encourage a positive body image focus. Future research could also examine the comparative effectiveness of the two campaigns against each other. It would also be fruitful to examine women’s responsiveness to different formats of the campaign, such as still images and videos, to gain information about the most effective mode of dissemination. Collectively, our results showed that viewing the functionalityfocused campaigns of TGC and JTM resulted in immediate benefits to state appearance satisfaction and intention to exercise, however these benefits were not maintained when women were exposed to idealised images of posed and active models. Evaluation of these campaigns is an important first step in fine-tuning the way in women can be encouraged to value the functions of their bodies and take proactive steps to improve their physical capabilities and health. Appendix A. Supplementary data Supplementary data associated with this article can be found, in the online version, at https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bodyim.2017.11. 007. References Abbott, B. D., & Barber, B. L. (2010). Embodied image: Gender differences in functional and aesthetic body image among Australian adolescents. Body Image, 7, 22–31. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.bodyim.2009.10.004 Ajzen, I. (1988). Attitudes, personality and behavior. Milton Keynes: Open University Press. Ajzen, I. (2006). Constructing a TpB questionnaire: Conceptual and methodological considerations. Retrieved from. http://chuang.epage.au.edu.tw/ezfiles/168/ 1168/attach/20/pta 41176 7688352 57138.pdf Alleva, J. M., Martijn, C., Jansen, A., & Nederkoorn, C. (2014). Body language: Affecting body satisfaction by describing the body in functionality terms. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 38, 181–196. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/ 0361684313507897 Alleva, J. M., Martijn, C., Van Breukelen, G. J. P., Jansen, A., & Karos, K. (2015). Expand Your Horizon: A programme that improves body image and reduces self-objectification by training women to focus on body functionality. Body Image, 15, 81–89. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.bodyim.2015.07.001 Alleva, J. M., Veldhuis, J., & Martijn, C. (2016). A pilot study investigating whether focusing on body functionality can protect women from the potential negative effects of viewing thin-ideal media images. Body Image, 17, 10–13. http://dx. doi.org/10.1016/j.bodyim.2016.01.007 Alleva, J. M., Tylka, T. L., & Kroon Van Diest, A. M. (2017). The Functionality Appreciation Scale (FAS): Development and psychometric evaluation in US

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