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Tidal circulation model for deposition of clastic sediment in epeiric and mioclinal shelf seas
Sedimentary Geology, 18 (1977) 1--12 © Elsevier Scientific Publishing Company, Amsterdam -- Printed in The Netherlands
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TIDAL CIRCULATION MODEL FOR DEPOSITION OF CLASTIC SEDIMENT IN EPEIRIC AND MIOCLINAL SHELF SEAS
GEORGE deVRIES KLEIN Sedimentology Laboratory, Department of Geology, University of Illinois at UrbanaChampaign, Urbana, Ill. 61801 (U.S.A.)
(Received November 24, 1976)
ABSTRACT Klein, G. deV., 1977. Tidal circulation model for deposition of clastic sediment in epeiric and mioclinal shelf seas. Sediment. Geol., 18: 1--12. Quartz arenites and associated mudstones of the late Precambrian and early Paleozoic epeiric and mioclinal shelf seas of the western U.S.A., central U.S.A. and Scotland are interpreted to be analogs of tidal flats and tidal sand bodies. Combinations of sedimentary structures, vertical sequences, textural attributes and paleocurrent patterns confirm their deposition under tide-dominated circulation patterns. Deposition of such "platform" quartz arenites under a tide-dominated regime is consistent with a physical oceanographic law that correlates enhancement of tidal range and tidal current intensity with shelf width. Measurement of paleotidal range sequences in some of these rock units confirms the applicability of this physical oceanographic law to understanding the depositional dynamics of epeiric and mioclinal shelf seas.
INTRODUCTION T h e origin, e n v i r o n m e n t o f d e p o s i t i o n a n d f l o w p r o c e s s e s r e s p o n s i b l e f o r t h e f o r m a t i o n o f clastic s e d i m e n t a r y r o c k s in epeiric a n d m i o c l i n a l shelf seas, such as in t h e late P r e c a m b r i a n a n d early P a l e o z o i c o f t h e w e s t e r n a n d central U.S.A., r e m a i n a p r o b l e m . T h e s e s e d i m e n t s h a v e b e e n i d e n t i f i e d as "shall o w m a r i n e " in origin o n t h e basis o f t h e i r f a u n a l c o n t e n t , y e t t h e i r deposit i o n a l m o d e is b a r e l y u n d e r s t o o d . I n d i v i d u a l studies b y various w o r k e r s p r i o r t o 1 9 7 0 i n d i c a t e d t h a t individual clastic f o r m a t i o n s are o f fluvial or deltaic origin (e.g. P o t t e r , 1 9 6 3 ; Wanless, 1 9 6 3 ; Wanless et al., 1 9 7 0 ) d u r i n g C a r b o n i f e r o u s epeiric d e p o s i t i o n in t h e c e n t r a l U.S.A. O t h e r studies o f b o t h clastic a n d c a r b o n a t e s e d i m e n t s in t h a t region, as well as M e s o z o i c epeiric r o c k s , d e m o n s t r a t e d t h e e x i s t e n c e o f tidal sand b o d y , tidal c h a n n e l , tidal flat a n d t i d e - d o m i n a t e d c a r b o n a t e shoal d e p o s i t s t h e r e (Klein, 1 9 6 5 ; S e d i m e n t o l o g y Seminar, 1966; Hamblin, 1969; Knewston and Hubert, 1969; Pryor and Amaral, 1971; Dott and Roshardt, 1972). Lochman-Balk (1970)recognized e x t e n s i v e tidal flat d e v e l o p m e n t on c r a t o n i c a n d m i o c l i n a l shelf s e d i m e n t s in
2 TABLE I Origin of sedimentary features (by association) in six quartz arenite formations (transport models after Klein, 1971) Sedimentary features and association group
Depositional process (by association group)
Lower Fine-grained Quartzite (Precambrian) (after Klein, 1970b) Group 1 Herringbone cross-stratification with sharp set boundaries Cross-strata with sharp set boundaries Parallel laminae
Association 1 Reversing tidal current bedload transport; tidal current phases of nearly equal flow velocity
Group 2 Reactivation surfaces
Association 2 Time--velocity asymmetry of tidal current bedload transport with alternating dominant tidal current velocity accounting for migration of dunes and sand waves producing cross-strata, and subordinate tidal phase producing reactivation surface and other associated features
Group 3 Interference ripples Ripples oriented obliquely to underlying cross-strata and dunes " B - - C " Sequences
Association 3 Late-stage emergence runoff producing changes in flow direction at shallower depths during ebb tide prior to exposure
Group 4 Wavy bedding Bifurcated and wavy t'laser bedding Isolated thick and flat lenticular bedding Tidal bedding Clay drapes on ripples
Association 4 Alternation of tidal current bedload sediment transport with mud suspension deposition during slack water periods either at high or low tide, or by longer-termed storms
Group 5 Mudcracks
Association 5 Exposure
Group 6 Load casts Pseudonodules
Association 6 Differential loading and compaction due to rapid sediment deposition
Group 7 Washouts
Association 7 Tidal scour
Group 8 "Escape" burrows Tracks and trails Burrows
Association 8 Burrowing; rapid escape by organisms from environment in response to sudden influxes of sediment
Group 9 Fining-upward paleotidal range sequences
Association 9 High rate of tidal flat progradation
TABLE I (continued) Sedimentary features and association group
Depositional process (by association group)
Middle Member, Wood Canyon Formation (Precambrian) (after Klein, 1975a) Group 1 Herringbone cross-strata Cross-strata with sharp set boundaries Parallel laminae
Association 1 (as above)
Gro up 2 Reactivation surfaces Multimodal distribution of set thicknesses of cross-strata
Association 2 (as above)
Group 3 Current ripples superimposed at 90 ° on current ripples Current ripples superimposed at 90 ° on cross-strata Interference ripples "B--C" Sequences of micro-cross-laminae superimposed on cross-strata
Association 3 (as above)
Group 4 Cross-strata with flasers Simple flaser bedding Wavy bedding Isolated thin lenticular bedding Tidal bedding
Association 4 (as above)
Group 5 Mudcracks Runzel marks
Association 5 (as above)
Group 6 Load casts Convolute laminae Pseudonodules
Association 6 (as above)
Group 7 Mud-chip conglomerates at base of washouts
Association 7 (as above)
Group 8 Tracks and trails Monocraterion escape structures Burrows
Association 8 as above)
Group 9 Fining-upward paleotidal range sequences
Association 9 (as above)
4 TABLE I (continued) Sedimentary features and association group
Depositional process (by association group)
Zabriskie Quartzite (Cambrian) (after Barnes and Klein, 19 75) Group 1 Cross-strata with sharp set boundaries Herringbone cross-stratification Parallel laminae Supermature rounding of quartz grains
Association 1 (as above)
Group 2 Reactivation surfaces Multimodal distribution of set thicknesses of cross-strata Supermature rounding of quartz grains
Association 2 (as above)
Group 3 Current ripples superimposed at 90 ° on dunes Interference ripples Current ripples superimposed on scour pits associated with dunes "B--C" sequences
Association 3 (as above)
Group 4 Cross-strata with flasers Simple flaser bedding Tidal bedding Clay drapes over ripples
Association 4 (as above)
Group 5 Mudcracks Raindrop imprints
Association 5 (as above)
Group 6 Pseudonodules Convolute bedding
Association 6 (as above)
Group 7 Washout structures
Association 7 (as above)
Group 8 Tracks and trails Scolithus Monocraterion escape structures Burrows, including those with faecal castings and piercing ripples
Association 8 (as above)
Group 9 Paleotidal range fining-upward sequence (at top only)
Association 9 (as above)
TABLE I (continued) Sedimentary features and association group
Depositional process (by association group)
Eriboll Sandstone (Cambrian) (after Swett et al., 1971) Group 1 Cross-strata with sharp set boundaries Herring-bone cross-stratification Supermature rounding of quartz grains
Association 1 (as above)
Group 2 Reactivation surfaces Multimodal distribution of cross-strata set thicknesses Supermature rounding of quartz grains
Association 2 (as above)
Group 3 Current ripples superimposed at 90 ° in slip faces of dunes and cross-strata Current ripples superimposed obliquely on sets of cross-strata Interference ripples
Association 3 (as above)
Group 5 Mudcracks
Association 5 (as above)
Group 8 Monocraterion escape structures Scolithus
Association 8 (as above)
Eureka Quartzite (Ordovician) (after Klein, 1975b) Group 1 Cross-strata with sharp set boundaries Herringbone cross-strata and micro-crosslaminae Parallel laminae Supermature rounding of quartz grains
Association 1 (as above)
Group 2 Multimodal frequency distribution of set thicknesses of cross-strata and of cross-strata dip angles Supermature rounding of quartz grains
Association 2 (as above)
Group 3 Current ripples "B--C" sequences Current ripples oriented at 90 ° and 180 ° with respect to underlying cross-strata
Association 3 (as above)
6 TABLE I (continued) Sedimentary features and association group
Depositional process (by association group)
Group 4
Association 4 (as above)
Cross-strata with flasers Lenticular bedding Tidal bedding Mudstone drapes of current ripples Group 5
Association 5 (as above)
Mudcracks Group 7
Association 7 (as above)
Mudchip conglomerates at base of washouts and channels Group 8
Association 8 (as above)
Burrows, averaging 40 cm in depth (range 10--80 cm) Tracks and trails Johnson Springs F o r m a t i o n (Ordovician) Group I
Association 1 (as above)
Herringbone cross-strata Cross-strata with sharp set boundaries Supermature rounding of quartz grains Group 2
Association 2 (as above)
Bimodal distribution of set thicknesses of cross-strata Group 3
Association 3 (as above)
"B--C" Sequences Current ripples obliquely oriented to underlying cross-strata Group 4
Association 4 (as above)
Simple flaser bedding Group 8
Association 8 (as above)
Burrowing with average depth of 30 cm (range 10--50 cm)
the western United States during Cambrian time. A r e s o l u t i o n o f t h i s p r o b l e m in t e r m s o f H o l o c e n e d e p o s i t i o n a l p r o c e s s e s is r a t h e r p r o b l e m a t i c b e c a u s e v e r y f e w m i o c l i n a l seas a r e k n o w n a n d n o t r u e epeiric sea has been documented. The closest modern depositional systems t h a t m a y s e r v e as g u i d e s t o s o l v e t h i s p r o b l e m a r e b r o a d s h e l f seas s u c h as t h e
China Sea, the North Sea and the Atlantic Shelf off eastern North America. In a study of tidal ranges and their physical oceanography on the Atlantic Shelf of eastern North America, Redfield (1958) observed a direct correlation between shelf width and increasing tidal range and tidal current intensity. That correlation suggests that wide shelf seas should be tide-dominated and thus the preservation potential of sediments accumulated there by tidal processes ought to be enhanced. The North Sea is a wide shelf sea that is tide-dominated (Reineck, 1963; Stride, 1963) and its floor is characterized by extensive tide-dominated sand bodies (Houbolt, 1968; Caston, 1972). The China Sea is characterized by a wide shelf, is known for its high tidal ranges along shore, and is characterized by extensive development of tidal sand bodies and tidal sand ridges (Off, 1963; Boggs, 1974). The Atlantic Shelf also appears to be dominated by tidal sand b o d y shoals (Jordan, 1962; Swift et al., 1972; Ludwick, 1974). It is the thesis of this paper that the prevailing depositional process on the late Precambrian and Paleozoic epeiric and mioclinal associations of North America, and also of Scotland, was tidal current systems and it can be so explained in terms of the physical oceanographic paradigm that shelf width enhances tidal range and tidal current intensity. Most of the clastic sediments of such platform associations consist of quartz arenite with interbedded mudstone; these rocks show features which have much in c o m m o n (Table I) with modern clastic tidal flats and both intertidal and shallow subtidal sand bodies. Measurement of paleotidal range sequences in some of these rocks {after Klein, 1971, 1972) confirms the applicability of Redfield's circulation paradigm for these epeiric and mioclinal clastic rocks. SOME EXAMPLES This section will illustrate some examples of quartz arenites of epeiric and mioclinal shelf seas and demonstrate their tidal affinities. The approach to be taken is summarized in Table I and utilizes sedimentary process--response models from modern sediments to understand the association of sedimentary features in the examples to be reviewed. Essentially, a comparative study of sedimentary structure response models, sedimentary sequences, textural and roundness response models and paleocurrent response models will be utilized. This section abstracts a more detailed treatment to be published elsewhere (Klein, in prep). Sedimentary structure models The approach used for sedimentary structure models is an extension o~ the comparative model summarized in Klein (1970a, his table 8; Klein, 1971, his table 1). Remarkable agreement between the examples in Table I {this paper) and those reported by Klein (1970a, 1971) is indicated.
Simple bedload transport by tidal currents of nearly equal intensity. This process produces herringbone cross-stratification with sharp set boundaries and associated parallel laminae (Reineck, 1963). The herringbone cross-stratification appears c o m m o n l y in the examples listed (Table I). Time--velocity asymmetry o f tidal currents. Most tidal current systems are characterized b y the property of time--velocity asymmetry where higher velocities prevail during one phase of a tidal cycle (e.g. higher-velocity ebb phase versus a lower-velocity flood phase). Time--velocity asymmetry of tidal currents has been demonstrated to control certain characteristics of sedimentary structures, facies distribution, sand b o d y geometry, orientation of directional current structures and systems of sediment dispersal (Klein, 1970a). Reactivation surfaces are c o m m o n to this depositional process as is the multimodal frequency distribution of cross-stratification set thickness and cross-strata dip angle distribution. Such features are c o m m o n to many of the epeiric and mioclinal quartz arenites summarized in Table I. Late-stage emergence runoff. Structures produced by this process are summarized in Table I for the clastic examples reviewed herein. These structures are interpreted to have been produced by late-stage emergence runoff phenomena immediately prior to exposure. This process superimposes at oblique angles current ripples on slip faces of dunes and sand waves, and cross-strata, interference ripples, and small-scale ripples on larger ripples, and so forth. Of particular importance in this process is the development of changes in flow direction as the tide ebbs, thus producing multimodal orientations to directional properties. Furthermore, the scale of superposed structures is always smaller than the structures produced in deeper water, indicating both a change in flow intensity and water depth. This process also gives rise to "B--C Sequences" (Klein, 1970b, 1971) of cross-strata overlain by microcross-laminae which are c o m m o n to all the clastic units mentioned (Table I). Alternation o f bedload and suspension load deposition. Flaser bedding and tidal bedding (Reineck and Wunderlich, 1968) and clay drapes over ripples are c o m m o n to both modern tidal settings and the epeiric and mioclinal shelf quartz arenites listed in Table I. Exposure and evaporation. Mudcracks and runzel marks are c o m m o n also to many examples of epeiric and mioclinal sandstones listed in Table I and those described by others. Tidal scour. Biogenic sedimentary structures are c o m m o n to epeiric and mioclinal sediments, giving rise to the so-called Cruziana facies of Seilacher (1967). Many of these str~ctures are identical to the ichnogenus Monocraterion and resemble the escape structures of Reineck et al. (1969). Depths of burrowing are considerable (averaging 25--30 cm) and are comparable to intertidal and shallow subtidal burrowing depths reported by Rhoads (1967).
Paleocurrent patterns Paleocurrent analyses of several cratonic and mioclinal quartz arenites and associated carbonate rocks (Klein, 1965; Sedimentology Seminar, 1966; Hamblin, 1969; Swett et al., 1971) show bimodal and polymodal patterns. These authors interpreted such patterns to represent a tidal flow phenomenon. In most cases, the bipolar--bimodal trend appears to parallel basinal topography and depositional strike, which is consistent with a tidal basin circulation model (Klein, 1970a). Some of these paleocurrent data also indicate a bipolar pattern with modes oriented 90 ° apart. Such a pattern has been reported from carbonate oolitic shoals where rotary tides are c o m m o n (Ball, 1967). Texture and roundness The quartz arenites listed in Table I are all characterized by either wellsorted, unimodal or bimodal grain size distributions. All these quartz arenites show supermature rounding (i.e. roundness values in excess of 3.5 on the Krumbein, 1941, roundness scale). Excellent sorting has been reported from tidal sand bodies by Klein (1970a) and H o u b o l t (1968). Supermature rounding has been d o c u m e n t e d to be consistent with a tidal circulation system (Balazs and Klein, 1972) because of the continuous transport of sand over long distances within restricted areas through alternate zones of flood- and ebb-dominated time-velocity a s y m m e t r y of tidal currents. The bimodal t y p e of textural distribution c o m m o n to many quartz arenites of epeiric and mioclinal origin has been attributed by Folk (1968) to selective deflation by wind action in serirs in desert dunes. However, it is possible, as Folk and Ward (1957) demonstrated, that the two modes may represent derivation from two separate sources. In the Minas Basin tidal sands, two modes of quartz size are available from igneous--metamorphic rocks and pre-existing sedimentary rocks, and yield a bimodal sand (Klein, in prep.). The coarser mode appears to be derived from igneous and metamorphic sources at the basin boundary, whereas the finer sand-size mode is derived from recognizable rock fragments of Pennsylvanian and Triassic sandstones. Here, provenance, rather than wind systems, controls the bimodality. A bimodal quartz arenite, therefore, presents no difficulty with regard to a tidal circulation model. ASSOCIATED CARBONATE ROCKS Carbonate rocks are interbedded with the epeiric and mioclinal quartz arenites listed in Table I. These interbedded carbonate units are characterized by all the attributes of intertidal and shallow subtidal carbonates reported by Shinn et al. (1969) and by Ginsburg (1975). Other studies of
10 epeiric and mioclinal carbonate rock units (Klein, 1965; Sedimentology Seminar, 1966; Knewston and Hubert, 1969; LaPorte, 1971; amongst others) also indicate a tidal mode of sediment deposition. Clearly, as shown earlier by Swett et al. (1971}, depositional conditions do not change on epeiric and mioclinal shelf seas, even though the relative abundance of carbonate and clastic material may change through time. PALEOTIDAL RANGE DATA Paleotidal range data published elsewhere (Klein, 1970c, 1971, 1972, 1975a) indicated a thickness variation of 0.5--12.5 m for late Precambrian examples, and from 1.3--8.0 m for early Cambrian examples. These data were obtained from m a n y fining-upward sequences interpreted to be produced by prograding intertidal flats (Klein, 1971). If these values represent true paleotidal range, as seems most likely (see Klein, 1971, 1972) the data are consistent with shelf widths ranging from 600 to 1500 km. Such a range of shelf widths is consistent with the areal distribution of some of the units summarized in Table I. CONCLUSIONS The following conclusions can be drawn from these data: (1) Analysis of sedimentary structures, sedimentary sequences, textures, roundness, paleocurrents and interbedded and associated carbonate rocks of seven quartz arenites confirms that the prevailing depositional processes on mioclinal and epeiric shelf seas of the Paleozoic and Mesozoic platforms of North America and Europe were tide-dominated current systems. This model is consistent with oceanographic data relating the enhancement of tidal range and tidal current velocity with shelf width and is confirmed from paleotidal range data. (2) The closest modern depositional and environmental analog for quartz arenites is the intertidal and shallow subtidal sand b o d y environment (Klein, 1970a, 1971; Swett et al., 1971) and intertidal flats (Klein, 1970b, 1975a). (3) A tidal circulation model tends to favor the continued abrasion, sorting and rounding of sand. This high rate of abrasion between sand particles in tidal areas tends to remove unstable rock and mineral fragments, leaving a quartzose residue. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Field work in the Scottish quartz arenites was completed while the author held a Visiting Fellowship at Wolfson College, Oxford University. Field work in the North American quartz arenites was supported by grants from the Mobil Foundation, the American Philosophical Society and the Geology Department of the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign. Manuscript
11
preparation and completion was supported through an appointment as an Associate, The Center for Advanced Study of the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign.
REFERENCES Balazs, R.J. and Klein, G. deV., 1972. Roundness--mineralogical relations of some intertidal sands. J. Sediment. Petrol., 42: 425--433. Ball, M.M., 1967. Carbonate sand bodies of Florida and the Bahamas. J. Sediment. Petrol., 37: 577--591. Barnes, J.J. and Klein, G. deV., 1975. Tidal deposits in the Zabriskie Quartzite (Cambrian), eastern California and western Nevada. In: R.N. Ginsburg (Editor), Tidal Deposits. Springer, New York, N.Y., pp. 163--169. Boggs, Jr., S., 1974. Sand-wave fields in Taiwan Strait. Geology, 2: 251--253. Caston, V.N.D., 1972. Linear sand banks in the southern North Sea. Sedimentology, 18: 63--78. Dott, Jr., R.H. and Roshardt, M.A., 1972. Analysis of cross-stratification orientation in the St. Peter Sandstone in southwestern Wisconsin. Geol. Soc. Am. Bull., 83: 2589-2596. Folk, R.L., 1968. Bimodal supermature sandstones: product of the desert floor. Proc. Int. Geol. Congr., 23 (8): 9--32. Folk, R.L. and Ward, W.L., 1957. Brazos river bar: study in the significance of grain size parameters. J. Sediment. Petrol., 27: 3--26. Ginsburg, R.N. (Editor), 1975. Tidal Deposits. Springer, New York, N.Y., 428 pp. Hamblin, W.K., 1969. Marine paleocurrent directions in limestones of the Kansas City Group (Upper Pennsylvanian) in eastern Kansas. Kans. Geol. Surv. Bull., 194 (Part 2): 25 pp. Houbolt, J.J.H.C., 1968. Recent sediments in southern bight of the North Sea. Geol. Mijnbouw, 47: 245--273. Jordan, G.F., 1962. Large submarine sand waves. Science, 136: 839--848. Klein, G. deV., 1965. Dynamic significance of primary structures in Middle Jurassic Great Oolite Series, southern England. In: G.V. Middleton (Editor), Primary Sedimentary Structures and Their Hydrodynamic Interpretation. Soc. Econ. Paleontol. Mineral. Spec. Publ., 12: 173--191. Klein, G. deV., 1970a. Depositional and dispersal dynamics of intertidal sand bars. J. Sediment. Petrol., 40: 1095--1127. Klein, G. deV., 1970b. Tidal origin of a Precambrian quartzite -- the Lower Fine-grained Quartzite (Dalradian) of Islay, Scotland. J. Sediment. Petrol., 40: 973--985. Klein, G; deV., 1970c. Paleotidal sedimentation. Geol. Soc. Am. Abstr. Progr., 2: 898-899. Klein, G. deV., 1971. A sedimentary model for determining paleotidal range. Geol. Soc. Am. Bull., 82: 2585--2592. Klein, G. deV., 1972. Determination of paleotidal range in clastic sedimentary rocks. Proc. Int. Geol. Congr., 24 (6): 397--405. Klein, G. deV., 1975a. Paleotidal range sequences, Middle Member, Wood Canyon Formation (Late Precambrian), eastern California and western Nevada. In: R.N. Ginsburg (Editor), Tidal Deposits. Springer, New York, N.Y., pp. 171--177. Klein, G. deV., 1975b. Tidaiites in the Eureka Quartzite (Ordovician), eastern California and western Nevada. In: R.N. Ginsburg (Editor), Tidal Deposits, Springer, New York, N.Y., pp. 145--151. Klein, G. deV., in prep. Clastic Tidal Facies. Elsevier, Amsterdam.
12 Knewston, S.L. and Hubert, J.M., 1969. Dispersal patterns and diagenesis of oolitic calcarenites in the Ste. Genevieve Limestone (Mississippian), Missouri. J. Sediment. Petrol., 39: 954--968. Krumbein, W.C., 1941. Measurement and geologic significance of shape and roundness of sedimentary particles. J. Sediment. Petrol., 11: 64--72. LaPorte, L.F., 1971. Paleozoic carbonate facies of the central Appalachian shelf. J. Sediment. Petrol., 41: 724--740. Lochman-Balk, C., 1970. Upper Cambrian faunal patterns on the craton. Geol. Soc. Am. Bull., 81: 3197--3224. Ludwick, J.C., 1974. Tidal currents and zig-zag sand shoals in a wide estuary entrance. Geol. Soc. Am. Bull., 85: 717--726. Off, T., 1963. Rhythmic linear sand bodies caused by tidal currents. Am. Assoc. Pet. Geol. Bull., 47: 324--341. Potter, P.E., 1963. Late Paleozoic sandstones of the Illinois Basin. Ill. Geol. Surv. Circ;. 3 4 0 : 3 6 pp. Pryor, W.A. and Amaral, E.J., 1971. Large-scale cross-stratification in the St. Peter sandstone. Geol. Soc. Am. Bull., 82: 239--244. Redfield, A.C., 1958. The influence of the continental shelf on the tides of the Atlantic Coast of the United States. J. Mar. Res., 17: 432--448. Reineck, H.-E., 1963. Sedimentgefiige im Bereich der Sfdliche Nordsee. Abh. Senckenb. Naturforsch. Ges., 505: 1--138. Reineck, H.-E. and Wunderlich, F., 1968. Zeitmessungen an Gezeitenschichten. Nat. Mus., 97: 193--197. Reineck, H.-E., Dorjes, J., Gadow, S. and Singh, L.B., 1969. Sedimente und Makrobenthos. Senckenb. Marit., 1 : 5--62. Rhoads, D.C., 1967. Biogenic reworking of intertidal and subtidal sediments in Barnstable Harbor and Buzzards Bay, Massachusetts. J. Geol., 75: 461--476. Sedimentology Seminar, 1966. Cross-bedding in the Salem Limestone of central Indiana. Sedimentology, 6: 95--114. Seilacher, A., 1967. Bathymetry of trace fossils. Mar. Geol., 5: 413--428. Shinn, E.A., Lloyd, R.M. and Ginsburg, R.N., 1969. Anatomy of a modern carbonate tidal flat, Andros Island, Bahamas. J. Sediment. Petrol., 39: 1202--1228. Stride, A.H., 1963. Current-swept sea floors near the southern half of Great Britain. Q. J. Geol. Soc. London, 119: 175--197. Swett, K., Klein, G. deV. and Smit, D.E., 1971. A Cambrian tidal sand body -- the Eriboll Sandstone of northwest Scotland: an ancient--Recent analog. J. Geol., 79: 400--415. Swift, D.J.P., Kofoed, J.W., Saulsbury, F.P. and Sears, P., 1972. Holocene evolution of the shelf surface, central and southern Atlantic Shelf of North America. In: D.J.P. Swift, D.B. Duane and O.H. Pilkey (Editors), Shelf Sediment Transport. Dowden, Hutchinson and Ross, Stroudsburg, Pa., pp. 499--574. Wanless, H.R., 1963. Mapping sedimentary environments of Pennsylvanian cycles. Geol. Soc. Am. Bull., 74: 437--486. Wanless, H.R., Baroffio, J.R., Gamble, J.C., ttorne, J.C., Orlopp, D.R., Rocho-Campos, A., Souter, J.E., Trescott, P.C., Vail, R.S. and Wright, C.R., 1970. Late Paleozoic deltas in the central and eastern United States. In: J.P. Morgan (Editor), Deltaic Sedimentation. Soc. Econ. Paleontol. Mineral. Spec. Publ., 1 5 , 2 1 5 - - 2 4 5 .
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TIDAL CIRCULATION MODEL FOR DEPOSITION OF CLASTIC SEDIMENT IN EPEIRIC AND MIOCLINAL SHELF SEAS
GEORGE deVRIES KLEIN Sedimentology Laboratory, Department of Geology, University of Illinois at UrbanaChampaign, Urbana, Ill. 61801 (U.S.A.)
(Received November 24, 1976)
ABSTRACT Klein, G. deV., 1977. Tidal circulation model for deposition of clastic sediment in epeiric and mioclinal shelf seas. Sediment. Geol., 18: 1--12. Quartz arenites and associated mudstones of the late Precambrian and early Paleozoic epeiric and mioclinal shelf seas of the western U.S.A., central U.S.A. and Scotland are interpreted to be analogs of tidal flats and tidal sand bodies. Combinations of sedimentary structures, vertical sequences, textural attributes and paleocurrent patterns confirm their deposition under tide-dominated circulation patterns. Deposition of such "platform" quartz arenites under a tide-dominated regime is consistent with a physical oceanographic law that correlates enhancement of tidal range and tidal current intensity with shelf width. Measurement of paleotidal range sequences in some of these rock units confirms the applicability of this physical oceanographic law to understanding the depositional dynamics of epeiric and mioclinal shelf seas.
INTRODUCTION T h e origin, e n v i r o n m e n t o f d e p o s i t i o n a n d f l o w p r o c e s s e s r e s p o n s i b l e f o r t h e f o r m a t i o n o f clastic s e d i m e n t a r y r o c k s in epeiric a n d m i o c l i n a l shelf seas, such as in t h e late P r e c a m b r i a n a n d early P a l e o z o i c o f t h e w e s t e r n a n d central U.S.A., r e m a i n a p r o b l e m . T h e s e s e d i m e n t s h a v e b e e n i d e n t i f i e d as "shall o w m a r i n e " in origin o n t h e basis o f t h e i r f a u n a l c o n t e n t , y e t t h e i r deposit i o n a l m o d e is b a r e l y u n d e r s t o o d . I n d i v i d u a l studies b y various w o r k e r s p r i o r t o 1 9 7 0 i n d i c a t e d t h a t individual clastic f o r m a t i o n s are o f fluvial or deltaic origin (e.g. P o t t e r , 1 9 6 3 ; Wanless, 1 9 6 3 ; Wanless et al., 1 9 7 0 ) d u r i n g C a r b o n i f e r o u s epeiric d e p o s i t i o n in t h e c e n t r a l U.S.A. O t h e r studies o f b o t h clastic a n d c a r b o n a t e s e d i m e n t s in t h a t region, as well as M e s o z o i c epeiric r o c k s , d e m o n s t r a t e d t h e e x i s t e n c e o f tidal sand b o d y , tidal c h a n n e l , tidal flat a n d t i d e - d o m i n a t e d c a r b o n a t e shoal d e p o s i t s t h e r e (Klein, 1 9 6 5 ; S e d i m e n t o l o g y Seminar, 1966; Hamblin, 1969; Knewston and Hubert, 1969; Pryor and Amaral, 1971; Dott and Roshardt, 1972). Lochman-Balk (1970)recognized e x t e n s i v e tidal flat d e v e l o p m e n t on c r a t o n i c a n d m i o c l i n a l shelf s e d i m e n t s in
2 TABLE I Origin of sedimentary features (by association) in six quartz arenite formations (transport models after Klein, 1971) Sedimentary features and association group
Depositional process (by association group)
Lower Fine-grained Quartzite (Precambrian) (after Klein, 1970b) Group 1 Herringbone cross-stratification with sharp set boundaries Cross-strata with sharp set boundaries Parallel laminae
Association 1 Reversing tidal current bedload transport; tidal current phases of nearly equal flow velocity
Group 2 Reactivation surfaces
Association 2 Time--velocity asymmetry of tidal current bedload transport with alternating dominant tidal current velocity accounting for migration of dunes and sand waves producing cross-strata, and subordinate tidal phase producing reactivation surface and other associated features
Group 3 Interference ripples Ripples oriented obliquely to underlying cross-strata and dunes " B - - C " Sequences
Association 3 Late-stage emergence runoff producing changes in flow direction at shallower depths during ebb tide prior to exposure
Group 4 Wavy bedding Bifurcated and wavy t'laser bedding Isolated thick and flat lenticular bedding Tidal bedding Clay drapes on ripples
Association 4 Alternation of tidal current bedload sediment transport with mud suspension deposition during slack water periods either at high or low tide, or by longer-termed storms
Group 5 Mudcracks
Association 5 Exposure
Group 6 Load casts Pseudonodules
Association 6 Differential loading and compaction due to rapid sediment deposition
Group 7 Washouts
Association 7 Tidal scour
Group 8 "Escape" burrows Tracks and trails Burrows
Association 8 Burrowing; rapid escape by organisms from environment in response to sudden influxes of sediment
Group 9 Fining-upward paleotidal range sequences
Association 9 High rate of tidal flat progradation
TABLE I (continued) Sedimentary features and association group
Depositional process (by association group)
Middle Member, Wood Canyon Formation (Precambrian) (after Klein, 1975a) Group 1 Herringbone cross-strata Cross-strata with sharp set boundaries Parallel laminae
Association 1 (as above)
Gro up 2 Reactivation surfaces Multimodal distribution of set thicknesses of cross-strata
Association 2 (as above)
Group 3 Current ripples superimposed at 90 ° on current ripples Current ripples superimposed at 90 ° on cross-strata Interference ripples "B--C" Sequences of micro-cross-laminae superimposed on cross-strata
Association 3 (as above)
Group 4 Cross-strata with flasers Simple flaser bedding Wavy bedding Isolated thin lenticular bedding Tidal bedding
Association 4 (as above)
Group 5 Mudcracks Runzel marks
Association 5 (as above)
Group 6 Load casts Convolute laminae Pseudonodules
Association 6 (as above)
Group 7 Mud-chip conglomerates at base of washouts
Association 7 (as above)
Group 8 Tracks and trails Monocraterion escape structures Burrows
Association 8 as above)
Group 9 Fining-upward paleotidal range sequences
Association 9 (as above)
4 TABLE I (continued) Sedimentary features and association group
Depositional process (by association group)
Zabriskie Quartzite (Cambrian) (after Barnes and Klein, 19 75) Group 1 Cross-strata with sharp set boundaries Herringbone cross-stratification Parallel laminae Supermature rounding of quartz grains
Association 1 (as above)
Group 2 Reactivation surfaces Multimodal distribution of set thicknesses of cross-strata Supermature rounding of quartz grains
Association 2 (as above)
Group 3 Current ripples superimposed at 90 ° on dunes Interference ripples Current ripples superimposed on scour pits associated with dunes "B--C" sequences
Association 3 (as above)
Group 4 Cross-strata with flasers Simple flaser bedding Tidal bedding Clay drapes over ripples
Association 4 (as above)
Group 5 Mudcracks Raindrop imprints
Association 5 (as above)
Group 6 Pseudonodules Convolute bedding
Association 6 (as above)
Group 7 Washout structures
Association 7 (as above)
Group 8 Tracks and trails Scolithus Monocraterion escape structures Burrows, including those with faecal castings and piercing ripples
Association 8 (as above)
Group 9 Paleotidal range fining-upward sequence (at top only)
Association 9 (as above)
TABLE I (continued) Sedimentary features and association group
Depositional process (by association group)
Eriboll Sandstone (Cambrian) (after Swett et al., 1971) Group 1 Cross-strata with sharp set boundaries Herring-bone cross-stratification Supermature rounding of quartz grains
Association 1 (as above)
Group 2 Reactivation surfaces Multimodal distribution of cross-strata set thicknesses Supermature rounding of quartz grains
Association 2 (as above)
Group 3 Current ripples superimposed at 90 ° in slip faces of dunes and cross-strata Current ripples superimposed obliquely on sets of cross-strata Interference ripples
Association 3 (as above)
Group 5 Mudcracks
Association 5 (as above)
Group 8 Monocraterion escape structures Scolithus
Association 8 (as above)
Eureka Quartzite (Ordovician) (after Klein, 1975b) Group 1 Cross-strata with sharp set boundaries Herringbone cross-strata and micro-crosslaminae Parallel laminae Supermature rounding of quartz grains
Association 1 (as above)
Group 2 Multimodal frequency distribution of set thicknesses of cross-strata and of cross-strata dip angles Supermature rounding of quartz grains
Association 2 (as above)
Group 3 Current ripples "B--C" sequences Current ripples oriented at 90 ° and 180 ° with respect to underlying cross-strata
Association 3 (as above)
6 TABLE I (continued) Sedimentary features and association group
Depositional process (by association group)
Group 4
Association 4 (as above)
Cross-strata with flasers Lenticular bedding Tidal bedding Mudstone drapes of current ripples Group 5
Association 5 (as above)
Mudcracks Group 7
Association 7 (as above)
Mudchip conglomerates at base of washouts and channels Group 8
Association 8 (as above)
Burrows, averaging 40 cm in depth (range 10--80 cm) Tracks and trails Johnson Springs F o r m a t i o n (Ordovician) Group I
Association 1 (as above)
Herringbone cross-strata Cross-strata with sharp set boundaries Supermature rounding of quartz grains Group 2
Association 2 (as above)
Bimodal distribution of set thicknesses of cross-strata Group 3
Association 3 (as above)
"B--C" Sequences Current ripples obliquely oriented to underlying cross-strata Group 4
Association 4 (as above)
Simple flaser bedding Group 8
Association 8 (as above)
Burrowing with average depth of 30 cm (range 10--50 cm)
the western United States during Cambrian time. A r e s o l u t i o n o f t h i s p r o b l e m in t e r m s o f H o l o c e n e d e p o s i t i o n a l p r o c e s s e s is r a t h e r p r o b l e m a t i c b e c a u s e v e r y f e w m i o c l i n a l seas a r e k n o w n a n d n o t r u e epeiric sea has been documented. The closest modern depositional systems t h a t m a y s e r v e as g u i d e s t o s o l v e t h i s p r o b l e m a r e b r o a d s h e l f seas s u c h as t h e
China Sea, the North Sea and the Atlantic Shelf off eastern North America. In a study of tidal ranges and their physical oceanography on the Atlantic Shelf of eastern North America, Redfield (1958) observed a direct correlation between shelf width and increasing tidal range and tidal current intensity. That correlation suggests that wide shelf seas should be tide-dominated and thus the preservation potential of sediments accumulated there by tidal processes ought to be enhanced. The North Sea is a wide shelf sea that is tide-dominated (Reineck, 1963; Stride, 1963) and its floor is characterized by extensive tide-dominated sand bodies (Houbolt, 1968; Caston, 1972). The China Sea is characterized by a wide shelf, is known for its high tidal ranges along shore, and is characterized by extensive development of tidal sand bodies and tidal sand ridges (Off, 1963; Boggs, 1974). The Atlantic Shelf also appears to be dominated by tidal sand b o d y shoals (Jordan, 1962; Swift et al., 1972; Ludwick, 1974). It is the thesis of this paper that the prevailing depositional process on the late Precambrian and Paleozoic epeiric and mioclinal associations of North America, and also of Scotland, was tidal current systems and it can be so explained in terms of the physical oceanographic paradigm that shelf width enhances tidal range and tidal current intensity. Most of the clastic sediments of such platform associations consist of quartz arenite with interbedded mudstone; these rocks show features which have much in c o m m o n (Table I) with modern clastic tidal flats and both intertidal and shallow subtidal sand bodies. Measurement of paleotidal range sequences in some of these rocks {after Klein, 1971, 1972) confirms the applicability of Redfield's circulation paradigm for these epeiric and mioclinal clastic rocks. SOME EXAMPLES This section will illustrate some examples of quartz arenites of epeiric and mioclinal shelf seas and demonstrate their tidal affinities. The approach to be taken is summarized in Table I and utilizes sedimentary process--response models from modern sediments to understand the association of sedimentary features in the examples to be reviewed. Essentially, a comparative study of sedimentary structure response models, sedimentary sequences, textural and roundness response models and paleocurrent response models will be utilized. This section abstracts a more detailed treatment to be published elsewhere (Klein, in prep). Sedimentary structure models The approach used for sedimentary structure models is an extension o~ the comparative model summarized in Klein (1970a, his table 8; Klein, 1971, his table 1). Remarkable agreement between the examples in Table I {this paper) and those reported by Klein (1970a, 1971) is indicated.
Simple bedload transport by tidal currents of nearly equal intensity. This process produces herringbone cross-stratification with sharp set boundaries and associated parallel laminae (Reineck, 1963). The herringbone cross-stratification appears c o m m o n l y in the examples listed (Table I). Time--velocity asymmetry o f tidal currents. Most tidal current systems are characterized b y the property of time--velocity asymmetry where higher velocities prevail during one phase of a tidal cycle (e.g. higher-velocity ebb phase versus a lower-velocity flood phase). Time--velocity asymmetry of tidal currents has been demonstrated to control certain characteristics of sedimentary structures, facies distribution, sand b o d y geometry, orientation of directional current structures and systems of sediment dispersal (Klein, 1970a). Reactivation surfaces are c o m m o n to this depositional process as is the multimodal frequency distribution of cross-stratification set thickness and cross-strata dip angle distribution. Such features are c o m m o n to many of the epeiric and mioclinal quartz arenites summarized in Table I. Late-stage emergence runoff. Structures produced by this process are summarized in Table I for the clastic examples reviewed herein. These structures are interpreted to have been produced by late-stage emergence runoff phenomena immediately prior to exposure. This process superimposes at oblique angles current ripples on slip faces of dunes and sand waves, and cross-strata, interference ripples, and small-scale ripples on larger ripples, and so forth. Of particular importance in this process is the development of changes in flow direction as the tide ebbs, thus producing multimodal orientations to directional properties. Furthermore, the scale of superposed structures is always smaller than the structures produced in deeper water, indicating both a change in flow intensity and water depth. This process also gives rise to "B--C Sequences" (Klein, 1970b, 1971) of cross-strata overlain by microcross-laminae which are c o m m o n to all the clastic units mentioned (Table I). Alternation o f bedload and suspension load deposition. Flaser bedding and tidal bedding (Reineck and Wunderlich, 1968) and clay drapes over ripples are c o m m o n to both modern tidal settings and the epeiric and mioclinal shelf quartz arenites listed in Table I. Exposure and evaporation. Mudcracks and runzel marks are c o m m o n also to many examples of epeiric and mioclinal sandstones listed in Table I and those described by others. Tidal scour. Biogenic sedimentary structures are c o m m o n to epeiric and mioclinal sediments, giving rise to the so-called Cruziana facies of Seilacher (1967). Many of these str~ctures are identical to the ichnogenus Monocraterion and resemble the escape structures of Reineck et al. (1969). Depths of burrowing are considerable (averaging 25--30 cm) and are comparable to intertidal and shallow subtidal burrowing depths reported by Rhoads (1967).
Paleocurrent patterns Paleocurrent analyses of several cratonic and mioclinal quartz arenites and associated carbonate rocks (Klein, 1965; Sedimentology Seminar, 1966; Hamblin, 1969; Swett et al., 1971) show bimodal and polymodal patterns. These authors interpreted such patterns to represent a tidal flow phenomenon. In most cases, the bipolar--bimodal trend appears to parallel basinal topography and depositional strike, which is consistent with a tidal basin circulation model (Klein, 1970a). Some of these paleocurrent data also indicate a bipolar pattern with modes oriented 90 ° apart. Such a pattern has been reported from carbonate oolitic shoals where rotary tides are c o m m o n (Ball, 1967). Texture and roundness The quartz arenites listed in Table I are all characterized by either wellsorted, unimodal or bimodal grain size distributions. All these quartz arenites show supermature rounding (i.e. roundness values in excess of 3.5 on the Krumbein, 1941, roundness scale). Excellent sorting has been reported from tidal sand bodies by Klein (1970a) and H o u b o l t (1968). Supermature rounding has been d o c u m e n t e d to be consistent with a tidal circulation system (Balazs and Klein, 1972) because of the continuous transport of sand over long distances within restricted areas through alternate zones of flood- and ebb-dominated time-velocity a s y m m e t r y of tidal currents. The bimodal t y p e of textural distribution c o m m o n to many quartz arenites of epeiric and mioclinal origin has been attributed by Folk (1968) to selective deflation by wind action in serirs in desert dunes. However, it is possible, as Folk and Ward (1957) demonstrated, that the two modes may represent derivation from two separate sources. In the Minas Basin tidal sands, two modes of quartz size are available from igneous--metamorphic rocks and pre-existing sedimentary rocks, and yield a bimodal sand (Klein, in prep.). The coarser mode appears to be derived from igneous and metamorphic sources at the basin boundary, whereas the finer sand-size mode is derived from recognizable rock fragments of Pennsylvanian and Triassic sandstones. Here, provenance, rather than wind systems, controls the bimodality. A bimodal quartz arenite, therefore, presents no difficulty with regard to a tidal circulation model. ASSOCIATED CARBONATE ROCKS Carbonate rocks are interbedded with the epeiric and mioclinal quartz arenites listed in Table I. These interbedded carbonate units are characterized by all the attributes of intertidal and shallow subtidal carbonates reported by Shinn et al. (1969) and by Ginsburg (1975). Other studies of
10 epeiric and mioclinal carbonate rock units (Klein, 1965; Sedimentology Seminar, 1966; Knewston and Hubert, 1969; LaPorte, 1971; amongst others) also indicate a tidal mode of sediment deposition. Clearly, as shown earlier by Swett et al. (1971}, depositional conditions do not change on epeiric and mioclinal shelf seas, even though the relative abundance of carbonate and clastic material may change through time. PALEOTIDAL RANGE DATA Paleotidal range data published elsewhere (Klein, 1970c, 1971, 1972, 1975a) indicated a thickness variation of 0.5--12.5 m for late Precambrian examples, and from 1.3--8.0 m for early Cambrian examples. These data were obtained from m a n y fining-upward sequences interpreted to be produced by prograding intertidal flats (Klein, 1971). If these values represent true paleotidal range, as seems most likely (see Klein, 1971, 1972) the data are consistent with shelf widths ranging from 600 to 1500 km. Such a range of shelf widths is consistent with the areal distribution of some of the units summarized in Table I. CONCLUSIONS The following conclusions can be drawn from these data: (1) Analysis of sedimentary structures, sedimentary sequences, textures, roundness, paleocurrents and interbedded and associated carbonate rocks of seven quartz arenites confirms that the prevailing depositional processes on mioclinal and epeiric shelf seas of the Paleozoic and Mesozoic platforms of North America and Europe were tide-dominated current systems. This model is consistent with oceanographic data relating the enhancement of tidal range and tidal current velocity with shelf width and is confirmed from paleotidal range data. (2) The closest modern depositional and environmental analog for quartz arenites is the intertidal and shallow subtidal sand b o d y environment (Klein, 1970a, 1971; Swett et al., 1971) and intertidal flats (Klein, 1970b, 1975a). (3) A tidal circulation model tends to favor the continued abrasion, sorting and rounding of sand. This high rate of abrasion between sand particles in tidal areas tends to remove unstable rock and mineral fragments, leaving a quartzose residue. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Field work in the Scottish quartz arenites was completed while the author held a Visiting Fellowship at Wolfson College, Oxford University. Field work in the North American quartz arenites was supported by grants from the Mobil Foundation, the American Philosophical Society and the Geology Department of the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign. Manuscript
11
preparation and completion was supported through an appointment as an Associate, The Center for Advanced Study of the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign.
REFERENCES Balazs, R.J. and Klein, G. deV., 1972. Roundness--mineralogical relations of some intertidal sands. J. Sediment. Petrol., 42: 425--433. Ball, M.M., 1967. Carbonate sand bodies of Florida and the Bahamas. J. Sediment. Petrol., 37: 577--591. Barnes, J.J. and Klein, G. deV., 1975. Tidal deposits in the Zabriskie Quartzite (Cambrian), eastern California and western Nevada. In: R.N. Ginsburg (Editor), Tidal Deposits. Springer, New York, N.Y., pp. 163--169. Boggs, Jr., S., 1974. Sand-wave fields in Taiwan Strait. Geology, 2: 251--253. Caston, V.N.D., 1972. Linear sand banks in the southern North Sea. Sedimentology, 18: 63--78. Dott, Jr., R.H. and Roshardt, M.A., 1972. Analysis of cross-stratification orientation in the St. Peter Sandstone in southwestern Wisconsin. Geol. Soc. Am. Bull., 83: 2589-2596. Folk, R.L., 1968. Bimodal supermature sandstones: product of the desert floor. Proc. Int. Geol. Congr., 23 (8): 9--32. Folk, R.L. and Ward, W.L., 1957. Brazos river bar: study in the significance of grain size parameters. J. Sediment. Petrol., 27: 3--26. Ginsburg, R.N. (Editor), 1975. Tidal Deposits. Springer, New York, N.Y., 428 pp. Hamblin, W.K., 1969. Marine paleocurrent directions in limestones of the Kansas City Group (Upper Pennsylvanian) in eastern Kansas. Kans. Geol. Surv. Bull., 194 (Part 2): 25 pp. Houbolt, J.J.H.C., 1968. Recent sediments in southern bight of the North Sea. Geol. Mijnbouw, 47: 245--273. Jordan, G.F., 1962. Large submarine sand waves. Science, 136: 839--848. Klein, G. deV., 1965. Dynamic significance of primary structures in Middle Jurassic Great Oolite Series, southern England. In: G.V. Middleton (Editor), Primary Sedimentary Structures and Their Hydrodynamic Interpretation. Soc. Econ. Paleontol. Mineral. Spec. Publ., 12: 173--191. Klein, G. deV., 1970a. Depositional and dispersal dynamics of intertidal sand bars. J. Sediment. Petrol., 40: 1095--1127. Klein, G. deV., 1970b. Tidal origin of a Precambrian quartzite -- the Lower Fine-grained Quartzite (Dalradian) of Islay, Scotland. J. Sediment. Petrol., 40: 973--985. Klein, G; deV., 1970c. Paleotidal sedimentation. Geol. Soc. Am. Abstr. Progr., 2: 898-899. Klein, G. deV., 1971. A sedimentary model for determining paleotidal range. Geol. Soc. Am. Bull., 82: 2585--2592. Klein, G. deV., 1972. Determination of paleotidal range in clastic sedimentary rocks. Proc. Int. Geol. Congr., 24 (6): 397--405. Klein, G. deV., 1975a. Paleotidal range sequences, Middle Member, Wood Canyon Formation (Late Precambrian), eastern California and western Nevada. In: R.N. Ginsburg (Editor), Tidal Deposits. Springer, New York, N.Y., pp. 171--177. Klein, G. deV., 1975b. Tidaiites in the Eureka Quartzite (Ordovician), eastern California and western Nevada. In: R.N. Ginsburg (Editor), Tidal Deposits, Springer, New York, N.Y., pp. 145--151. Klein, G. deV., in prep. Clastic Tidal Facies. Elsevier, Amsterdam.
12 Knewston, S.L. and Hubert, J.M., 1969. Dispersal patterns and diagenesis of oolitic calcarenites in the Ste. Genevieve Limestone (Mississippian), Missouri. J. Sediment. Petrol., 39: 954--968. Krumbein, W.C., 1941. Measurement and geologic significance of shape and roundness of sedimentary particles. J. Sediment. Petrol., 11: 64--72. LaPorte, L.F., 1971. Paleozoic carbonate facies of the central Appalachian shelf. J. Sediment. Petrol., 41: 724--740. Lochman-Balk, C., 1970. Upper Cambrian faunal patterns on the craton. Geol. Soc. Am. Bull., 81: 3197--3224. Ludwick, J.C., 1974. Tidal currents and zig-zag sand shoals in a wide estuary entrance. Geol. Soc. Am. Bull., 85: 717--726. Off, T., 1963. Rhythmic linear sand bodies caused by tidal currents. Am. Assoc. Pet. Geol. Bull., 47: 324--341. Potter, P.E., 1963. Late Paleozoic sandstones of the Illinois Basin. Ill. Geol. Surv. Circ;. 3 4 0 : 3 6 pp. Pryor, W.A. and Amaral, E.J., 1971. Large-scale cross-stratification in the St. Peter sandstone. Geol. Soc. Am. Bull., 82: 239--244. Redfield, A.C., 1958. The influence of the continental shelf on the tides of the Atlantic Coast of the United States. J. Mar. Res., 17: 432--448. Reineck, H.-E., 1963. Sedimentgefiige im Bereich der Sfdliche Nordsee. Abh. Senckenb. Naturforsch. Ges., 505: 1--138. Reineck, H.-E. and Wunderlich, F., 1968. Zeitmessungen an Gezeitenschichten. Nat. Mus., 97: 193--197. Reineck, H.-E., Dorjes, J., Gadow, S. and Singh, L.B., 1969. Sedimente und Makrobenthos. Senckenb. Marit., 1 : 5--62. Rhoads, D.C., 1967. Biogenic reworking of intertidal and subtidal sediments in Barnstable Harbor and Buzzards Bay, Massachusetts. J. Geol., 75: 461--476. Sedimentology Seminar, 1966. Cross-bedding in the Salem Limestone of central Indiana. Sedimentology, 6: 95--114. Seilacher, A., 1967. Bathymetry of trace fossils. Mar. Geol., 5: 413--428. Shinn, E.A., Lloyd, R.M. and Ginsburg, R.N., 1969. Anatomy of a modern carbonate tidal flat, Andros Island, Bahamas. J. Sediment. Petrol., 39: 1202--1228. Stride, A.H., 1963. Current-swept sea floors near the southern half of Great Britain. Q. J. Geol. Soc. London, 119: 175--197. Swett, K., Klein, G. deV. and Smit, D.E., 1971. A Cambrian tidal sand body -- the Eriboll Sandstone of northwest Scotland: an ancient--Recent analog. J. Geol., 79: 400--415. Swift, D.J.P., Kofoed, J.W., Saulsbury, F.P. and Sears, P., 1972. Holocene evolution of the shelf surface, central and southern Atlantic Shelf of North America. In: D.J.P. Swift, D.B. Duane and O.H. Pilkey (Editors), Shelf Sediment Transport. Dowden, Hutchinson and Ross, Stroudsburg, Pa., pp. 499--574. Wanless, H.R., 1963. Mapping sedimentary environments of Pennsylvanian cycles. Geol. Soc. Am. Bull., 74: 437--486. Wanless, H.R., Baroffio, J.R., Gamble, J.C., ttorne, J.C., Orlopp, D.R., Rocho-Campos, A., Souter, J.E., Trescott, P.C., Vail, R.S. and Wright, C.R., 1970. Late Paleozoic deltas in the central and eastern United States. In: J.P. Morgan (Editor), Deltaic Sedimentation. Soc. Econ. Paleontol. Mineral. Spec. Publ., 1 5 , 2 1 5 - - 2 4 5 .