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Time variation of atmospheric pressure and circulation associated with temperature changes during Solar Proton Events
\ PERGAMON
Journal of Atmospheric and Solar!Terrestrial Physics 59 "0887# 0618Ð0626
Time variation of atmospheric pressure and circulation associated with temperature changes during Solar Proton Events M[I[ Pudovkin \ A[L[ Morozova Institute of Physics\ University of St[ Petersburg\ St[ Petersburg\ Petrodvorets\ 087893\ Russia Received 08 March 0887^ received in revised form 16 November 0887^ accepted 29 November 0887
Abstract A decrease of the direct solar radiation at the Earth|s surface and associated variations of the altitudinal temperature pro_le observed during Solar Proton Events "SPE# discussed by Pudovkin and Babushkina "0881b#\ Pudovkin and Veretenenko "0883# are believed to be caused by the appearance of a layer which partially re~ects solar radiation "by up to 09)# at an altitude of about 8 km[ This layer is associated with the cirrus cloud that can be nucleated by Solar Cosmic Ray "SCR# particles "see Tinsley and Deen\ 0880^ Tinsley and Heelis\ 0882#[ The calculated variations of the altitudinal pro_le of the air temperature in the high latitude atmosphere "Sodankyla\ Finland\ 8 ¼ 56> N# after the SPE\ caused by the appearance of this layer\ are in good agreement with experimental data[ The variations of the temperature pro_le "=DT= ¾ 1Ð2 K at z ³ 09 km# in the high latitude atmosphere during the SPE may produce a time variation of the meridional pressure pro_le\ which in turn might cause a change of the zonal circulation[ The expected changes of pressure at the Earth|s surface\ the heights of constant pressure levels and the zonal circulation are shown to be similar to those observed\ but which are smaller in magnitude[ These quantitative di}erences can be associated with the oversimpli_cation of the atmospheric model that we used[ Þ 0888 Elsevier Science Ltd[ All rights reserved[
0[ Introduction The in~uence of energetic cosmic ray ~ux variations on the state of the lower atmosphere at middle and high latitudes is a problem which attracts the attentions of more and more geophysicists[ Such particles have su.cient energy to penetrate into the stratosphere and in~uence various physical!chemical processes there[ However\ the mechanism whereby cosmic rays in~u! ence the vorticity\ thermal regime and pressure in the lower atmosphere is not yet clear[ Tinsley et al[ "0878#\ Tinsley "0889#\ Tinsley and Deen "0880# and Tinsley and Heelis "0882# supposed that variations of the Galactic Cosmic Ray "GCR# intensity might result in changes of the rate of ion production and:or global electrical circuit\ which in turn might cause the release of the latent heat
Corresponding author[ Fax] ¦6!701!317!6139^ e!mail] pudovkinÝsnoopy[phys[spbu[ru
associated with the changed rate of ice nucleation in clouds[ At the same time\ Pudovkin and Babushkina "0881b#\ Pudovkin and Veretenenko "0883#\ Pudovkin et al[ "0886#\ and Starkov and Roldugin "0883# have shown that the variations of the intensity of galactic cosmic rays are associated with a variation "up to 09)# of the transparency of the atmosphere and of its cloudiness "Veretenenko and Pudovkin\ 0884\ 0885#[ In particular\ Forbush decreases of the GCR intensity are followed by an increase of the solar radiation "Pudovkin and Babu! shkina\ 0881b^ Starkov and Roldugin\ 0883^ Pudovkin and Veretenenko\ 0883#[ The bursts of Solar Cosmic Rays "SCR# during Solar Proton Events "SPE# cause a decrease of the solar radiation intensity "Pudovkin et al[\ 0886#[ The changes of the solar radiation intensity in the lower atmosphere have to produce some variations of the alti! tudinal temperature pro_le\ and certain variations of the T"z# pro_le are really observed in connection with cosmic ray ~ux disturbances "see curves in Fig[ 2 and Pudovkin et al[\ 0884\ 0885#[
0253Ð5715:88:, ! see front matter Þ 0888 Elsevier Science Ltd[ All rights reserved PII] S 0 2 5 3 Ð 5 7 1 5 " 8 7 # 9 9 0 4 9 Ð 2
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M[I[ Pudovkin\ A[L[ Morozova:Journal of Atmospheric and Solar!Terrestrial Physics 59 "0887# 0618Ð0626
From the analysis of those pro_les\ Pudovkin and Dementeeva "0886# and Pudovkin and Morozova "0886# have arrived at the conclusion that the decrease of the direct solar radiation at the Earth|s surface "and associ! ated variations of the altitudinal temperature pro_le# observed during SPEs are caused by the appearance in the atmosphere at an altitude of about 8 km of a layer\ partially re~ecting the solar radiation "by up to 09)#[ The existence of such a layer is con_rmed by the data presented by Veretenenko and Pudovkin "0884\ 0885#[ According to their data\ the SPE results in variations of the high!level cloudiness "8 × 44> N#\ mainly of the cirrus type[ The calculated variations of the altitudinal pro_le of the air temperature in the high latitude atmosphere after a SPE caused by the appearance of this layer are in good agreement with the experimental data[ The variations of the temperature pro_le in the high latitude atmosphere during the SPE may produce a time variation of the meridional pressure pro_le\ which in turn might cause a change of the zonal circulation[ Exper! imental con_rmation of this was obtained by Pudovkin et al[ "0884\ 0885#\ Pudovkin and Babushkina "0881a# and Pudovkin and Veretenenko "0881\ 0883\ and 0885#[ The main result is the intensi_cation of the zonal cir! culation in the middle and high!latitude troposphere after the SPE "see Figs 6 and 7#[ This variation of wind velocity is associated with an increase of the pressure gradient "a decrease of the high!latitude pressure\ "see Fig[ 4# and an increase of the middle!latitude pressure\ "Pudovkin et al[\ 0884\ 0885#[ The aim of this paper is to examine whether the cal! culated variations of the temperature pro_le during a SPE may cause the observed changes in the latitude! altitude pressure distribution and in the atmospheric vor! ticity[
p RrT
"0#
1r ¦ div "rV ł# 9 1t
"1#
1"rV ł _# ł _## −9p−1rðv ł _Ł−rðał\V ł _Ł ł _V ¦"div "rV ł \V 1t "2# Concerning the motion along the Z!axis\ we suppose it to be so slow that at any moment the atmosphere may be considered to be in hydrostatic equilibrium\ so that] 1p −`r 1z
where p is the pressure\ T is the temperature and r is the ł is the velocity of the circulation\ v density of the air\ V ł is the angular velocity of the Earth "v 6[2×09−4 s#\ ał is the angular velocity of the zonal motion of the atmo! sphere "a Vx:"Re cos 8##\ R is the universal gas constant for a dry air "R 1[76×095 erg:g grad#\ Re is the radius of the Earth "Re 5[3×092 km#\ ` is the acceleration due to gravity "` 8[7 m:s1#[ Equation "0# is the equation of state\ eqn "1# is the continuity equation and eqns "2# and "3# are the equations of motion[ In our case the vector eqn "2# may be written as two scalar equations] 1 0 1 "rVx#¦ "rVxVy cos 8# 1t Re cos 8 18
0
r 1v¦
1
Vx V sin 8 Re cos 8 y
"2a#
0 1 1 "rVy#¦ "rVy1 cos 8# 1t Re cos 8 18
0
−r 1v¦
1[ Model Time variations of atmospheric temperature at high latitudes during solar proton events were calculated as described by Pudovkin and Dementeeva "0886# and Pudovkin and Morozova "0886#[ To estimate the expected SPE e}ect on the dynamics of the lower atmo! sphere at middle and high latitudes\ we consider a simple two!dimensional model of the atmosphere where all vari! ables change only with latitude "8#\ height "z# and time "t#[ In this case we can estimate the SPE e}ect for the parameters averaged over latitude circles[ At each point of the Earth|s surface we use the standard Cartesian coordinate system with the X!axis directed along the lati! tude circle to the East\ the Y!axis directed along the meridian to the North\ and the Z!axis directed upwards[ Then the evolution of the atmospheric parameters is described by the following equations "Tverskoy\ 0851^ Houghton\ 0866#]
"3#
1
Vx 0 1p Vx sin 8− Re cos 8 Re 18
"2b#
The system of eqns "0#Ð"3# permits one to obtain the temporal and spatial variations of the pressure and den! sity of the air\ and the velocity of the zonal and meridional circulation in the lower atmosphere for given boundary conditions[ To describe the zonal circulation of the atmosphere\ we shall use the Blinova index A] A 092
a Vx 092 [ v Rev cos 8
"4#
Here a is the angular velocity of the atmosphere\ v is the angular velocity of the Earth|s rotation\ and Vx is the zonal velocity "velocity along a latitude circle# at latitude 8[ The Blinova index is a measure of the ratio of the angular velocity of the atmosphere to that of the Earth|s rotation[ The SPE e}ect in the lower atmosphere is relatively
M[I[ Pudovkin\ A[L[ Morozova:Journal of Atmospheric and Solar!Terrestrial Physics 59 "0887# 0618Ð0626
small "DT ¼ 1 K#\ and the temperature\ pressure and velocity distributions with height and latitude in the real atmosphere are determined by many changeable factors[ Thus\ the SPE e}ect in the variation of the atmospheric pressure and zonal circulation revealed by Pudovkin et al[ "0884#\ Pudovkin and Babushkina "0881a#\ Pudovkin and Veretenenko "0881\ 0883\ 0885# and Veretenenko and Pudovkin "0882# used the superposed epoch method to show the di}erence between the mean pro_les of the pressure or index of circulation on a certain day after the onset of the SPE and those on a {quiet day|\ a day or two before the beginning of the event[ We also calculate the changes of the atmospheric parameters from the {quite day| values[ Thus\ _rst of all\ we obtain initial stationary pro_les p"8\ z#\ r"8\ z#\ Vx"8\ z#\ and Vy"8\ z# under conditions typical for a northern middle and high latitude atmo! sphere[ Further on we use these pro_les as {quite day| values[ 1[0[ Initial conditions
0 1 "V cos 8# 9 Re cos 8 18 y
"1a#
Thus\ the value Vy cos 8 is a constant on 8] Vy cos 8 C Const =8 At the North Pole cos 8 9[ Since Vy at 8 89> N then Vy 9
"5#
at the North Pole and at all other latitudes[ In this situ! ation eqn "2# may be written as F1 G1t "rVx# 9 j J Vx 0 1p Vx sin 8− G9 −r 1v¦ R R e cos 8 e 18 f
0
"2a#
1
So\ in the case of the steady!state motion of incom! pressible air
&
period "OctoberÐMarch#[ For example\ in Fig[ 0 the initial temperature pro_le for 8 69> N is presented by a solid line^ the experimental quiet day pro_le "Sodankyla\ Finland\ 8 56> N\ winter season# is shown by a dashed line "Pudovkin and Dementeeva\ 0886^ Pudovkin and Morozova\ 0886#[ The pressure and density of the air in the stationary situation were calculated from eqns "0# and "3# with the de_ned temperature pro_le T"8\z# and given atmospheric pressure at the Earth|s surface "Houghton\ 0866^ Tverskoy\ 0851#[ For example\ the calculated initial stationary lati! tudinal pro_les of atmospheric pressure at three heights "9\ 4 and 8 km# are presented in Fig[ 1 as solid lines\ with the experimental standard latitude pro_les of pressure at the same altitudes "Houghton\ 0886# shown by dashed lines[ As is seen in Fig[ 1\ in our calculations the pressure distribution at the Earth|s surface from 8 39> N to 8 79> N is in general agreement with the experimental data[ At other heights the pressure was calculated accord! ing to distribution of temperature "eqns "0# and "3##[ 1[1[ SPE effect
The initial conditions are modeled by system of equa! tions\ eqns "0#Ð"3# for steady!state conditions "1:1t 9# and incompressible air " dr: dt 9#[ In this case eqn "1# can be written as ł0 div V
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X
Vx vRe cos 8 −0¦ 0−
'
1p 0 18 r sin 8 cos 8v1Re1
"6#
The initial stationary daily mean "latitude averaged# altitudinal temperature pro_les were obtained as in Pudovkin and Morozova "0886# in accordance with the latitudinal distribution of the solar ~ux during the cold
Now\ having obtained the initial "{quite day|# height! latitude pro_les of the pressure pq"8\z#\ density rq"8\z# ł q"8\z# of the air\ we can calculate disturbed and velocity V pro_les of these parameters "Eqns "0#Ð"3# for non steady! state conditions# and estimate their departures from the ł q"8\z# pro_les during the SPE[ The pq"8\z#\ rq"8\z# and V boundary conditions may be written as follows] 1[1[0[ Temperature The SPE e}ect in the lower atmosphere is modeled by the introduction at latitudes 8 × 44> N of a layer re~ect! ing the short!wave solar radiation with a re~ection coe.cient dSR 9[0 "Pudovkin and Dementeeva\ 0886^ Pudovkin and Morozova\ 0886#[ For winter time "Octo! berÐMarch# this layer will only a}ect the atmosphere at 8 ³ 66> N[ We shall assume the temperature of the atmosphere to change in the latitude band 44> N ¾ 8 ¾ 66> N and not to change at other latitudes[ The variations of the temperature in the latitude band 44> N ¾ 8 ¾ 66> N are the same given by Pudovkin and Morozova "0886# and shown in Fig[ 2[ 1[1[1[ Pressure\ density and velocity Equations "0#Ð"3# were numerically solved with the boundary conditions "7# and "8#]
8 8
p"z\t# pq"z#
8 29> N] r"z\t# rq"z#
n n
"7#
V ł "z\t# V ł q"z\t# 8 29> N p"z\t# pq"z#
8 89> N] r"z\t# rq"z#
ł "z\t# V ł q"z\t# 8 89> N V
"8#
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M[I[ Pudovkin\ A[L[ Morozova:Journal of Atmospheric and Solar!Terrestrial Physics 59 "0887# 0618Ð0626
Fig[ 0[ Initial altitudinal temperature pro_les for 8 69> N] model*solid line\ and experiment "Sodankyla\ Finland#*dashed line[
Fig[ 1[ Initial latitudinal pro_les of atmospheric pressure at the Earth|s surface "a#\ z 4 km "b#\ and z 8 km "c#] model*solid lines\ standard atmosphere model*dashed lines[
M[I[ Pudovkin\ A[L[ Morozova:Journal of Atmospheric and Solar!Terrestrial Physics 59 "0887# 0618Ð0626
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Fig[ 2[ Variations of altitudinal temperature pro_les at 44> N ¾ 8 ¾ 66> N associated with SPEs "Pudovkin and Morozova\ 0886#] day zero*solid line\ day 0*dashed line\ day 1*dotted line\ day 2*dashÐdotted line\ day 3*dashÐtwo!dotted line\ day 4*small dotted line\ day 09*bold solid line[ Experimental data "Pudovkin et al[\ 0884#] day zero*line with open circles and day 2*line with black circles[
2[ Discussion 2[0[ Pressure variations First we consider the variations of the atmospheric pressure at the Earth|s surface[ The in~uence of the SPE that precedes the Forbush decreases of the GCR intensity on the surface pressure was considered by Pudovkin and Babushkina "0881a# and Pudovkin and Veretenenko "0881#[ On the _rst and second days after the event onset the surface pressure in the latitude band 44> N ¾ 8 ¾ 79> N decreases approximately by 0 mbar "0 hPa#[ Then\ the pressure begins to grow\ and on third day exceeds the {quite| value by 0 mbar[ These are the experimental data[ We assume that the last e}ect is connected with the For! bush*decrease in the intensity of the GCR[ The results of the SPE e}ect simulation for the Earth|s surface pres! sure are presented in Fig[ 3[ One can see that there are three stages in the variations of the surface pressure associated with the SPE[ On the day zero a growth of the pressure at latitudes 8 × 49> N is observed "9[4 mbar#\ and a decrease at lower latitudes "9[14 mbar#[ Apparently\ this is an in~uence of the {e}ect of the zeroth day| in the variation of the temperature height!latitudinal pro_le "Fig[ 2# "Pudovkin and Morozova\ 0886#[ Then\ on the _rst day after the SPE onset\ the surface pressure decreases at high latitudes "0[9 mbar# and grows at middle latitudes "9[4 mbar#[ The last stage is characterized by the growth of the surface pressure at latitudes 8 × 49> N "1[4 mbar# and decrease at the latitude 8 ³ 49> N "0[14 mbar#[ One can see that the model pressure variations are
in a good agreement with those observed\ but somewhat smaller in magnitude[ These surface pressure variations can be associated with the changes of the air temperature at high latitudes and a re!distribution of the air mass in the non!tropical troposphere[ The growth of the surface pressure at high latitudes "and decrease at middle latitudes# decreases the pressure gradient "see Fig[ 3# as well as the zonal wind velocity at the Earth|s surface[ Variations of the atmospheric pressure at other heights are described through variations of the heights of con! stant pressure levels "Pudovkin et al[\ 0884\ 0885#[ Model and experimental variations of the pressure level heights for four pressure levels "8 69> N# are presented in Fig[ 4[ One can see that the character of the model changes of the pressure level heights are similar to the exper! imental ones but rather smaller in magnitude "note the di}erences between the {model| and {experimental| scales in Fig[ 4#[ These quantitative di}erences can be associated with two facts[ First\ the calculated temperature variation is smaller than that observed[ Secondly\ the atmospheric model is a simple one[ The decrease of the height of constant pressure levels in the high!latitude troposphere causes an intensi_cation of the zonal wind velocity at these altitudes[ 2[1[ Zonal wind velocity variations The variations of the meridional pro_le of pressure result in changes of the zonal circulation of the atmo! sphere[ To describe the calculated zonal wind velocity
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M[I[ Pudovkin\ A[L[ Morozova:Journal of Atmospheric and Solar!Terrestrial Physics 59 "0887# 0618Ð0626
Fig[ 3[ Variations of the latitudinal pro_le of the Earth|s pressure "mbar# associated with the SPE] day zero*thin solid line\ day 0* dashed line\ day 1*dotted line\ day 2*dashÐdotted line\ day 3*dashÐtwo!dotted line\ day 4*bold solid line[
Fig[ 4[ Time variations of the pressure level heights during the SPE for p 0999 mbar "a#\ p 699 mbar "b#\ p 499 mbar "c# and p 299 mbar "d#] model*solid lines and left scales] observations*lines with black circles and right scales "Pudovkin et al[\ 0884#[
"Vx# variations and to compare it with that observed we use the Blinova index A "eqn "4## associated with Vx[ Figures 5Ð7 present the variation of the Blinova index "DA# after the SPE at the di}erent levels[ The model variation of the Blinova index "zonal wind velocity# at the Earth|s surface calculated for 09> latitude bands is shown in Fig[ 5[ Correspondingly to the time variations of the pressure "Fig[ 3#\ during the SPEs the Blinova index "zonal wind velocity# decreases at all lati! tudes\ and then grows\ and then decreases again "accord! ingly with variations of the meridional pressure gradient#[
At the level z 4[4 km "p ¼ 499 mbar#*see Fig[ 6* the time variations of the Blinova index calculated for 09> latitude bands are simpler[ On day zero the zonal wind velocity and the Blinova index decrease "DA ¼ 9[4#\ and then "days 0Ð4# grow monotonically[ In Fig[ 7 the model and observed time variations of the Blinova index at the level z 4[4 km for latitudes 8 59Ð69> N and 8 49Ð59> N are presented[ The character of the model variations of this circulation index are similar to those observed but are up to three times smaller[ The inten! si_cation of the zonal circulation "growth of the Blinova
M[I[ Pudovkin\ A[L[ Morozova:Journal of Atmospheric and Solar!Terrestrial Physics 59 "0887# 0618Ð0626
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Fig[ 5[ Variations of the latitudinal pro_les of the Blinova index "DA# at the Earth|s surface associated with the SPE] day zero*thin solid line\ day 0*dashed line\ day 1*dotted line\ day 2*dashÐdotted line\ day 3*dashÐtwo!dotted line\ day 4*bold solid line[
Fig[ 6[ Variations of the latitudinal pro_le of the Blinova index "DA# at z 4[4 km associated with the SPE[ Model] day zero*thin solid line\ day 0*dashed line\ day 1*dotted line\ day 4*bold solid line[ Observations "Pudovkin and Babushkina\ 0881a#] the same lines as for model data\ but with black circles[
index# is associated with the increase of the pressure gradient at heights z × 2 km "see Fig[ 4#[
3[ Conclusions The results of our previous analysis show that the variation of the high latitude troposphere transparency observed during Solar Proton Events may be caused by
the appearance at the height z 7Ð8 km of an optically active layer*cirrus cloud[ The model calculation of the ~ux variations of radiative energy and temperature! height distribution associated with this e}ect show good agreement with the experimental data[ These results lead us to a model of the air pressure and wind velocity vari! ations in the middle and high!latitude troposphere caused by the variations of the height!latitude temperature pro_le[
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M[I[ Pudovkin\ A[L[ Morozova:Journal of Atmospheric and Solar!Terrestrial Physics 59 "0887# 0618Ð0626
Fig[ 7[ Time variations of the Blinova index "DA# at z 4[4 km at 8 59> N "solid line# and 8 69> N "dashed line# compared with the observations*bold line "Pudovkin and Veretenenko\ 0885#[
The model temperature variations associated with the Solar Proton Events cause a decrease of the atmospheric pressure and an intensi_cation of the zonal circulation at z × 2 km[ This fact is in good agreement with the data[ The results of our simulation of such a solar proton e}ect on the troposphere may be considered as con! _rmation of the e}ectiveness of the radiative mechanism of the in~uence of solar activity "for example\ Solar Pro! ton Events# on weather[
Acknowledgements This work was supported by the ISF\ grant no[ 426!p[
References Houghton\ J[T[\ 0886[ The Physics of Atmospheres[ Cambridge University Press[ Pudovkin\ M[I[\ Babushkina\ S[V[\ 0881a[ In~uence of solar ~ares and disturbances of the interplanetary medium on the atmospheric circulation[ J[ Atmos[ Terr[ Phys[ 43 "6:7#\ 730[ Pudovkin\ M[I[\ Babushkina\ S[V[\ 0881b[ Atmospheric trans! parency variations associated with geomagnetic disturbances[ J[ Atmos[ Terr[ Phys[ 43 "8#\ 0024[ Pudovkin\ M[I[\ Dementeeva\ A[L[\ 0886[ The variation of the temperature altitude pro_le in the lower atmosphere during solar proton events[ Geomagnetism and Aeronomy "Russian edition# 26 "2#\ 73[ Pudovkin\ M[I[\ Morozova\ A[L[\ 0886[ Temperature changes near the tropopause[ J[ Atmos[ Solar!Terr[ Phys[ 48 "06#\ 1048[ Pudovkin\ M[I[\ Veretenenko\ S[V[\ 0881[ Variations of the mer! idional pro_le of the atmospheric pressure during the geo!
magnetic disturbances[ Geomagnetism and Aeronomy "Rus! sian edition# 21 "0#\ 007[ Pudovkin\ M[I[\ Veretenenko\ S[V[\ 0883[ On an agent linking solar and geomagnetic disturbances to the state of the lower atmosphere[ In] Baker\ D[N[\ Papitashvili\ V[O[\ Teague\ M[J[ "Eds[#\ Solar!Terrestrial Energy Program\ Proceeding of the 0881 STEP Symp[:4 COSPAR Coll[\ Laurel\ Maryland[ US STEP Coordination O.ce\ NASA:Goddard Space Flight Center\ U[S[A[\ Pergamon\ p[ 382[ Pudovkin\ M[I[\ Veretenenko\ S[V[\ 0885[ Variations of the cos! mic rays as one of the possible links between the solar activity and the lower atmosphere[ Adv[ Space Res[ 06 "00#\ 050[ Pudovkin\ M[I[\ Veretenenko\ S[V[\ Pellinen\ R[\ Kyro E[\ 0884[ In~uence of the solar cosmic ray bursts on the temperature of the high!latitudinal atmosphere[ J[ Tech[ Phys[ "Warsaw# 25 "3#\ 322[ Pudovkin\ M[I[\ Veretenenko\ S[V[\ Pellinen\ R[\ Kyro\ E[\ 0885[ Cosmic ray variation e}ects in the temperature of the high! latitudinal atmosphere[ Adv[ Space Res[ 06 "00#\ 054[ Pudovkin\ M[I[\ Vinogradova\ N[Ya[\ Veretenenko\ S[V[\ 0886[ The variation of the atmospheric transparency during solar proton events[ Geomagnetism and Aeronomy "Russian edi! tion# 26 "1#\ 013[ Starkov\ G[V[\ Roldugin\ V[K[\ 0883[ Relation of the atmo! spheric transparency variations to geomagnetic activity[ Geo! magnetism and Aeronomy "Russian edition# 23 "3#\ 045[ Tinsley\ B[A[\ 0889[ Forcing of climate variations by MeVÐ GeV particles< In] Schatten\ K[H[\ Arking\ A[ "Eds[#\ Climate Impact of Solar Variability[ Goddard Space Flight Center\ Greenbelt\ Maryland\ p[ 138[ Tinsley\ B[A[\ Deen\ C[W[\ 0880[ Apparent tropospheric response to MeVÐGeV particle ~ux variations] a connection via electrofreezing of supercooled water in high!level clouds< J[ Geophys[ Res[ 85 "D01#\ 11172[ Tinsley\ B[A[\ Heelis\ R[A[\ 0882[ Correlations of atmospheric dynamics with solar activity] evidence for a connection via the
M[I[ Pudovkin\ A[L[ Morozova:Journal of Atmospheric and Solar!Terrestrial Physics 59 "0887# 0618Ð0626 solar wind\ atmospheric electricity\ and cloud microphysics[ J[ Geophys[ Res[ 87 "D5#\ 09264[ Tinsley\ B[A[ et al[\ 0878[ Solar variability in~uences on weather and climate] possible connection through cosmic ray ~uxes and storm intensi_cation[ J[ Geophys[ Res[ 83 "D01#\ 03672[ Tverskoy\ P[N[\ 0851[ Physics of the Atmosphere[ GIMIZ\ Len! ingrad[ "In Russian# English Translation\ 0854\ Israel Pro! gram for Scienti_c Translations\ IPST cat[ no[ 0287[ Veretenenko\ S[V[\ Pudovkin\ M[I[\ 0882[ E}ects of the galactic
0626
cosmic ray variations on the circulation of the lower atmo! sphere[ Geomagnetism and Aeronomy "Russian edition# 22 "5#\ 24[ Veretenenko\ S[V[\ Pudovkin\ M[I[\ 0884[ E}ects of the galactic cosmic ray variations on the cloudiness state[ J[ Tech[ Phys[ "Warsaw# 25 "3#\ 252[ Veretenenko\ S[V[\ Pudovkin\ M[I[\ 0885[ Cloudiness variation during the burst of solar cosmic rays[ Geomagnetism and Aeronomy "Russian edition# 25 "0#\ 042[
Journal of Atmospheric and Solar!Terrestrial Physics 59 "0887# 0618Ð0626
Time variation of atmospheric pressure and circulation associated with temperature changes during Solar Proton Events M[I[ Pudovkin \ A[L[ Morozova Institute of Physics\ University of St[ Petersburg\ St[ Petersburg\ Petrodvorets\ 087893\ Russia Received 08 March 0887^ received in revised form 16 November 0887^ accepted 29 November 0887
Abstract A decrease of the direct solar radiation at the Earth|s surface and associated variations of the altitudinal temperature pro_le observed during Solar Proton Events "SPE# discussed by Pudovkin and Babushkina "0881b#\ Pudovkin and Veretenenko "0883# are believed to be caused by the appearance of a layer which partially re~ects solar radiation "by up to 09)# at an altitude of about 8 km[ This layer is associated with the cirrus cloud that can be nucleated by Solar Cosmic Ray "SCR# particles "see Tinsley and Deen\ 0880^ Tinsley and Heelis\ 0882#[ The calculated variations of the altitudinal pro_le of the air temperature in the high latitude atmosphere "Sodankyla\ Finland\ 8 ¼ 56> N# after the SPE\ caused by the appearance of this layer\ are in good agreement with experimental data[ The variations of the temperature pro_le "=DT= ¾ 1Ð2 K at z ³ 09 km# in the high latitude atmosphere during the SPE may produce a time variation of the meridional pressure pro_le\ which in turn might cause a change of the zonal circulation[ The expected changes of pressure at the Earth|s surface\ the heights of constant pressure levels and the zonal circulation are shown to be similar to those observed\ but which are smaller in magnitude[ These quantitative di}erences can be associated with the oversimpli_cation of the atmospheric model that we used[ Þ 0888 Elsevier Science Ltd[ All rights reserved[
0[ Introduction The in~uence of energetic cosmic ray ~ux variations on the state of the lower atmosphere at middle and high latitudes is a problem which attracts the attentions of more and more geophysicists[ Such particles have su.cient energy to penetrate into the stratosphere and in~uence various physical!chemical processes there[ However\ the mechanism whereby cosmic rays in~u! ence the vorticity\ thermal regime and pressure in the lower atmosphere is not yet clear[ Tinsley et al[ "0878#\ Tinsley "0889#\ Tinsley and Deen "0880# and Tinsley and Heelis "0882# supposed that variations of the Galactic Cosmic Ray "GCR# intensity might result in changes of the rate of ion production and:or global electrical circuit\ which in turn might cause the release of the latent heat
Corresponding author[ Fax] ¦6!701!317!6139^ e!mail] pudovkinÝsnoopy[phys[spbu[ru
associated with the changed rate of ice nucleation in clouds[ At the same time\ Pudovkin and Babushkina "0881b#\ Pudovkin and Veretenenko "0883#\ Pudovkin et al[ "0886#\ and Starkov and Roldugin "0883# have shown that the variations of the intensity of galactic cosmic rays are associated with a variation "up to 09)# of the transparency of the atmosphere and of its cloudiness "Veretenenko and Pudovkin\ 0884\ 0885#[ In particular\ Forbush decreases of the GCR intensity are followed by an increase of the solar radiation "Pudovkin and Babu! shkina\ 0881b^ Starkov and Roldugin\ 0883^ Pudovkin and Veretenenko\ 0883#[ The bursts of Solar Cosmic Rays "SCR# during Solar Proton Events "SPE# cause a decrease of the solar radiation intensity "Pudovkin et al[\ 0886#[ The changes of the solar radiation intensity in the lower atmosphere have to produce some variations of the alti! tudinal temperature pro_le\ and certain variations of the T"z# pro_le are really observed in connection with cosmic ray ~ux disturbances "see curves in Fig[ 2 and Pudovkin et al[\ 0884\ 0885#[
0253Ð5715:88:, ! see front matter Þ 0888 Elsevier Science Ltd[ All rights reserved PII] S 0 2 5 3 Ð 5 7 1 5 " 8 7 # 9 9 0 4 9 Ð 2
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M[I[ Pudovkin\ A[L[ Morozova:Journal of Atmospheric and Solar!Terrestrial Physics 59 "0887# 0618Ð0626
From the analysis of those pro_les\ Pudovkin and Dementeeva "0886# and Pudovkin and Morozova "0886# have arrived at the conclusion that the decrease of the direct solar radiation at the Earth|s surface "and associ! ated variations of the altitudinal temperature pro_le# observed during SPEs are caused by the appearance in the atmosphere at an altitude of about 8 km of a layer\ partially re~ecting the solar radiation "by up to 09)#[ The existence of such a layer is con_rmed by the data presented by Veretenenko and Pudovkin "0884\ 0885#[ According to their data\ the SPE results in variations of the high!level cloudiness "8 × 44> N#\ mainly of the cirrus type[ The calculated variations of the altitudinal pro_le of the air temperature in the high latitude atmosphere after a SPE caused by the appearance of this layer are in good agreement with the experimental data[ The variations of the temperature pro_le in the high latitude atmosphere during the SPE may produce a time variation of the meridional pressure pro_le\ which in turn might cause a change of the zonal circulation[ Exper! imental con_rmation of this was obtained by Pudovkin et al[ "0884\ 0885#\ Pudovkin and Babushkina "0881a# and Pudovkin and Veretenenko "0881\ 0883\ and 0885#[ The main result is the intensi_cation of the zonal cir! culation in the middle and high!latitude troposphere after the SPE "see Figs 6 and 7#[ This variation of wind velocity is associated with an increase of the pressure gradient "a decrease of the high!latitude pressure\ "see Fig[ 4# and an increase of the middle!latitude pressure\ "Pudovkin et al[\ 0884\ 0885#[ The aim of this paper is to examine whether the cal! culated variations of the temperature pro_le during a SPE may cause the observed changes in the latitude! altitude pressure distribution and in the atmospheric vor! ticity[
p RrT
"0#
1r ¦ div "rV ł# 9 1t
"1#
1"rV ł _# ł _## −9p−1rðv ł _Ł−rðał\V ł _Ł ł _V ¦"div "rV ł \V 1t "2# Concerning the motion along the Z!axis\ we suppose it to be so slow that at any moment the atmosphere may be considered to be in hydrostatic equilibrium\ so that] 1p −`r 1z
where p is the pressure\ T is the temperature and r is the ł is the velocity of the circulation\ v density of the air\ V ł is the angular velocity of the Earth "v 6[2×09−4 s#\ ał is the angular velocity of the zonal motion of the atmo! sphere "a Vx:"Re cos 8##\ R is the universal gas constant for a dry air "R 1[76×095 erg:g grad#\ Re is the radius of the Earth "Re 5[3×092 km#\ ` is the acceleration due to gravity "` 8[7 m:s1#[ Equation "0# is the equation of state\ eqn "1# is the continuity equation and eqns "2# and "3# are the equations of motion[ In our case the vector eqn "2# may be written as two scalar equations] 1 0 1 "rVx#¦ "rVxVy cos 8# 1t Re cos 8 18
0
r 1v¦
1
Vx V sin 8 Re cos 8 y
"2a#
0 1 1 "rVy#¦ "rVy1 cos 8# 1t Re cos 8 18
0
−r 1v¦
1[ Model Time variations of atmospheric temperature at high latitudes during solar proton events were calculated as described by Pudovkin and Dementeeva "0886# and Pudovkin and Morozova "0886#[ To estimate the expected SPE e}ect on the dynamics of the lower atmo! sphere at middle and high latitudes\ we consider a simple two!dimensional model of the atmosphere where all vari! ables change only with latitude "8#\ height "z# and time "t#[ In this case we can estimate the SPE e}ect for the parameters averaged over latitude circles[ At each point of the Earth|s surface we use the standard Cartesian coordinate system with the X!axis directed along the lati! tude circle to the East\ the Y!axis directed along the meridian to the North\ and the Z!axis directed upwards[ Then the evolution of the atmospheric parameters is described by the following equations "Tverskoy\ 0851^ Houghton\ 0866#]
"3#
1
Vx 0 1p Vx sin 8− Re cos 8 Re 18
"2b#
The system of eqns "0#Ð"3# permits one to obtain the temporal and spatial variations of the pressure and den! sity of the air\ and the velocity of the zonal and meridional circulation in the lower atmosphere for given boundary conditions[ To describe the zonal circulation of the atmosphere\ we shall use the Blinova index A] A 092
a Vx 092 [ v Rev cos 8
"4#
Here a is the angular velocity of the atmosphere\ v is the angular velocity of the Earth|s rotation\ and Vx is the zonal velocity "velocity along a latitude circle# at latitude 8[ The Blinova index is a measure of the ratio of the angular velocity of the atmosphere to that of the Earth|s rotation[ The SPE e}ect in the lower atmosphere is relatively
M[I[ Pudovkin\ A[L[ Morozova:Journal of Atmospheric and Solar!Terrestrial Physics 59 "0887# 0618Ð0626
small "DT ¼ 1 K#\ and the temperature\ pressure and velocity distributions with height and latitude in the real atmosphere are determined by many changeable factors[ Thus\ the SPE e}ect in the variation of the atmospheric pressure and zonal circulation revealed by Pudovkin et al[ "0884#\ Pudovkin and Babushkina "0881a#\ Pudovkin and Veretenenko "0881\ 0883\ 0885# and Veretenenko and Pudovkin "0882# used the superposed epoch method to show the di}erence between the mean pro_les of the pressure or index of circulation on a certain day after the onset of the SPE and those on a {quiet day|\ a day or two before the beginning of the event[ We also calculate the changes of the atmospheric parameters from the {quite day| values[ Thus\ _rst of all\ we obtain initial stationary pro_les p"8\ z#\ r"8\ z#\ Vx"8\ z#\ and Vy"8\ z# under conditions typical for a northern middle and high latitude atmo! sphere[ Further on we use these pro_les as {quite day| values[ 1[0[ Initial conditions
0 1 "V cos 8# 9 Re cos 8 18 y
"1a#
Thus\ the value Vy cos 8 is a constant on 8] Vy cos 8 C Const =8 At the North Pole cos 8 9[ Since Vy at 8 89> N then Vy 9
"5#
at the North Pole and at all other latitudes[ In this situ! ation eqn "2# may be written as F1 G1t "rVx# 9 j J Vx 0 1p Vx sin 8− G9 −r 1v¦ R R e cos 8 e 18 f
0
"2a#
1
So\ in the case of the steady!state motion of incom! pressible air
&
period "OctoberÐMarch#[ For example\ in Fig[ 0 the initial temperature pro_le for 8 69> N is presented by a solid line^ the experimental quiet day pro_le "Sodankyla\ Finland\ 8 56> N\ winter season# is shown by a dashed line "Pudovkin and Dementeeva\ 0886^ Pudovkin and Morozova\ 0886#[ The pressure and density of the air in the stationary situation were calculated from eqns "0# and "3# with the de_ned temperature pro_le T"8\z# and given atmospheric pressure at the Earth|s surface "Houghton\ 0866^ Tverskoy\ 0851#[ For example\ the calculated initial stationary lati! tudinal pro_les of atmospheric pressure at three heights "9\ 4 and 8 km# are presented in Fig[ 1 as solid lines\ with the experimental standard latitude pro_les of pressure at the same altitudes "Houghton\ 0886# shown by dashed lines[ As is seen in Fig[ 1\ in our calculations the pressure distribution at the Earth|s surface from 8 39> N to 8 79> N is in general agreement with the experimental data[ At other heights the pressure was calculated accord! ing to distribution of temperature "eqns "0# and "3##[ 1[1[ SPE effect
The initial conditions are modeled by system of equa! tions\ eqns "0#Ð"3# for steady!state conditions "1:1t 9# and incompressible air " dr: dt 9#[ In this case eqn "1# can be written as ł0 div V
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X
Vx vRe cos 8 −0¦ 0−
'
1p 0 18 r sin 8 cos 8v1Re1
"6#
The initial stationary daily mean "latitude averaged# altitudinal temperature pro_les were obtained as in Pudovkin and Morozova "0886# in accordance with the latitudinal distribution of the solar ~ux during the cold
Now\ having obtained the initial "{quite day|# height! latitude pro_les of the pressure pq"8\z#\ density rq"8\z# ł q"8\z# of the air\ we can calculate disturbed and velocity V pro_les of these parameters "Eqns "0#Ð"3# for non steady! state conditions# and estimate their departures from the ł q"8\z# pro_les during the SPE[ The pq"8\z#\ rq"8\z# and V boundary conditions may be written as follows] 1[1[0[ Temperature The SPE e}ect in the lower atmosphere is modeled by the introduction at latitudes 8 × 44> N of a layer re~ect! ing the short!wave solar radiation with a re~ection coe.cient dSR 9[0 "Pudovkin and Dementeeva\ 0886^ Pudovkin and Morozova\ 0886#[ For winter time "Octo! berÐMarch# this layer will only a}ect the atmosphere at 8 ³ 66> N[ We shall assume the temperature of the atmosphere to change in the latitude band 44> N ¾ 8 ¾ 66> N and not to change at other latitudes[ The variations of the temperature in the latitude band 44> N ¾ 8 ¾ 66> N are the same given by Pudovkin and Morozova "0886# and shown in Fig[ 2[ 1[1[1[ Pressure\ density and velocity Equations "0#Ð"3# were numerically solved with the boundary conditions "7# and "8#]
8 8
p"z\t# pq"z#
8 29> N] r"z\t# rq"z#
n n
"7#
V ł "z\t# V ł q"z\t# 8 29> N p"z\t# pq"z#
8 89> N] r"z\t# rq"z#
ł "z\t# V ł q"z\t# 8 89> N V
"8#
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M[I[ Pudovkin\ A[L[ Morozova:Journal of Atmospheric and Solar!Terrestrial Physics 59 "0887# 0618Ð0626
Fig[ 0[ Initial altitudinal temperature pro_les for 8 69> N] model*solid line\ and experiment "Sodankyla\ Finland#*dashed line[
Fig[ 1[ Initial latitudinal pro_les of atmospheric pressure at the Earth|s surface "a#\ z 4 km "b#\ and z 8 km "c#] model*solid lines\ standard atmosphere model*dashed lines[
M[I[ Pudovkin\ A[L[ Morozova:Journal of Atmospheric and Solar!Terrestrial Physics 59 "0887# 0618Ð0626
0622
Fig[ 2[ Variations of altitudinal temperature pro_les at 44> N ¾ 8 ¾ 66> N associated with SPEs "Pudovkin and Morozova\ 0886#] day zero*solid line\ day 0*dashed line\ day 1*dotted line\ day 2*dashÐdotted line\ day 3*dashÐtwo!dotted line\ day 4*small dotted line\ day 09*bold solid line[ Experimental data "Pudovkin et al[\ 0884#] day zero*line with open circles and day 2*line with black circles[
2[ Discussion 2[0[ Pressure variations First we consider the variations of the atmospheric pressure at the Earth|s surface[ The in~uence of the SPE that precedes the Forbush decreases of the GCR intensity on the surface pressure was considered by Pudovkin and Babushkina "0881a# and Pudovkin and Veretenenko "0881#[ On the _rst and second days after the event onset the surface pressure in the latitude band 44> N ¾ 8 ¾ 79> N decreases approximately by 0 mbar "0 hPa#[ Then\ the pressure begins to grow\ and on third day exceeds the {quite| value by 0 mbar[ These are the experimental data[ We assume that the last e}ect is connected with the For! bush*decrease in the intensity of the GCR[ The results of the SPE e}ect simulation for the Earth|s surface pres! sure are presented in Fig[ 3[ One can see that there are three stages in the variations of the surface pressure associated with the SPE[ On the day zero a growth of the pressure at latitudes 8 × 49> N is observed "9[4 mbar#\ and a decrease at lower latitudes "9[14 mbar#[ Apparently\ this is an in~uence of the {e}ect of the zeroth day| in the variation of the temperature height!latitudinal pro_le "Fig[ 2# "Pudovkin and Morozova\ 0886#[ Then\ on the _rst day after the SPE onset\ the surface pressure decreases at high latitudes "0[9 mbar# and grows at middle latitudes "9[4 mbar#[ The last stage is characterized by the growth of the surface pressure at latitudes 8 × 49> N "1[4 mbar# and decrease at the latitude 8 ³ 49> N "0[14 mbar#[ One can see that the model pressure variations are
in a good agreement with those observed\ but somewhat smaller in magnitude[ These surface pressure variations can be associated with the changes of the air temperature at high latitudes and a re!distribution of the air mass in the non!tropical troposphere[ The growth of the surface pressure at high latitudes "and decrease at middle latitudes# decreases the pressure gradient "see Fig[ 3# as well as the zonal wind velocity at the Earth|s surface[ Variations of the atmospheric pressure at other heights are described through variations of the heights of con! stant pressure levels "Pudovkin et al[\ 0884\ 0885#[ Model and experimental variations of the pressure level heights for four pressure levels "8 69> N# are presented in Fig[ 4[ One can see that the character of the model changes of the pressure level heights are similar to the exper! imental ones but rather smaller in magnitude "note the di}erences between the {model| and {experimental| scales in Fig[ 4#[ These quantitative di}erences can be associated with two facts[ First\ the calculated temperature variation is smaller than that observed[ Secondly\ the atmospheric model is a simple one[ The decrease of the height of constant pressure levels in the high!latitude troposphere causes an intensi_cation of the zonal wind velocity at these altitudes[ 2[1[ Zonal wind velocity variations The variations of the meridional pro_le of pressure result in changes of the zonal circulation of the atmo! sphere[ To describe the calculated zonal wind velocity
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M[I[ Pudovkin\ A[L[ Morozova:Journal of Atmospheric and Solar!Terrestrial Physics 59 "0887# 0618Ð0626
Fig[ 3[ Variations of the latitudinal pro_le of the Earth|s pressure "mbar# associated with the SPE] day zero*thin solid line\ day 0* dashed line\ day 1*dotted line\ day 2*dashÐdotted line\ day 3*dashÐtwo!dotted line\ day 4*bold solid line[
Fig[ 4[ Time variations of the pressure level heights during the SPE for p 0999 mbar "a#\ p 699 mbar "b#\ p 499 mbar "c# and p 299 mbar "d#] model*solid lines and left scales] observations*lines with black circles and right scales "Pudovkin et al[\ 0884#[
"Vx# variations and to compare it with that observed we use the Blinova index A "eqn "4## associated with Vx[ Figures 5Ð7 present the variation of the Blinova index "DA# after the SPE at the di}erent levels[ The model variation of the Blinova index "zonal wind velocity# at the Earth|s surface calculated for 09> latitude bands is shown in Fig[ 5[ Correspondingly to the time variations of the pressure "Fig[ 3#\ during the SPEs the Blinova index "zonal wind velocity# decreases at all lati! tudes\ and then grows\ and then decreases again "accord! ingly with variations of the meridional pressure gradient#[
At the level z 4[4 km "p ¼ 499 mbar#*see Fig[ 6* the time variations of the Blinova index calculated for 09> latitude bands are simpler[ On day zero the zonal wind velocity and the Blinova index decrease "DA ¼ 9[4#\ and then "days 0Ð4# grow monotonically[ In Fig[ 7 the model and observed time variations of the Blinova index at the level z 4[4 km for latitudes 8 59Ð69> N and 8 49Ð59> N are presented[ The character of the model variations of this circulation index are similar to those observed but are up to three times smaller[ The inten! si_cation of the zonal circulation "growth of the Blinova
M[I[ Pudovkin\ A[L[ Morozova:Journal of Atmospheric and Solar!Terrestrial Physics 59 "0887# 0618Ð0626
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Fig[ 5[ Variations of the latitudinal pro_les of the Blinova index "DA# at the Earth|s surface associated with the SPE] day zero*thin solid line\ day 0*dashed line\ day 1*dotted line\ day 2*dashÐdotted line\ day 3*dashÐtwo!dotted line\ day 4*bold solid line[
Fig[ 6[ Variations of the latitudinal pro_le of the Blinova index "DA# at z 4[4 km associated with the SPE[ Model] day zero*thin solid line\ day 0*dashed line\ day 1*dotted line\ day 4*bold solid line[ Observations "Pudovkin and Babushkina\ 0881a#] the same lines as for model data\ but with black circles[
index# is associated with the increase of the pressure gradient at heights z × 2 km "see Fig[ 4#[
3[ Conclusions The results of our previous analysis show that the variation of the high latitude troposphere transparency observed during Solar Proton Events may be caused by
the appearance at the height z 7Ð8 km of an optically active layer*cirrus cloud[ The model calculation of the ~ux variations of radiative energy and temperature! height distribution associated with this e}ect show good agreement with the experimental data[ These results lead us to a model of the air pressure and wind velocity vari! ations in the middle and high!latitude troposphere caused by the variations of the height!latitude temperature pro_le[
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M[I[ Pudovkin\ A[L[ Morozova:Journal of Atmospheric and Solar!Terrestrial Physics 59 "0887# 0618Ð0626
Fig[ 7[ Time variations of the Blinova index "DA# at z 4[4 km at 8 59> N "solid line# and 8 69> N "dashed line# compared with the observations*bold line "Pudovkin and Veretenenko\ 0885#[
The model temperature variations associated with the Solar Proton Events cause a decrease of the atmospheric pressure and an intensi_cation of the zonal circulation at z × 2 km[ This fact is in good agreement with the data[ The results of our simulation of such a solar proton e}ect on the troposphere may be considered as con! _rmation of the e}ectiveness of the radiative mechanism of the in~uence of solar activity "for example\ Solar Pro! ton Events# on weather[
Acknowledgements This work was supported by the ISF\ grant no[ 426!p[
References Houghton\ J[T[\ 0886[ The Physics of Atmospheres[ Cambridge University Press[ Pudovkin\ M[I[\ Babushkina\ S[V[\ 0881a[ In~uence of solar ~ares and disturbances of the interplanetary medium on the atmospheric circulation[ J[ Atmos[ Terr[ Phys[ 43 "6:7#\ 730[ Pudovkin\ M[I[\ Babushkina\ S[V[\ 0881b[ Atmospheric trans! parency variations associated with geomagnetic disturbances[ J[ Atmos[ Terr[ Phys[ 43 "8#\ 0024[ Pudovkin\ M[I[\ Dementeeva\ A[L[\ 0886[ The variation of the temperature altitude pro_le in the lower atmosphere during solar proton events[ Geomagnetism and Aeronomy "Russian edition# 26 "2#\ 73[ Pudovkin\ M[I[\ Morozova\ A[L[\ 0886[ Temperature changes near the tropopause[ J[ Atmos[ Solar!Terr[ Phys[ 48 "06#\ 1048[ Pudovkin\ M[I[\ Veretenenko\ S[V[\ 0881[ Variations of the mer! idional pro_le of the atmospheric pressure during the geo!
magnetic disturbances[ Geomagnetism and Aeronomy "Rus! sian edition# 21 "0#\ 007[ Pudovkin\ M[I[\ Veretenenko\ S[V[\ 0883[ On an agent linking solar and geomagnetic disturbances to the state of the lower atmosphere[ In] Baker\ D[N[\ Papitashvili\ V[O[\ Teague\ M[J[ "Eds[#\ Solar!Terrestrial Energy Program\ Proceeding of the 0881 STEP Symp[:4 COSPAR Coll[\ Laurel\ Maryland[ US STEP Coordination O.ce\ NASA:Goddard Space Flight Center\ U[S[A[\ Pergamon\ p[ 382[ Pudovkin\ M[I[\ Veretenenko\ S[V[\ 0885[ Variations of the cos! mic rays as one of the possible links between the solar activity and the lower atmosphere[ Adv[ Space Res[ 06 "00#\ 050[ Pudovkin\ M[I[\ Veretenenko\ S[V[\ Pellinen\ R[\ Kyro E[\ 0884[ In~uence of the solar cosmic ray bursts on the temperature of the high!latitudinal atmosphere[ J[ Tech[ Phys[ "Warsaw# 25 "3#\ 322[ Pudovkin\ M[I[\ Veretenenko\ S[V[\ Pellinen\ R[\ Kyro\ E[\ 0885[ Cosmic ray variation e}ects in the temperature of the high! latitudinal atmosphere[ Adv[ Space Res[ 06 "00#\ 054[ Pudovkin\ M[I[\ Vinogradova\ N[Ya[\ Veretenenko\ S[V[\ 0886[ The variation of the atmospheric transparency during solar proton events[ Geomagnetism and Aeronomy "Russian edi! tion# 26 "1#\ 013[ Starkov\ G[V[\ Roldugin\ V[K[\ 0883[ Relation of the atmo! spheric transparency variations to geomagnetic activity[ Geo! magnetism and Aeronomy "Russian edition# 23 "3#\ 045[ Tinsley\ B[A[\ 0889[ Forcing of climate variations by MeVÐ GeV particles< In] Schatten\ K[H[\ Arking\ A[ "Eds[#\ Climate Impact of Solar Variability[ Goddard Space Flight Center\ Greenbelt\ Maryland\ p[ 138[ Tinsley\ B[A[\ Deen\ C[W[\ 0880[ Apparent tropospheric response to MeVÐGeV particle ~ux variations] a connection via electrofreezing of supercooled water in high!level clouds< J[ Geophys[ Res[ 85 "D01#\ 11172[ Tinsley\ B[A[\ Heelis\ R[A[\ 0882[ Correlations of atmospheric dynamics with solar activity] evidence for a connection via the
M[I[ Pudovkin\ A[L[ Morozova:Journal of Atmospheric and Solar!Terrestrial Physics 59 "0887# 0618Ð0626 solar wind\ atmospheric electricity\ and cloud microphysics[ J[ Geophys[ Res[ 87 "D5#\ 09264[ Tinsley\ B[A[ et al[\ 0878[ Solar variability in~uences on weather and climate] possible connection through cosmic ray ~uxes and storm intensi_cation[ J[ Geophys[ Res[ 83 "D01#\ 03672[ Tverskoy\ P[N[\ 0851[ Physics of the Atmosphere[ GIMIZ\ Len! ingrad[ "In Russian# English Translation\ 0854\ Israel Pro! gram for Scienti_c Translations\ IPST cat[ no[ 0287[ Veretenenko\ S[V[\ Pudovkin\ M[I[\ 0882[ E}ects of the galactic
0626
cosmic ray variations on the circulation of the lower atmo! sphere[ Geomagnetism and Aeronomy "Russian edition# 22 "5#\ 24[ Veretenenko\ S[V[\ Pudovkin\ M[I[\ 0884[ E}ects of the galactic cosmic ray variations on the cloudiness state[ J[ Tech[ Phys[ "Warsaw# 25 "3#\ 252[ Veretenenko\ S[V[\ Pudovkin\ M[I[\ 0885[ Cloudiness variation during the burst of solar cosmic rays[ Geomagnetism and Aeronomy "Russian edition# 25 "0#\ 042[