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Tools of the trade
DISSECTING ROOM
Tools of the trade Cineradiography
films—recording adult chest ithin months of movements, for example, Wilhelm Röntgen’s needed a film strip 37 m long discovery of X-rays by 0·38 m wide—so the method in 1896, a London physician and his was all but useless. Others, like 15-year-old son had put together a Reynolds, favoured an indirect techworking X-ray set. The nique, filming X-ray son, Russell Reynolds images produced on Rights were not (1880–1964), qualified a fluorescent screen as a doctor 10 years with a cine-camera. The granted to later. X-rays were to main difficulty here was include this be at the heart of his getting a bright enough subsequent career. For image. Patients received image in decades, he pursued high doses of radiation electronic media. the elusive technique of and often an intolerable cineradiography: movstrain was put on the Please refer to ing X-ray images that X-ray tube. Reynolds the printed would show not only partially solved this form, but function. shortcoming in 1925 by journal. Others had attempincorporating a switch ted this technique since that synchronised the the early 20th century. production of X-rays Researchers used one with the opening of the of two methods, both cine-camera shutter, fraught with problems. Reynolds’ cineradiography which reduced the risks Some recorded the apparatus (1935) to both patient and X-ray images directly tube. onto cinefilm sandwiched between two By 1934 Reynolds had films of most fluorescent screens, so that the visible of the joints in action at 12 frames per light produced by the screens enhanced second and manufacturers Watson and the effect of the X-rays on the cinefilm. Sons were persuaded to produce a comBut this approach required enormous mercial version a year later. Cautiously, Science Museum/Science and Society Picture Library
W
Using the genome to improve therapeutics Drugs and the Pharmaceutical Sciences Volume 113: Pharmacogenomics Werner Kalow, Urs A Meyer, Rachel F Tyndale, eds. New York: Marcel Dekker Inc, 2001. $165.00. Pp 403. ISBN 0824705440. he publication of the human genome sequence brings with it high expectations for dramatic improvements in the treatment of common disorders and strategies for the prevention of disease. One discipline that is likely to be the first to fulfil these aspirations is pharmacogenomics: the inherited component of variability in drug disposition, efficacy, and toxicity. Although heritable variation in drug response has been described for more than 50 years, the concept of individualised therapy and the subject of pharmacogenomics are fairly new. Thus, the addition of pharmacogenomics to the Drugs and the Pharmaceutical Sciences series provides a valuable reference point in a burgeoning specialty. There are 19 chapters and a list of experienced contributors, with an equal mix of background and applied information. Early chapters cover the genetic polymorphisms important for receptors, transporters, and metabolising enzymes, as well as an informative history of
T
THE LANCET • Vol 358 • November 3, 2001
the subject and the influence of ethnicity on drug response. Later chapters offer an overview of current methods of data collection and analysis. Overall, the background chapters are well presented and informative. The chapter on membrane transporters only briefly covers information on the recently described genetic variations in transporter genes, although these variants are discussed in other chapters. Most chapters give a thorough overview of the available literature. For example, interethnic variation in drug metabolising enzymes is clearly highlighted, giving readers an indication as to why pharmacogenomics has such potential to provide a more objective basis for therapy selection than an indirect measure, such as skin pigment. Most of the chapters are sufficiently up-to-date to be useful, including an overview of the genomic databases and related resources. Although it is impossible in such a rapidly growing discipline to be completely up-to-date, information on the multiple polymorphism
they did so largely by modifying existing equipment lines—perhaps they knew that cineradiography was never going to make their fortune. Research interest, however, remained high in the 1930s and 1940s. Teaching films were made showing, for example, the working of the iron lung in paralysed patients. Reynolds produced a slow-motion film of the beating heart, projecting film he had made at 25 frames per second. By 1951, his constant small improvements to the apparatus allowed Watson and Sons to bring out a second version, exhibited at the Festival of Britain that year. It used wider aperture lenses, more brilliant fluorescent screens, and more sensitive film than the first version. But only four were ever sold. Cineradiography was not to be incorporated into the everyday work of the radiology department for another decade. In the 1960s, the invention of the electronic image amplifier solved at a stroke many of the problems Reynolds had worked on for years. Viewing live or recorded X-rays on a television monitor rapidly became commonplace in medicine, and central to many new medical techniques. Ghislaine Lawrence Clinical Medicine, The Science Museum, Exhibition Road, London SW7 2DD, UK
databases would have been a valuable addition. Moreover, it seems odd to provide individual chapters devoted to techniques such as serial analysis of gene expression, when more commonly employed mRNA analysis techniques, such as Real-Time PCR and microarrays, are relegated to short paragraphs. Similarly, there is a greater emphasis placed on specialised genotyping techniques, such as mass spectrometry MALDI-TOF. This text will be most useful for newcomers to pharmacogenomics, providing a solid historical context and reference source. Teachers will find the text useful for introductory lectures on the topic and may wish to follow the extensive reference section of each chapter to construct more advanced lectures. Overall, in such a rapidly expanding specialty, this comprehensive text deserves a place as a resource for students, residents, and non-specialists, as well as a place in the library of training programmes. *Howard L McLeod, Sharon Marsh Departments of Molecular Biology and Pharmacology, Genetics, and *Medicine, Washington University School of Medicine, St Louis, MO 63110–1093, USA
1559
For personal use. Only reproduce with permission from The Lancet Publishing Group.
Tools of the trade Cineradiography
films—recording adult chest ithin months of movements, for example, Wilhelm Röntgen’s needed a film strip 37 m long discovery of X-rays by 0·38 m wide—so the method in 1896, a London physician and his was all but useless. Others, like 15-year-old son had put together a Reynolds, favoured an indirect techworking X-ray set. The nique, filming X-ray son, Russell Reynolds images produced on Rights were not (1880–1964), qualified a fluorescent screen as a doctor 10 years with a cine-camera. The granted to later. X-rays were to main difficulty here was include this be at the heart of his getting a bright enough subsequent career. For image. Patients received image in decades, he pursued high doses of radiation electronic media. the elusive technique of and often an intolerable cineradiography: movstrain was put on the Please refer to ing X-ray images that X-ray tube. Reynolds the printed would show not only partially solved this form, but function. shortcoming in 1925 by journal. Others had attempincorporating a switch ted this technique since that synchronised the the early 20th century. production of X-rays Researchers used one with the opening of the of two methods, both cine-camera shutter, fraught with problems. Reynolds’ cineradiography which reduced the risks Some recorded the apparatus (1935) to both patient and X-ray images directly tube. onto cinefilm sandwiched between two By 1934 Reynolds had films of most fluorescent screens, so that the visible of the joints in action at 12 frames per light produced by the screens enhanced second and manufacturers Watson and the effect of the X-rays on the cinefilm. Sons were persuaded to produce a comBut this approach required enormous mercial version a year later. Cautiously, Science Museum/Science and Society Picture Library
W
Using the genome to improve therapeutics Drugs and the Pharmaceutical Sciences Volume 113: Pharmacogenomics Werner Kalow, Urs A Meyer, Rachel F Tyndale, eds. New York: Marcel Dekker Inc, 2001. $165.00. Pp 403. ISBN 0824705440. he publication of the human genome sequence brings with it high expectations for dramatic improvements in the treatment of common disorders and strategies for the prevention of disease. One discipline that is likely to be the first to fulfil these aspirations is pharmacogenomics: the inherited component of variability in drug disposition, efficacy, and toxicity. Although heritable variation in drug response has been described for more than 50 years, the concept of individualised therapy and the subject of pharmacogenomics are fairly new. Thus, the addition of pharmacogenomics to the Drugs and the Pharmaceutical Sciences series provides a valuable reference point in a burgeoning specialty. There are 19 chapters and a list of experienced contributors, with an equal mix of background and applied information. Early chapters cover the genetic polymorphisms important for receptors, transporters, and metabolising enzymes, as well as an informative history of
T
THE LANCET • Vol 358 • November 3, 2001
the subject and the influence of ethnicity on drug response. Later chapters offer an overview of current methods of data collection and analysis. Overall, the background chapters are well presented and informative. The chapter on membrane transporters only briefly covers information on the recently described genetic variations in transporter genes, although these variants are discussed in other chapters. Most chapters give a thorough overview of the available literature. For example, interethnic variation in drug metabolising enzymes is clearly highlighted, giving readers an indication as to why pharmacogenomics has such potential to provide a more objective basis for therapy selection than an indirect measure, such as skin pigment. Most of the chapters are sufficiently up-to-date to be useful, including an overview of the genomic databases and related resources. Although it is impossible in such a rapidly growing discipline to be completely up-to-date, information on the multiple polymorphism
they did so largely by modifying existing equipment lines—perhaps they knew that cineradiography was never going to make their fortune. Research interest, however, remained high in the 1930s and 1940s. Teaching films were made showing, for example, the working of the iron lung in paralysed patients. Reynolds produced a slow-motion film of the beating heart, projecting film he had made at 25 frames per second. By 1951, his constant small improvements to the apparatus allowed Watson and Sons to bring out a second version, exhibited at the Festival of Britain that year. It used wider aperture lenses, more brilliant fluorescent screens, and more sensitive film than the first version. But only four were ever sold. Cineradiography was not to be incorporated into the everyday work of the radiology department for another decade. In the 1960s, the invention of the electronic image amplifier solved at a stroke many of the problems Reynolds had worked on for years. Viewing live or recorded X-rays on a television monitor rapidly became commonplace in medicine, and central to many new medical techniques. Ghislaine Lawrence Clinical Medicine, The Science Museum, Exhibition Road, London SW7 2DD, UK
databases would have been a valuable addition. Moreover, it seems odd to provide individual chapters devoted to techniques such as serial analysis of gene expression, when more commonly employed mRNA analysis techniques, such as Real-Time PCR and microarrays, are relegated to short paragraphs. Similarly, there is a greater emphasis placed on specialised genotyping techniques, such as mass spectrometry MALDI-TOF. This text will be most useful for newcomers to pharmacogenomics, providing a solid historical context and reference source. Teachers will find the text useful for introductory lectures on the topic and may wish to follow the extensive reference section of each chapter to construct more advanced lectures. Overall, in such a rapidly expanding specialty, this comprehensive text deserves a place as a resource for students, residents, and non-specialists, as well as a place in the library of training programmes. *Howard L McLeod, Sharon Marsh Departments of Molecular Biology and Pharmacology, Genetics, and *Medicine, Washington University School of Medicine, St Louis, MO 63110–1093, USA
1559
For personal use. Only reproduce with permission from The Lancet Publishing Group.