TOPO-EUROPE: Understanding of the coupling between the deep Earth and continental topography

Tectonophysics 602 (2013) 1–14

Contents lists available at SciVerse ScienceDirect

Tectonophysics journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/tecto

Review Article

TOPO-EUROPE: Understanding of the coupling between the deep Earth and continental topography Sierd Cloetingh a,⁎, Sean D. Willett b a b

Institute of Earth Sciences, Faculty of Geosciences, Utrecht University, Budapestlaan 4, 3584 CD Utrecht, The Netherlands Department of Earth Sciences, ETH, 8092 Zurich, Switzerland

a r t i c l e

i n f o

Article history: Received 16 April 2013 Accepted 21 May 2013 Available online 3 June 2013 Keywords: Continental topography Coupled deep Earth and surface processes Natural laboratories Integrated solid earth science TOPO-EUROPE

a b s t r a c t Linking different spatial and temporal scales in coupled deep Earth and surface processes is a prime objective of the multidisciplinary international research program TOPO-EUROPE. The research approach of TOPOEUROPE integrates active collection of new data, reconstruction of the geological record and numerical and analog modeling. The results of the program presented in this special volume focus on four closely interrelated topics: crustal and upper mantle structures, lithosphere geodynamics, sedimentary basin dynamics and surface processes. Quantitative understanding of topographic evolution in space and time requires study of processes from the upper mantle, through the lithosphere and crust and acting on the Earth's surface. The results presented here demonstrate the opportunities to further understanding of topography through integrated studies of the full Earth system across space and timescales. © 2013 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Contents 1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2. The ESF EUROCORES TOPO-EUROPE program . 3. Special issue highlighting TOPO-EUROPE results 4. Crustal and upper mantle structures . . . . . . 5. Lithosphere geodynamics . . . . . . . . . . . 6. Sedimentary basin dynamics . . . . . . . . . 7. Surface processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Acknowledgments. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . .

1. Introduction One of the important developments in Earth science over the past decade has been the recognition of the importance of linking deep Earth dynamic processes with surface and near-surface geologic processes (e.g., Allen, 2008; Braun, 2010; Flament et al., 2013; Garcia-Castellanos and Cloetingh, 2012; Jones et al., 2012; National Academy of Sciences, 2012; Whipple, 2009). Deep Earth research, encompassing fields such as seismology and mantle geodynamics, has traditionally operated distinctly from fields focusing on dynamics of the Earth's surface, such as sedimentology and geomorphology. However, these endeavors have in common the study of the Earth's topography and the prediction of its origin and rates of change. Observables from surface studies, such as basin stratigraphy, geomorphology of landscapes, changes in surface elevation, and changes in sea level, provide some of the principal ⁎ Corresponding author. Tel.: +31 302537314. E-mail address: [email protected] (S. Cloetingh). 0040-1951/$ – see front matter © 2013 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.tecto.2013.05.023

. . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . .

1 2 6 6 9 10 11 12 12

constraints on geodynamic and tectonic models (e.g. Braun et al., 2012; Castelltort et al., 2012). Conversely, deep geodynamic processes (e.g. Cloetingh et al., 2013; DiCaprio et al., 2009; Duretz et al., 2011; Moucha et al., 2008) give rise to the topography, erosion, and sediment generation that are the basis of surface geology. It is the surface manifestations of these deep geodynamic processes that have societal impact by creating natural hazards, such as earthquakes (e.g. Ismail-Zadeh et al., 2012) and mass movements, and controlling the distribution of natural resources such as fossil fuels or geothermal energy (e.g. Cloetingh et al., 2010). The relevance of research conducted in both the deep Earth and surface regimes is thus enhanced through a focus on their interaction. Crucial also in this context is the availability of high-resolution constraints on the timing of changes in topography and the realization that rejuvenation in topography might be of more recent nature than traditionally assumed (e.g. Gallen et al., 2013). Recognition of this common ground has given rise to a multidisciplinary program in Europe under the umbrella name of TOPOEUROPE. TOPO-EUROPE represents a bottom-up, community effort to

2

S. Cloetingh, S.D. Willett / Tectonophysics 602 (2013) 1–14

self-organize and cross-fertilize the disparate fields within the geological and geophysical communities. Launched with a workshop in 2005 and a white paper (Cloetingh and TOPO-EUROPE Working Group, 2007) describing its scientific scope, the program has continued to grow with annual meetings and other activities. The heart of these research activities was supported through funding of a European Collaborative Research (EUROCORES) program administered by the European Science Foundation (ESF). Funding organizations in 23 countries agreed to support TOPO-EUROPE with the goal of better understanding the evolution of topography in Europe, its uplift and subsidence, and accompanying changes in sea level. All these topics are of great societal impact (Holm et al., 2012). This special volume brings together 21 papers that were the direct result of the TOPO-EUROPE program. One of the activities of TOPO-EUROPE is annual meetings, which have been held since 2005. This special volume grew out of contributions from the 2010 meeting in Oslo, but has expanded to cover research results from across the full TOPO-EUROPE program. Each of these papers, in some way is a reflection of the goal of better understanding the interactions between the deep Earth and the surface, either through the tectonic processes that create topography or the surface processes that modify an uplift signal. This is the third Tectonophysics special volume to come out of TOPO-EUROPE conferences. 2. The ESF EUROCORES TOPO-EUROPE program The TOPO-EUROPE EUROCORES program funded 10 Collaborative Research Projects (CRP's, see Table 1). The scale of these projects varies in scientific and administrative scope, but the final statistics show participation of 23 countries and nearly 20 million Euro invested. The scope of the research conducted within the EUROCORES projects is broad. As a consequence of interest in both deep Earth geodynamic processes and surface processes, all projects are multidisciplinary. Observations range from measuring geoid and monitoring sea level through satellites, onshore and offshore acquisition of new deep seismic data, dedicated geological field studies and acquisition of geochemical data, low-temperature thermochronometric ages, and cosmogenic isotope concentrations. Extensive use of analytical facilities and an integration of numerical and analog modeling are other important characteristics of the program. TOPO-EUROPE organized about a “natural laboratory” concept. Each of the projects focuses on a specific geographic region and includes diverse disciplines such as seismology, geodesy, geodynamics, tectonics, sedimentology, geochemistry, and geomorphology, applied within the common “laboratory.” The European continent exhibits a broad diversity of tectonic, climatic, and geographic settings, providing an excellent opportunity for a full spectrum of studies. Moreover, Table 1 Funded by EUROCORES TOPO-EUROPE Collaborative Research Projects (CRP's), Region of Study, and Participating Countries(Austria (AT), Finland (F), France (FR), Germany (DE), Hungary (HU), Ireland (IRL), Italy (IT), Netherlands (NL), Norway (N), Poland (PL), Portugal (P), Romania (RO), Serbia (SRB), Slovakia (SK), Spain (ES), Switzerland (CH), Turkey (TK), United Kingdom (UK), and United States (USA)). EUROCORES project

Natural laboratory

Participating countries

Topo-4D TopoMed TOPO-ALPS Thermo-Europe VAMP PYRTEC RESEL-GRACE SourceSink

Europe Mediterranean The Alps Europe and near Middle East Anatolia Pyrenees Europe The Pannonian, Black Sea region

SedyMONT

Selected drainage basins in Norway, Switzerland and Italy Scandinavia

NL, N, CH, IT NL, I, ES, DE, P, IRL CH, DE, FR, AT, AT F, NL, PL, ES, CH, DE, IT, UK DE, NL, SK, TK, IT, CH N, ES, F, NL, UK DE, F, NL NL, AT, SK, RO, FR, HU, SRB, TK, CH, USA CH, IT, UK, NO, AT

TopoScandiaDeep

N, DE, NL

Fig. 1. Schematic illustration of upwelling asthenosphere through lithospheric slab break and tear (geometry of slabs from Biryol et al. (2011), with map above showing regions of low Pn-wave velocities in pink (Biryol et al., 2011; Gans et al., 2009)). Upper map shows reconstructed, contoured map of surface uplift. Note the general similarity between the pattern of surface uplift and low P wave velocities, which are consistent with the suspected pattern of upwelling asthenosphere (from Schildgen et al., 2012).

as one of the most densely populated regions of the planet, the societal impact of better understanding solid earth processes is immediate. The scope of the individual projects reflects that diversity. The Vertical Motions of the Anatolian Plateau project (VAMP) addressed uplift of the Anatolian plateau and Taurides over the last few million years (Schildgen et al., 2012). This project has demonstrated an important contribution of slab breakoff to the record of recent vertical motions in the Anatolian plateau (Fig. 1). The Pyrenean tectonics project (PYRTEC) studied the interaction between surface processes, climate, and tectonic deformation during mountain building in the Pyrenean–Cantabrian belt. Collision between the Iberian and European plates resulted in mountain building in the Pyrenees and passive margin inversion in the Cantabrian area. The mountain range topography, however, was shaped by both collision and associated surface processes. Whereas large amounts of material were eroded in the Pyrenees, only minor erosion took place in the Cantabrian mountain range. Although operating at vastly different time and length scales, a significant potential existed for feedback between large scale tectonic deformation and redistribution of mass by erosion processes. This CRP has used a multidisciplinary approach involving field based studies, regional data compilation, geochronology, and quantitative modeling approaches that couple tectonic and surface process models (e.g. Fillon et al., 2013; Jammes and Huisman, 2012) (see Fig. 2). The Topo-4D project focused on the effects of mantle processes on surface deformation by studying plate motions and slab dynamics, including detachment and its impacts on surface topography (Duretz et al., 2011). As pointed out by a number of researchers (e.g. Burov and Toussaint, 2007; Burov et al., 2007; Cloetingh et al., 2013) the inclusion of realistic lithosphere rheology and a free surface in the modeling approaches is crucial for tracking the surface response to mantle lithosphere interactions. This is also important in modeling transient processes affecting slab reversal and slab mantle interactions (Fig. 3).

S. Cloetingh, S.D. Willett / Tectonophysics 602 (2013) 1–14

3

Fig. 2. Example of the effect of syn-tectonic sedimentation on the development of foreland fold and thrust belts (a–d) (after Fillon et al., 2013) and of the role of lithosphere scale inheritance on mountain belt formation (e–f) (after Jammes and Huismans, J. Geophys. Res., 2012). Left panel: Foreland fold and thrust belt model evolution with different amounts of syntectonic sedimentation. a) Model 1: no syn-orogenic sedimentation; b) Model 2: syn-orogenic sedimentation up to 1.95 km elevation; c) Model 3: syn-orogenic sedimentation up to 2.25 km elevation. d) Model 4: syn-orogenic sedimentation up to 3 km elevation. Panels show development at 12 m.y. Flexural rigidity is 1022 N m. The foreland-fold-and-thrust model results show that an increase in syn-tectonic sedimentation leads to significantly longer thrust sheets. Right panel: Lithosphere scale inversion tectonics. e) Lithosphere scale extensional model after 100 km of extension exhibiting symmetric extensional rift basin. This configuration is subsequently used for inversion. f) Mountain belt formation after 200 km of shortening. Note inverted extensional basin on the retro-wedge with significant mafic mantle lithospheric body at shallow depth, and new thick skinned basement thrust on pro-wedge side of model orogen. These numerical modelling results fit quite well with the evolution of the Pyrenees.

The Topo-4D project has examined in great detail the connection between absolute plate motions and dynamic topography. To this aim, three types of data were used to define absolute plate motions in a moving hotspot reference frame (Fig. 4a–c). Geometries and progressions of radiometric ages along hotspot tracks reflect the motion of lithospheric plates relative to underlying hotspots. Motions of hotspots have been estimated using numerical modeling (e.g., Steinberger, 2000), by calculating the global mantle flow and its variations through time using constraints from seismic tomography (density variations within the mantle) and numerical experiments on advection of conduits of mantle plumes in the calculated flow field. Motions of selected lithospheric plates from which the hotspot track data are available have been integrated into a unified kinematic model, and absolute reconstructions for the remaining plates (with no or not well documented hotspot tracks) have been calculated using relative plate reconstructions (Doubrovine et al., 2012; Torsvik et al., 2010) based on marine geophysical data (marine magnetic anomalies and fracture zones). The resulting absolute kinematic model describes the displacements of all lithospheric plates in a reference frame representative of the mantle as a whole, i.e. a reference frame in which the convective motions within the mantle average to no net rotation (Doubrovine et al., 2012). This research has enabled to derive absolute motion of Europe and to estimate dynamic topographic evolution since 100 Ma. A drastic change in absolute motion is observed in the Global Mantle Hotspot Reference Frame (GMHRF) at 70 Ma (Figs. 4a– 4c), where its direction changes from a west-northwest orientation to a dominantly eastward motion. In contrast, the kinematic model of O'Neill et al. (2005) predicts a less pronounced change at 50 Ma. In the GMHRF, Europe is nearly stationary during the last 40 Ma. Estimates of dynamic topography in the mantle reference frame (calculated from the normal stresses imposed on the base of the lithosphere by the mantle flow, (Steinberger et al., 2001)) can be combined

with the models of absolute plate motion to evaluate the temporal evolution of dynamic topography for the European region. The examples in Fig. 4d–i show the positions of Baltica in the GMHRF and Indo-Atlantic MHRF of O'Neill et al. (2005) superimposed on maps of dynamic topography at select reconstruction ages. This research also quantified dynamic topography through time at specific sites (Fig. 4j). Alternative kinematic models suggest different timing for the episodes of dynamic uplift and subsidence, with the absolute differences reaching ~200 m, highlighting the importance of choosing a proper absolute reference frame for modeling dynamic topography. The TopoMed project characterized the tectonic regime in the western and central Mediterranean (e.g. Guillaume et al., 2010) through acquisition and analysis of onshore–offshore seismic and magnetotelluric data, interpreted through numerical and analog modeling of initiation of subduction along the North Africa margin (Baes et al., 2011). The study by Baes et al. (2011) has provided support for the notion that mechanical conditions are favorable for initiation of subduction at the northern African margin (see Fig. 5), consistent with inferences from a recent synthesis and interpretation of a large data set of geological and geophysical observations (Roure et al., 2012). Closely linked to the TopoMed project is the TOPO-IBERIA program carried out by a large consortium of Spanish institutions, focusing on data-acquisition and modeling (e.g. Cloetingh et al., 2011; Diaz et al., 2012, 2013; Fernández-Lozano et al., 2012; Pous et al., 2011). TOPO-IBERIA has generated a number of exciting results, resolving in great detail the contrast in crustal structure at the Northern Mediterranean margin of the Moroccan Rif Belt, and the Alboran shear zone (Fig. 7). The program has also detected systematic patterns of lithosphere scale anisotropy around the Gibraltar arc (Fig. 6). Due to its focus on the integration of constraints on upper mantle and crustal structure as well as on the development of new concepts for surface expressions of tectonic processes, a regional framework, linking basins and topographic

4

S. Cloetingh, S.D. Willett / Tectonophysics 602 (2013) 1–14

Fig. 3. Influence of a free surface and a weak crust. Comparison of temperature and viscosity fields over time between calculations using (a, b) a free slip upper boundary condition (case 1) showing double-sided subduction, (c, d) a free surface condition (using a “sticky air” layer) (case 2) and (e, f) a free surface condition combined with a weak crustal layer (case 3), both resulting in single-sided subduction (Crameri et al., 2012).

highs in the area has been developed for the surface expression of slab tearing (Fig. 8). The TopoScandiaDeep (TSD) project studied upper mantle structure beneath the southern Scandes Mountains of Norway, an area characterized by persistent topography at a location far from Europe's plate boundaries. The origin of their present high altitude is not fully understood. The aim of the TopoScandiaDeep project has been to use geophysical data, in particular newly acquired seismological data (e.g. Köhler et al., 2012; Medhus et al., 2012), to map the seismic and mechanical properties of the crust and mantle below Scandinavia and analyze which forces and processes can be at the origin of the present-day topography of northern Europe (e.g. Maupin et al., 2013–this volume; Wawerzinek et al., 2013–this volume). The SourceSink program is a fully integrated research effort to significantly advance predictive capabilities on the quantitative analyses of coupled active and past drainage systems by means of step-wise 4D reconstructions of sediment mass transfer, integrating geophysics, geology, geomorphology, state of the art high-resolution dating, and numerical and analog modeling (e.g., Matenco and Andriessen, 2013a, b). A source to sink system describes the natural link between mountains, plains and deltas, by analyzing the (re)distribution of material at shallow crustal depth and at the Earth's surface, exploring the links between coupled tectonic and surface processes. The area selected for this program is the Danube River Basin–Black Sea source to sink system, a world-class natural laboratory that is uniquely situated in the heart of Europe's topography, covering almost half of its surface, providing opportunities for excellent field sites to study in integration surface and subsurface data that cover the complete chain of source,

carrier and sink (e.g., Matenco and Radivojević, 2012). Quantifying and modeling the complete system in relation to the controlling parameters has resulted in significant understanding of forcing factors and linking temporal and spatial scales across multiple orogen and basin systems (e.g., Krézsek et al., 2013; Lericolais et al., 2013; Magyar et al., 2013; Stojadinovic et al., 2013; Sztanó et al., 2013). This research has provided the opportunity to widen the geographical scope to other natural scenarios, where a number of mountain chains with similar geodynamic genesis separate sedimentary basins with comparable evolution (e.g., Santra et al., 2013; van Baak et al., 2013). Mountain building processes lead to exhumation of orogenic cores during gradual shortening by nappe stacking, fragmenting the associated foreland and hinterland sedimentary basins. Such processes often lead to the isolation of sub-basins (e.g., Flecker and Ellam, 2006). The parameters controlling the connectivity amongst late orogenic semi-isolated basins, and with open marine environments are related, for example, to the interplay between uplift and subsidence creating accommodation space and building sediment source areas, inherited tectonic pathways across mountain chains, or climate and sea-level variations. One such example is the fragmentation and gradual isolation of the Carpathian basins in the larger framework of the Paratethys endemic environment, when the modality of connection between the Pannonian and Dacian basins has strongly influenced the patterns of basin isolation and subsequent fill (Fig. 9). Observational studies across multiple basins and separating mountain chains combined with numerical modeling pointed to a significant impact of basin connectivity events on the architecture of all these Paratethys basins (e.g., Bartol et al., 2012; Leever et al., 2011; Munteanu et al., 2012; ter Borgh et al., 2013).

S. Cloetingh, S.D. Willett / Tectonophysics 602 (2013) 1–14

5

Fig. 4. Absolute motion of Europe and estimates of dynamic topography since 100 Ma. (a-c) Motion of Europe in the Global Moving Hotspot Reference Frame (GMHRF, Doubrovine et al., 2012) is illustrated by red flowlines, with circles plotted at 10 Ma increments, for the four arbitrary chosen reference locations (OSL, Oslo; FRA, Frankfurt; KRK, Krakow; BOR, Bordeaux). For comparison, blue flowlines show the estimates of European motion in the Indo-Atlantic moving hotspot reference frame of O’Neill et al. (2005). Ellipses in a and b show the 95% confidence regions for the reconstructed motion paths. Note that absolute displacements in the GMHRF for the last 40 Ma are smaller than the reconstruction uncertainties (b), suggesting that Europe was nearly stationary during that time interval. (d–i) Positions of Baltica in the GMHRF (red outlines) and Indo-Atlantic MHRF of O’Neill et al. (2005) (blue outlines) superimposed on the color maps of dynamic topography at selected reconstruction ages. (j) Variation of dynamic topography through time at the site of Oslo (60°N, 11°E). The blue curve corresponds to the absolute kinematic model of O’Neill et al. (2005); the red curve is an estimate obtained using the GMHRF (Doubrovine et al., 2012).

The TOPO-ALPS project had the principal goal of establishing the erosion rates across the Alps over a range of timescales from decades to millions of years. Databases for river sediment loads (Hinderer, 2012), cosmogenic isotope concentrations (Norton et al., 2011), and thermochronometric ages were established and analyzed, with one of the results being the characterization of the glacial overprint on

Fig. 5. Deformed geometries and effective stress field at t = 2.5 Myr (from Baes et al., 2011). The vectors indicate the velocity field at the indicated time.

topography and erosion rates over the late Quaternary (Sternai et al., 2012) (see Fig. 10). Detailed studies of the Alpine foreland showed a similar impact of glaciation with deep gorges eroded by sub-glacial fluids beneath the ice sheets from the Alps (Dürst Stucki et al., 2010, 2012). The Thermo-Europe project investigated the tectonic and climatic controls on the evolution of Europe's mountain belts through cooling rates established by thermochronometry. The project found little evidence for accelerated exhumation in the last few million years (Glotzbach et al., 2011; Reverman et al., 2012) (see Fig. 11), although there was evidence for an increase in relief due to Quaternary glacial valley carving (Valla et al., 2011). SedyMONT (see also Schlunegger and Norten, 2013–this volume) focused on human timescale mass transport through the establishment of sediment budgets for individual catchments. It was found that episodic sediment transfer processes such as debris flows are a dominant mechanism in sedimentary fan development but that sediment fluxes and fan stratigraphy can still be estimated provided the stochastic nature of sediment transfer is characterized (Berger et al., 2011; Schlunegger et al., 2009). The RESEL-GRACE project addressed Europe-scale sea level change using satellite gravity data from the Gravity Recovery and Climate Experiment (GRACE) mission as well as sea level monitoring data (Meyssignac

6

S. Cloetingh, S.D. Willett / Tectonophysics 602 (2013) 1–14

Fig. 6. Anisotropic parameters for the Gibraltar arc region. Bars are oriented along the observed seismic anisotropical polarization directions in the upper mantle and their length are proportional to the measured seismic wave delay times. Red bars are for “good” quality measurements while gray bars stand for “fair” results. Null measurements are represented by thin black lines oriented along the back azimuth. Absolute plate motion vectors in the no‐net rotation frame and the fixed hotspot frame are show by gray wide and black thin arrows (from Diaz et al., 2010).

et al., 2011; Schmeer et al., 2012; van der Wal et al., 2011, 2013). In this context, particular attention was given to the impact of different rheological models for the upper mantle underneath Fennoscandia for glacial isostatic models (Barnhoorn et al., 2011, 2013, see Fig. 12).

program. Papers have been organized into four topics in the areas of: crustal and upper mantle structures, lithosphere geodynamics, sedimentary basin dynamics, and surface processes. 4. Crustal and upper mantle structures

3. Special issue highlighting TOPO-EUROPE results This special volume is part of a series of special volumes published on the results of the program at large in “Global and Planetary Change” (Cloetingh and Tibaldi, 2012; Cloetingh and TOPO-Europe Working Group, 2007; Matenco and Andriessen, 2013a) and “Tectonophysics” (Cloetingh et al., 2009, 2011). A brief report on the rationale and scope of the program has been published recently by Cloetingh and Willett (2013). In addition, a wealth of individual papers has been published on outcomes of individual studies carried out under the umbrella of TOPOEUROPE (http://www.topo-europe.eu/esf-eurocore-topo-europe). The papers in this volume represent an important, if incomplete, sample of the spectrum of research conducted within the TOPO-EUROPE

In current discussions on the nature of controls on dynamic topography (e.g. Moucha and Forte, 2011) the role of spatial variations in structure and mechanical properties of the lithosphere (e.g. Tesauro et al., 2012) is not always recognized. Constraints on upper mantle and crustal structure are of paramount importance in deciphering dynamic topography attributed to mantle convective processes (Boschi et al., 2010) as well as separating the static isostatic and dynamic components of the topographic signal (Flament et al., 2013). This has been illustrated by several authors (see Fig. 13) in investigating the importance of adopting different models for European crustal structure in assessment of dynamic tomography for the Mediterranean region as inferred by Faccenna and Becker (2010). This study has shown the need for more

Fig. 7. Stations (triangles) color coded according to crustal thickness and interpolated Moho surface for northern Morocco. Large variations, strong gradients, and a division into three different domains are observed (light blue, yellow, and orange, respectively). Two alternative interpretations for stations in the central Rif are provided, picking the (a) later or (b) earlier of two possible Moho conversions. Thick black lines mark the position of the main faults of the trans-Alboran shear zone (TASZ) (from Mancilla et al., 2012).

S. Cloetingh, S.D. Willett / Tectonophysics 602 (2013) 1–14

7

Fig. 8. Geodynamic interpretation of tomographic results invokes the lateral migration of a tearing8 of the lithospheric slab originally attached to the south Iberian margin. (a) Geological map of the Gibraltar arc and subjacent mantle structure derived from seismic tomography. White arrows indicate uplift of intramountain basins within the Betics and the Rif, and ages of their transition from marine to continental conditions. White dots locate earthquake hypocenters used for the tomographic inversion and blue arrows locate proposed connecting corridors. (b) Interpretative sketch: T marks the proposed lithosphere tearing point, separating areas where the sinking lithospheric slab (blue) is detached from Iberia, inducing surface uplift (to the east), from areas where it remains attached to the crust (to the west) (from Garcia-Castellanos and Villaseñor, 2011).

detailed models for crustal and upper mantle structures in assessment of the relative contribution of mantle convection to topography on a regional scale. The Scandinavian Mountain Chain (the Scandes) is an intracontinental mountain chain at the western edge of the Baltic shield, and has its southern part located in southern Norway. The timing as well as the processes causing the formation of the Scandes are disputed. Maupin et al. (2013–this volume) bring new geophysical constraints to this issue by providing crustal and mantle seismic models for the area and by

integrated modeling of the lithosphere and its potential deformation. New maps of Moho depth and crustal seismic velocities have been compiled using data from refraction lines, P-receiver functions and noise cross-correlation. Travel times of shear waves, recorded at the MAGNUS network to determine the 3D shear wave velocity structure underneath Southern Scandinavia, are analyzed by Wawerzinek et al. (2013–this volume). The travel time residuals are corrected for the known crustal structure of Southern Norway and weighted to account for data quality

Fig. 9. One of the potential scenarios of connectivity between the Pannonian, Transylvanian and Dacian basins, linking sedimentation between distinct depositional domains situated in the hinterland and foreland of the Carpathian Mountains towards the presently active sink, the Black Sea. Following the first establishment of connections in all areas during Middle Miocene times, this scenario suggests that the Pannonian and Transylvanian basin had their own connecting distinct gateway to the Dacian basin. These connections could have been broken independently by the Carpathians tectonic uplift that took place in the Late Miocene (from ter Borgh et al., 2013).

8

S. Cloetingh, S.D. Willett / Tectonophysics 602 (2013) 1–14

Fig. 10. a: Map of estimated isostatic rock uplift in response to Quaternary erosion in European Alps. Thick black line represents base level. b: Pre-glacial steepness index (ks) map. External Crystalline Massifs, Dent Blanche and Sesia-Lanzo units, and Tauern and Engadine windows are shown in red, gray, and blue, respectively. Black lines represent major tectonic lineaments. c: Map of reconstructed pre-glacial topography of Alps. Elevations are above present-day sea level. Black line represents base level. Note that present-day topography is displayed outside base level. d: Map of elevation difference, Δz, between present-day and modeled pre-glacial Alpine topographies. Green, red, pink, yellow, azure, and brown basin outlines show Rhone, Rhine, Aosta, Chiavenna, Adige, and Puster Valleys, respectively. White lines in A, B, and C and black curved line in D represent Last Glacial Maximum ice extent as compiled by Buoncristiani and Campy (2004) (from Sternai et al., 2012).

and pick uncertainties. The resulting residual pattern of subvertically incident waves is very uniform and simple. Stolk et al. (2013–this volume) propose a new methodology to obtain crustal models in areas where data is sparse and data spreading is heterogeneous. This new method involves both interpolating the depth to the Moho discontinuity between observations and estimating a velocity–depth curve for the crust at each interpolation location. The Moho observations are interpolated using a remove– compute–restore technique, as used in geodesy. Observations are corrected first for Airy type isostasy. The residual observations show less variation than the original observations, making interpolation more reliable. After interpolation, the applied correction is restored to the solution, leading to the final estimate of Moho depth. The crustal velocities have been estimated by fitting a velocity depth curve through available data at each interpolation location. Uncertainty of the model is assessed, both for the Moho and the velocity model. The method has been applied successfully to Asia. The resulting crustal model is provided in digital form and can be used in various geophysical applications, for instance in assessing rheological properties and strength profiles of the lithosphere, the correction of gravity anomalies for crustal density heterogeneities, seismic tomography and geothermal modeling. Shalev et al. (2013–this volume) analyze temperature data from all the available oil and water wells in Israel and compare the results with seismicity depth and with heat flux estimation from xenoliths. The authors show that the average heat flux in Israel is consistent with measurements of the Arabian Shield. A heat flux anomaly exists in Northern Israel and Jordan. This could be attributed to groundwater flow or young magmatic activity that is common in this area. A higher heat flux exists in Southern Israel and Jordan, probably reflecting the opening of the Red Sea and the Gulf of Eilat (Gulf of Aqaba) and does not represent the average value present in the Arabian Shield.

The temperature gradient at the Dead Sea basin is relatively low, resulting in low heat flux and a relatively deep seismicity extending to lower crustal depths, in agreement with earthquake depths. Higher heat fluxes at the Sea of Galilee and at the Gulf of Eilat result in shallower seismicity. The steep geothermal gradients yielded by xenoliths could be the result of local heating by magmas or by lithospheric necking and shear heating. Global distribution of the strength and effective elastic thickness (Te) of the lithosphere are estimated by Tesauro et al. (2013–this volume) using physical parameters from recent crustal and lithospheric models. For the Te estimation they apply a new approach, which takes into account variations of Young modulus within the lithosphere. In view of the large uncertainties affecting strength estimates, the authors evaluate global strength and Te distributions for possible end-member ‘hard’ (HRM) and a ‘soft’ (SRM) rheology models of the continental crust. Temperature within the lithosphere has been estimated using a recent tomography model of Ritsema et al. (2011), which has much higher horizontal resolution than previous global models. Most of the strength is localized in the crust for the HRM and in the mantle for the SRM. These results contribute to the long debates on applicability of the “crème brulée” or “jelly-sandwich” model for the lithosphere structure. The study by Hardebol et al. (2013–this volume) aims to quantify the 3-D variability in lithosphere strength of the southwestern Canadian Cordillera to craton lithosphere. Strength is calculated in a forward manner, starting from rheological laws of brittle and ductile deformation. The method first calculates a temperature model based on a multi-layer compositional model and subsequently estimates the strength distribution with input of both the compositional and temperature models. The temperature modeling involves numerical inversion and cubic spline algorithms, which help to impose boundary conditions that account better for strong lateral variations in lithosphere thickness and lateral heat flow, to address the lithosphere structure between the Canadian Cordillera and craton.

S. Cloetingh, S.D. Willett / Tectonophysics 602 (2013) 1–14

Fig. 11. (a) Relief history. Synoptic 2D marginal probability density functions showing reconstructed relief and exhumation histories of the Mont Blanc massif according to inversion (after Glotzbach et al. (2011). Probabilities and corresponding 2σ (gray) and 1σ (black) confidence intervals are constructed using re-sampling of the dataset. Inset in (a) shows additional exhumation due to valley carving (valley: 1277 m) (from Glotzbach et al., 2011). (b) 4He/3He thermochronometry of SIO samples. Observed 4He/3He ratio evolution diagrams and model cooling paths for SIO-04. The measured 4He/3He ratios of each degassing step (Rstep) are normalized to the bulk ratio (Rbulk) and plotted versus the cumulative 3He release fraction (∑F3He). Boxes indicate ±1 s.d. (vertical) and integration steps (horizontal). Colored lines show the predicted 4He/3He ratio evolution diagram (e) for an arbitrary cooling path (f). Each colored path predicts the observed AHe age of the sample to within ±1 s.d.; red and yellow cooling paths are excluded by the 4He/3He data, whereas green cooling paths are permitted. The cooling path initiated off scale at 150 °C; cooling paths that failed to predict the observed AHe age are not shown (from Valla et al., 2011).

5. Lithosphere geodynamics Why some Archean cratons survived for billions of years while the rest of the lithosphere has been reworked, probably several times, is both enigmatic and fundamental for plate tectonics. Craton longevity is mainly explained by their buoyancy and analyzed by testing gravitational stability of cratonic mantle “keels” as a function of a hypothesized thermo-rheological structure. Destruction of some cratons suggests that buoyancy is not the only factor in their stability, and many previous studies show that their mechanical strength is equally important. The upper bounds on the integrated strength of cratons are provided by flexural studies demonstrating that Te values (equivalent elastic thickness) in cratons are highest in the world (110–150 km). Yet, the lower bounds on the integrated strength of stable cratons are still a matter of debate, along with the question of how this strength is partitioned between crust and mantle. Francois et al. (2013–this volume) show that primary observed cratonic features of flat topography and “frozen” heterogeneous crustal structure represent the missing constraints for understanding craton longevity. The cratonic crust is characterized by isostatically misbalanced density heterogeneities, suggesting that the lithosphere has to be strong enough to keep them frozen through time without developing major gravitational instabilities and topographic undulations. Hence, to constrain thermo-rheological properties of cratons one should investigate the stability of their topography and internal structure. The authors demonstrate with free-surface thermo-mechanical

9

numerical models that craton stability cannot be warranted even by very high crustal strength, so that dry olivine mantle and cold thick lithosphere are indispensable conditions. Collision between continents can lead to the subduction of continental material. If the crust remains coupled to the downgoing slab, a large buoyancy force is generated. This force slows down convergence and promotes slab detachment. If the crust resists subduction, it may decouple from the downgoing slab and be subjected to buoyant vertical extrusion. Duretz and Gerya (2013–this volume) employ two-dimensional thermomechanical models to study the importance of crustal rheology on the evolution of subduction/ collision systems. They propose simple quantifications of the mechanical decoupling between lithospheric levels and the potential for buoyant extrusion of the crust. These models are important for comparison with inferences from analog models (e.g. Luth et al., 2013). The rollback of a segmented slab of oceanic lithosphere is typically accompanied by vertical lithospheric tear fault(s) along the lateral slab edge(s) and by strike slip movement in the upper plate, defined as a STEP (Subduction Tear Edge Propagator) fault (see also Govers and Wortel, 2005). The Neogene evolution of the Central Mediterranean is dominated by the interaction between the slow Africa–Eurasia convergence and the SE-ward rollback of the Ionian slab, which leads to the back-arc opening of the Tyrrhenian Sea. Gallais et al. (2013–this volume) present the post-stack time migrated and pre-stack depth migrated multichannel seismic lines, that were acquired offshore eastern Sicily, at the foot of the Malta escarpment. The recent deformation along the lateral ramp of the Calabrian accretionary wedge is identified. A previously published Moho depth map of the offshore Sicily region and the recent GPS data, combined with the presence of strike slip movements onshore NE Sicily, allow the authors to identify a 200 km long crustal-scale fault as the surface expression of a STEP fault. The presence of syntectonic Pleistocene sediments on top of this crustal-scale fault suggests a recent lithospheric vertical movement of the STEP fault, in response to the rollback of the Ionian slab and advance of Calabria towards SE. Crustal earthquake focal mechanisms are investigated by Presti et al. (2013–this volume) in the Calabrian Arc region, where the western Mediterranean subduction process is close to ending and the residual Ionian subducting slab affected by gravitational roll-back produces strong variation of faulting at shallow depth along the local section of the convergent margin. An updated database of earthquake focal mechanisms is compiled by selecting the best-quality solutions available in the literature and in catalogs, and by adding some new solutions. A total of 164 mechanisms are included in the database, 142 computed by waveform inversion and 22 by analysis of P-wave first motions from earthquakes with network coverage of no less than 14 records. The database includes focal mechanisms from earthquakes down to a minimum magnitude of 2.6 for the mechanisms from waveform inversion, and of 1.7 for the mechanisms from P-wave first motions. Stability tests on newly-estimated focal mechanisms are also presented. Focal data from the database are inverted for stress tensor orientations to obtain the principal stress axes over the study region. Large-scale intraplate deformation of the crust and the lithosphere in Central Asia as a result of the indentation of India has been extensively documented. In contrast, the impact of continental collision between Arabia and Eurasia on lithosphere tectonics in front of the main suture zone, has received much less attention. The resulting Neogene shortening and uplift of the external Zagros, Alborz, Kopeh Dagh and Caucasus Mountain belts in Iran and surrounding areas are characterized by a simultaneous onset of major topography growth at ca. 5 Ma. At the same time, subsidence accelerated in the adjacent Caspian, Turan and Amu Darya basins. Smit et al. (2013–this volume) present evidence for interference of lithospheric folding patterns induced by the Arabian and Indian collision with Eurasia. Wavelengths and spatial patterns are inferred from satellite-derived topography and gravity models.

10

S. Cloetingh, S.D. Willett / Tectonophysics 602 (2013) 1–14

Fig. 12. Relative change in viscosity with respect to the viscosity at 30 kyr B.P. in a wet upper mantle for 18 kyr B.P., 8 kyr B.P. and present for four different depth levels. Red indicates an increase in viscosity; blue indicates a decrease in viscosity (from Barnhoorn et al., 2011).

Central Asia is a classic example for intracontinental lithospheric folding. In particular, the Altay–Sayan belt in South-Siberia and the Kyrgyz Tien Shan display a special mode of lithospheric deformation, involving decoupled lithospheric mantle/upper crustal folding, together with upper crustal faulting. Both areas have a contrasting crust with a long history of accretion–collision, subsequently reactivated as a far-field effect of the Indian–Eurasian collision. Thanks to the youthfulness of the tectonic deformation in this region (peak deformation in late Pliocene– early Pleistocene), the surface expression of lithospheric deformation is well documented by the surface topography and surficial structures. A review by Delvaux et al. (2013–this volume) of the paleostress data and the tectono-stratigraphic evolution of the Kurai–Chuya basin in Siberian Altai, Zaisan basin in Kazakh South Altai and Issyk-Kul basin in Kyrgyz Tien Shan suggests that they were initiated in an extensional context and

inverted by a combination of fault-controlled deformation and flexural folding. In these basins, fault-controlled deformation alone appears largely insufficient to explain their architecture. Lithospheric buckling inducing surface tilting, uplift and subsidence also played an important role. Their characteristic basin fill and symmetry, inner structure, folding wavelength and amplitude, thermal regime, and time frame are examined in relation to basement structure, stress field, strain rate, and timing of deformation, and compared to other basins in similar context and to existing modeling results. 6. Sedimentary basin dynamics The balance between extension and contraction in back-arc basins is very sensitive to a number of parameters related to on-going

Fig. 13. (a) Residual topography after correcting for isostatic adjustment based on the crustal model Crust2.0 (Bassin et al., 2000). (b) Same as Fig. 13a, isostatic adjustment computed from EuCRUST-07 (Tesauro et al., 2008), with density values taken, again, from Crust2.0 (after Boschi et al., 2010).

S. Cloetingh, S.D. Willett / Tectonophysics 602 (2013) 1–14

subduction and collision processes. This leads to complex back-arc geometries, where a lateral transition between crustal blocks with contrasting rheology is often recorded. One good example is the back-arc region of the Balkanides–Pontides orogens, where lateral variations in rheology are observed between the Balkanides–Moesian block and the Pontides–Western Black Sea Basin. The latter opened during Cretaceous–Eocene, and has been inverted together with the former during late Middle Eocene. The inversion generated contrasting geometry along the orogenic strike, with a narrow zone of high deformation in the Balkanides–Moesia region, wide areas of thrusting in the Pontides– Western Black Sea Basin and a transitional zone characterized by highly curved geometries. Munteanu et al. (2013–this volume) investigate inversion tectonics processes by the means of crustal analog modeling testing the role of inherited crustal geometries during such inversion. Formation and evolution of back-arc basins are related to the interplay between subduction and convergence velocity during the formation of an orogenic chain. Sedimentary basins lacking genetic fault systems can be locally observed in the hinterland of the main orogenic belt in some back-arc regions. These are interesting features potentially driven by a number of contrasting mechanisms, such as lithospheric traction forces from the plate boundary, lateral migration of lower crustal material during orogenesis or sub-lithospheric processes such as the rapid retreat of a subducting slab. The Transylvanian Basin is a Miocene basin that formed at the rear of the main Carpathian arc during the subduction of a slab attached to stable Europe. Situated east of the Pannonian Basin, a typical continental extensional back-arc domain, Transylvania accommodated up to 3.5 km of Middle-Upper Miocene sediments that were deposited coeval with the shortening in the neighboring Carpathians. The basin fill was subsequently exhumed and partly eroded when the Carpathians collided with the European craton in Late Miocene times. This was associated with contractional deformation and widespread salt diapirism that forms the bulk of Miocene deformation observed inside the basin. A study by Tiliţă et al. (2013–this volume) shows that no significant normal faults are present inside the basin that could have accommodated 3.5 km subsidence in terms of upper crustal extension. Furthermore, the basin kinematics cannot be linked directly with any other mechanical process explaining the observed Miocene subsidence. Therefore, the authors discuss several mechanisms that may explain regional-scale observations and they conclude that the Miocene Transylvanian Basin most likely formed in response to an asymmetric simple shear extension assisted by erosion and/or lower crustal flow; the upper crustal effects were localized in the neighboring Pannonian Basin. Data from deep boreholes, seismic surveys, and surface geology are used by De Vicente and Muñoz-Martín (2013–this volume) to reconstruct the sedimentary infilling of the Cenozoic Madrid Basin. Eight main depositional sequences and seismic units are recognized. From the Paleogene, the latter four of these sedimentary sequences were deposited in a continental environment, under the influence of tectonic activity in the Central System, the Toledo Mountains, the Iberian Chain, and the Sierra de Altomira. The sedimentary fill shows an overall coarsening-upward trend from upper Cretaceous formations to syn-tectonic conglomerate deposits, followed by a fining-upward sequence and moderate reactivation of some faults during the late Miocene–Pliocene. The syn-tectonic sediments are Oligocene to early Miocene in age. The foredeep is oriented northeast–southwest and shows a sediment thickness of up to 3800 m in areas close to the Central System. Several types of tectonic structures are recognized, including imbricate thrust systems, thrust triangle zones, fault-propagation folds, back-thrust systems, and pop-up structures. The frontal thrusts were subjected to significant erosion, and late Miocene sediments onlap the anticlines of the onshore foreland. NW–SE-trending positive flower structures have been recognized in the eastern part of the basin. The total northwest–southeast shortening across the contact between the Madrid Basin and the Central System is approximately 5 km, of which 2–3 km occurred across the Southern Border Thrust. The

11

simultaneous basement uplift of the Central System and the tectonic escape of the Sierra de Altomira have been interpreted as a consequence of constrictive deformation within the “Pyrenean” foreland of the Iberian microplate. The Central Anatolian Crystalline Complex (CACC) exposes metasediment rocks overlain by Cretaceous ophiolites and intruded by granitoids. Following late Cretaceous exhumation of its high grade metamorphic rocks, the CACC started to collide with the Central Pontides of southern Eurasia in the latest Cretaceous to Paleocene. Gülyüz et al. (2013–this volume) present the sedimentary, stratigraphic and tectonic evolution of the Çiçekdağı Basin, located in the northwest of the CACC. Magnetostratigraphic dating, supported by 40 Ar/39Ar geochronology shows a late Eocene basin age. The basin fill unconformably overlies metamorphic basement in the south and ophiolites of the CACC in the north. It consists of red conglomerates, sandstones and siltstones, which overlie a sequence of nummulitic limestones. In the south, these limestones are ~10 m thick, are underlain by a few meters of conglomerate unit unconformably covering the CACC metamorphics. In the north, the limestones are underlain by a ~200 m thick sequence of volcanics and fine-grained clastics intercalating with shallow marine black shales. The upper Eocene sediments of the Çiçekdağı Basin were deformed into a syn-anticline pair. Progressive unconformities in the northern flank and a rapid and persistent ~180° switch in paleocurrent directions from southward to northward in the southern flank of the anticline demonstrate synsedimentary folding. Gülyüz et al. (2013–this volume) interpret the folding to result from a southward progression of the Çankırı foreland basin as a result of ongoing collision between the CACC and the Pontides. 7. Surface processes Datasets of the GNSS Upper Rhine Graben Network (GURN) and the national leveling networks in Germany, France and Switzerland are investigated by Fuhrmann et al. (2013–this volume) with respect to current surface displacements in the Upper Rhine Graben (URG) area. GURN consists of about 80 permanent GNSS (Global Navigation Satellite Systems) stations. The terrestrial leveling network comprises 1st and 2nd order leveling lines that have been remeasured at intervals of roughly 25 years, starting in 1922. In contrast to earlier studies, national institutions and private companies made available raw data, allowing for consistent solutions for the URG region. Fuhrmann et al. (2013–this volume) focused on the southern and eastern parts of the investigation area. Their preliminary results show that the leveling and GNSS datasets are sensitive to small surface displacement rates down to 0.2 mm/a and 0.4 mm/a, respectively. The observed horizontal velocity components obtained from GNSS coordinate time series for a test region south of Strasbourg show variations around 0.5 mm/a. The results are in general agreement with interseismic strain built-up in a sinistral strike-slip regime. Since the accuracy of the GNSS derived vertical component is insufficient, data of precise leveling networks are used to determine vertical displacement rates. More than 75% of the vertical rates obtained from a kinematic adjustment of 1st order leveling lines in the eastern part of URG vary between −0.2 mm/a and +0.2 mm/a, indicating that this region behaves stably. Higher rates up to 0.5 mm/a in a limited region south of Freiburg are in general agreement with active faulting. The authors conclude that both networks deliver stable results that reflect real surface movements in the URG area. They note, however, that geodetically observed surface displacements generally result from a superposition of different effects, and that separation into tectonic and non-tectonic processes needs additional information and expertise. Focusing on climatic and structural (tectonic) controls, Stange et al. (2013–this volume) aim to determine their relative importance for the Pliocene–Quaternary fluvial landscape evolution in the Southern Pyrenees foreland. The authors investigate the Segre River, which is one of the major streams of the Southern Pyrenees that drains the elevated chain towards the Ebro foreland basin. Along its course, the Segre

12

S. Cloetingh, S.D. Willett / Tectonophysics 602 (2013) 1–14

River has a flight of fluvial cut-and-fill (and strath-type) terraces preserved. These have been mapped from DEMs and through geomorphological fieldwork. The paper by Stange et al. (2013–this volume) reports on the Segre terrace staircase, which is characterized by seven major Quaternary terrace levels with elevations up to more than 110 m above the modern floodplain. At the upper and middle reaches, the semi-parallel terraces of the Segre River occasionally show anomalies featuring extensive gravel thickness and deformation caused by faulting, folding and local subsidence. The longitudinal correlations of terrace levels reveal increased vertical terrace spacing in the foreland, which could originate from enhanced fluvial erosion after the Mid-Pleistocene climate transition in combination with base level lowering controlled by the progressive down-cutting of the Catalan Coastal Range. Since the Ebro Basin opening (Late Miocene), the Catalan Coastal Range, which borders the Ebro foreland basin to the Mediterranean Sea, was progressively cut down and the exoreic drainage system gradually adjusted to sea level. The Segre longitudinal terrace profiles and the Ebro gorge morphology at the Catalan Coastal Range indicate a base-level of about 200 m.s.l. at the beginning of (Pleistocene) terrace formation, which implies that the Catalan Coastal Range might have functioned as a local base-level upstream of the sea outlet, presumably until the Late Pleistocene. Alternatively, a yet unknown tectonic process might have caused base level lowering and the preservation of terrace staircases at the Ebro drainage system. The fluvial system of the SE Carpathians incised deeply into the underlying bedrock and basin infilling due to differential Quaternary uplift. Necea et al. (2013–this volume) aim to reconstruct terrace development and quantify uplift-driven valley incision along a west–east transect across the SE Carpathians by studying the late Early Pleistocene monocline from the Focşani foredeep basin and the Middle Pleistocene to Holocene strath- and fill-terraces from the orogen, Braşov intramontane and foredeep basins. Additionally, new infrared stimulated luminescence ages and fluvial incision rates were obtained and integrated with published geomorphological data to determine minimum terrace formation time, to asses incision rate distribution, and thereby, to constrain tectonic uplift amplitude. Saez et al. (2013–this volume) aim to reconstruct spatio-temporal patterns of past landslide reactivation and the possible occurrence of future events in a forested area of the Barcelonnette basin (Southeastern French Alps). Analysis of past events on the Aiguettes landslide is based on growth ring series from 223 heavily affected Mountain pine (Pinus uncinata Mill. ex Mirb.) trees growing on the landslide body. A total of 355 growth disturbances were identified in the samples indicating 14 reactivation phases of the landslide body since AD 1898. Accuracy of the spatio-temporal reconstruction is confirmed by historical records and aerial photographs. Logistic regressions using monthly rainfall data from the HISTALP database indicated that landslide reactivations occurred due to above-average precipitation anomalies in winter. They point to the important role of snow in the triggering of reactivations at the Aiguettes landslide body. In a subsequent step, spatially explicit probabilities of landslide reactivation were computed based on the extensive dendrogeomorphic dataset using a Poisson distribution model for an event to occur in 5, 20, 50, and 100 yr. High resolution maps indicate highest probabilities of reactivation in the lower part of the landslide body and increase from 0.28 for a 5-yr period to 0.99 for a 100-yr period. In the upper part of the landslide body, probabilities do not exceed 0.57 for a 100-yr period and somehow confirm the more stable character of this segment of the Aiguettes landslide. The approach presented in this paper is considered a valuable tool for land-use planners and emergency cells in charge of forecasting future events and in protecting people and their assets from the negative effects of landslides. Recent studies have identified relationships between landscape form, erosion and climate in regions of landscape rejuvenation, associated with increased denudation. These landscapes are located in non-glaciated tropical mountain ranges, and are characterized by transient geomorphic

features. The landscapes of the Swiss Alps are likewise in a transient geomorphic state as seen by multiple knickzones. In contrast to the tropical sites, however, the transient state of the Alps has been related to erosional effects during the Late Glacial Maximum (LGM). Schlunegger and Norton (2013–this volume) focus on the catchment scale and categorize hillslopes based on erosional mechanisms, landscape form and land cover. The authors then explore relationships of these variables to precipitation and extent of LGM glaciers to disentangle modern versus paleo controls on the modern shape of the Alpine landscape. They find that in grasslands, the downslope flux of material mainly involves unconsolidated material through hillslope creep, testifying a transport-limited erosional regime. Alternatively, strength-limited hillslopes, where erosion is driven by bedrock failure, are either covered by forests and/or expose bedrock, displaying oversteepened hillslopes and channels. There, hillslope gradients and relief are more closely correlated with LGM ice occurrence than with precipitation or the erodibility of the underlying bedrock. Schlunegger and Norton (2013–this volume) relate the spatial occurrence of the transport- and strength-limited process domains to the erosive effects of LGM glaciers. In particular, strength-limited, rock dominated basins are situated above the equilibrium line altitude (ELA) of the LGM, reflecting the ability of glaciers to scour the landscape beyond threshold slope conditions. In contrast, transport-limited, soil-mantled landscapes are common below the ELA. Hillslopes covered by forests occupy the elevations around the ELA and are constrained by the tree line. The authors conclude that the erosional forces at work in the Central Alps are still responding to LGM glaciation, and that the modern climate has not yet impacted on the modern landscape. Acknowledgments The results discussed here are part of the outcome of a collective and dedicated effort of the TOPO-EUROPE research community. We thank Paola Campus and Anne-Sophie Gabin from the European Science Foundation for effective support for the coordination of the EUROCORES TOPO-EUROPE program. Continuing support is also acknowledged from the International Lithosphere Programme and the European Academy of Sciences (Academia Europaea). Elishevah van Kooten is thanked for excellent editorial assistance. References Allen, P.A., 2008. From landscapes into geological history. Nature 451 (7176), 274–276. http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/nature06586. Baes, M., Govers, R., Wortel, R., 2011. Subduction initiation along the inherited weakness zone at the edge of a slab: insights from numerical models. Geophysical Journal International 184, 991–1008. Barnhoorn, A., van der Wal, W., Vermeersen, L.L.A., Drury, M.R., 2011. Lateral, spatial and temporal variations in upper mantle viscosity and rheology under Scandinavia. Geochemistry, Geophysics, Geosystems 12, Q01007. Bartol, J., Matenco, L., Garcia-Castellanos, D., Leever, K., 2012. Modelling depositional shifts between sedimentary basins: sediment pathways in Paratethys basins during the Messinian Salinity Crisis. Tectonophysics 536–537, 110–121. Bassin, C., Laske, G., Masters, G., 2000. The current limits of resolution for surface wave tomography in North America. EOS. Transactions of the American Geophysical Union 81 (48) (Fall Meet. Suppl., Abstract S12A– 03). Berger, C., McArdell, B.W., Schlunegger, F., 2011. Sediment transfer patterns at the Illgraben catchment, Switzerland: implications for the time scales of debris flow activities. Geomorphology 125 (3), 421–432. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.geomorph.2010.10.019. Biryol, B.C., Beck, S.L., Zandt, G., Özacar, A.A., 2011. Segmented African lithosphere beneath the Anatolian region inferred from teleseismic P-wave tomography. Geophysical Journal International 184, 1037–1057. Boschi, L., Faccenna, C., Becker, T.W., 2010. Mantle structure and dynamic topography in the Mediterranean Basin. Geophysical Research Letters 37, L20303. Braun, J., 2010. The many surface expressions of mantle dynamics. Nature Geoscience 3, 825–833. Braun, J., van der Beek, P., Valla, P., Robert, X., Herman, F., Glotzbach, C., Pedersen, V., Perry, C., Thibaud, S., Prigent, C., 2012. Quantifying rates of landscape evolution and tectonic processes by thermochronology and numerical modeling of crustal heat transport using PECUBE. Tectonophysics 524 (525), 1–28. Buoncristiani, J.F., Campy, M., 2004. Expansion and retreat of the Jura Ice sheet (France) during the last glacial maximum. Sedimentary Geology 165, 253–264. Burov, E., Toussaint, G., 2007. TOPO-EUROPE: surface processes and tectonics: forcing of continental subduction and deep processes. Global and Planetary Change 58, 141–164.

S. Cloetingh, S.D. Willett / Tectonophysics 602 (2013) 1–14 Burov, E., Guillou-Frottier, L., d'Acremont, E., Le Pourhiet, L., Cloetingh, S., 2007. Plume head-lithosphere interactions near intra-continental plate boundaries. Tectonophysics 434, 15–38. Castelltort, S., Goren, L., Willett, S.D., Champagnac, J.D., Herman, F., Braun, J., 2012. River drainage patterns in the New Zealand Alps primarily controlled by plate tectonic strain. Nature Geoscience 5 (10), 1–5. http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/ngeo1582. Cloetingh, S., TOPO-EUROPE Working Group, 2007. TOPO-EUROPE: the geoscience of coupled deep Earth and surface processes. Global and Planetary Change 58, 1–118. Cloetingh, S., Willett, S., 2013. TOPO-EUROPE: linking deep Earth and surface processes. EOS. Transactions of the American Geophysical Union 94, 53–54. Cloetingh, S., Thybo, H., Faccenna, C., 2009. TOPO-EUROPE: studying continental topography and deep Earth–surface processes in 4D. Tectonophysics 474, 4–32. Cloetingh, S., van Wees, J.D., Ziegler, P.A., Lenkey, L., Beekman, F., Tesauro, M., Förster, A., Norden, B., Kaban, M., Hardebol, N., Bonté, D., Genter, A., Guillou-Frottier, L., Ter Voorde, M., Sokoutis, D., Willingshofer, E., Cornu, T., Worum, G., 2010. Lithosphere tectonics and thermo-mechanical properties: an integrated modelling approach for Enhanced Geothermal Systems exploration in Europe. Earth-Science Reviews 102, 159–206. Cloetingh, S., Gallart, J., De Vicente, G., Matenco, L., 2011. TOPO-EUROPE: from Iberia to the Carpathians and analogues. Tectonophysics 502, 1–27. Cloetingh, S., Tibaldi, A. (Eds.), 2012. Coupled deep Earth and surface processes and their impact on geohazards: monitoring, reconstruction and process modeling: Global and Planetary Change, 90, pp. 1–158. Cloetingh, S., Burov, E., Francois, F., 2013. Thermo-mechanical controls on intra-plate deformation and the role of plume-folding interactions in continental topography. Gondwana Research (in press). Crameri, F., Tackley, P.J., Meilick, I., Gerya, T.V., Kaus, B.J.P., 2012. A free plate surface and weak oceanic crust produce single-sided subduction on Earth. Geophysical Research Letters 39, L03306. de Vicente, G., Muñoz-Martín, A., 2013. The Madrid Basin and the Central System: A tectonostratigraphic analysis from 2D seismic lines. Tectonophysics 602, 259–285 (this volume). Delvaux, D., Cloetingh, S., Beekman, F., Sokoutis, D., Burov, E., Buslov, M.M., Abdrakhmatov, K.E., 2013. Basin evolution in a folding lithosphere: examples from the Altai-Sayan and Tien Shan belts. Tectonophysics 602, 194–222 (this volume). Diaz, J., Gallart, J., Villaseñor, A., Mancilla, F., Pazos, A., Córdoba, D., Pulgar, J.A., Ibarra, P., Harnafi, M., 2010. Mantle dynamics beneath the Gibraltar Arc (western Mediterranean) from shear‐wave splitting measurements on a dense seismic array. Geophysical Research Letters 37, L18304. Diaz, J., Pedeira, D., Ruiz, M., Pulgar, J.A., Gallart, J., 2012. Mapping the indentation between the Iberian and Eurasian plates beneath the Western Pyrenees/Eastern Cantabrian Mountains from receiver function analysis. Tectonophysics 570 (571), 114–122. Diaz, J., Gil, A., Gallart, J., 2013. Uppermost mantle seismic velocity and anisotropy in the Euro-Mediterranean region from Pn and Sn tomography. Geophysical Journal International 192, 310–325. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/gji/ggs016. DiCaprio, L., Gurnis, M., Müller, R.D., 2009. Long-wavelength tilting of the Australian continent since the Late Cretaceous. Earth and Planetary Science Letters 278, 178–185. Doubrovine, P.V., Steinberger, B., Torsvik, T.H., 2012. Absolute plate motions in a reference frame defined by moving hot spots in the Pacific, Atlantic, and Indian oceans. Journal of Geophysical Research 117, B09101. Duretz, T., Gerya, T.V., 2013. Slab detachment during continental collision: Influence of crustal rheology and interaction with lithospheric delamination. Tectonophysics 602, 124–140 (this volume). Duretz, T., Gerya, T.V., May, D.A., 2011. Numerical modelling of spontaneous slab breakoff and subsequent topographic response. Tectonophysics 502, 244–256. Dürst Stucki, M., Reber, R., Schlunegger, F., 2010. Subglacial tunnel valleys in the Alpine foreland: an example from Bern, Switzerland. Swiss Journal of Geosciences 103, 363–374. Dürst Stucki, M., Schlunegger, F., Christener, F., Otto, J.C., Götz, J., 2012. Deepening of inner gorges through subglacial meltwater-an example from the UNESCO Entlebuch area, Switzerland. Geomorphology 139 (140), 506–517. Faccenna, C., Becker, T.W., 2010. Shaping mobile belts by small scale convection. Nature 465, 602–605. Fernández-Lozano, J., Sokoutis, D., Willingshofer, E., Dombrádi, E., Martin, A.M., De Vicente, G., Cloetingh, S., 2012. Integrated gravity and topography analysis in analogue models: intraplate deformation in Iberia. Tectonics 31, TC6005. Fillon, C., Gautheron, C., van der Beek, P., 2013. Oligocene–Miocene burial and exhumation of the Southern Pyrenean foreland quantified by low-temperature thermochronology. Journal of the Geological Society of London 170, 67–77. Fillon, C., Huismans, R., Van der Beek, P., 2013. Wedge-top sedimentation effects on the growth of fold-and-thrust belts. Geology 41 (1), 83–86. Flament, N., Gurnis, M., Müller, R.D., 2013. A review of observations and models of dynamic topography. Lithosphere. http://dx.doi.org/10.1130/L245.1. Flecker, R., Ellam, R.M., 2006. Identifying Late Miocene episodes of connection and isolation in the Mediterranean-Paratethyan realm using Sr isotopes. Sedimentary Geology 188 (189), 189–203. François, T., Burov, E., Meyer, B., Agard, P., 2013. Surface topography as key constraint on thermo-rheological structure of stable cratons. Tectonophysics 602, 106–123 (this volume). Fuhrmann, T., Heck, B., Knöpfler, A., Masson, F., Mayer, M., Ulrich, P., Westerhaus, M., Zippelt, K., 2013. Recent surface displacements in the Upper Rhine Graben — Preliminary results from geodetic networks. Tectonophysics 602, 300–315 (this volume). Gallais, F., Graindorge, D., Gutscher, M.-A., Klaeschen, D., 2013. Propagation of a lithospheric tear fault (STEP) through the western boundary of the Calabrian

13

accretionary wedge offshore eastern Sicily (Southern Italy). Tectonophysics 602, 141–152 (this volume). Gallen, S.F., Wegmann, K.W., DelWayne, R., 2013. Miocene rejuvenation of topographic relief in the southern Appalachians. GSA Today 23, 4–10. Gans, C.R., Beck, S.L., Zandt, G., Biryol, C.B., Ozacar, A.A., 2009. Detecting the limit of slab break-off in central Turkey: new high-resolution Pn tomography results. Geophysical Journal International 179, 1566–1572. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1365246X.2009.04389.x. Garcia-Castellanos, D., Cloetingh, S., 2012. Modeling the interaction between lithospheric and surface processes in foreland basins. In: Busby, C., Azor, A. (Eds.), Tectonics of Sedimentary Basins: Recent Advances. Blackwell Publ. Ltd., pp. 152–181. Garcia-Castellanos, D., Villaseñor, A., 2011. Messinian salinity crisis regulated by competing tectonics and erosion at the Gibraltar arc. Nature 480, 359–365. Glotzbach, C., Van der Beek, P.A., Spiegel, C., 2011. Episodic exhumation and relief growth in the Mont Blanc massif, Western Alps from numerical modelling of thermochronology data. Earth and Planetary Science Letters 304, 417–430. Govers, R., Wortel, M.J.R., 2005. Lithospheric tearing at STEP faults: response edges of subduction zones. Earth and Planetary Science Letters 236, 505–523. Guillaume, B., Funiciello, F., Faccenna, C., Martinod, J., Olivetti, V., 2010. Spreading pulses of the Tyrrhenian Sea during narrowing of the Calabrian slab. Geology 38, 819–822. Gülyüz, E., Kaymakci, N., Meijers, M.J.M., Van Hinsbergen, D.J.J., Lefebvre, C., Vissers, R.L.M., Hendriks, B.W.H., Peynircioglu, A.A., 2013. Late Eocene evolution of the Çiçekdağı Basin (central Turkey): Syn-sedimentary compression during microcontinent–continent collision in central Anatolia. Tectonophysics 602, 286–299 (this volume). Hardebol, N.J., Beekman, F., Cloetingh, S.A.P.L., 2013. Strong lateral strength contrasts in the mantle lithosphere of continents: A case study from the hot SW Canadian Cordillera. Tectonophysics 602, 87–105 (this volume). Hinderer, M., 2012. From gullies to mountain belts: a review of sediment budgets at various scales. Sedimentary Geology 280(C), 21–59. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/ j.sedgeo.2012.03.009. Holm, P., Goodsite, M., Cloetingh, S., Agnoletti, M., Bedřich, M., Lang, D., Leemans, R., Oerstroem, J., Pardo Buendia, M., Pohl, W., Scholz, R.W., Sors, A., Vanheusden, B., Yusoff, K., Zondervan, R., 2012. Collaboration between the natural, social and human sciences in Global Change Research. Environmental Science & Policy. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.envsci.2012.11.010. Ismail-Zadeh, A., Matenco, L., Radulian, M., Cloetingh, S., Panza, G., 2012. Geodynamics and intermediate-depth seismicity in Vrancea (the south-eastern Carpathians): current state-of-the-art. Tectonophysics 530 (531), 50–79. Jammes, S., Huisman, R.S., 2012. Structural styles of mountain building: controls of lithospheric rheologic stratification and extensional inheritance. Journal of Geophysical Research 117, B10403. http://dx.doi.org/10.1029/2012JB009376. Jones, S.M., Lovell, B., Crosby, A.G., 2012. Comparison of modern and geological observations of dynamic support from mantle convection. Journal of the Geological Society (London) 169, 745–758. Köhler, A., Weidle, C., Maupin, V., 2012. Crustal and uppermost mantle structure of southern Norway: results from surface wave analysis of ambient seismic noise and earthquake data. Geophysical Journal International 191 (3), 1441–1456. Krézsek, C., Lăpădat, A., Maţenco, L., Arnberger, K., Barbu, V., Olaru, R., 2013. Strain partitioning at orogenic contacts during rotation, strike–slip and oblique convergence: Paleogene–Early Miocene evolution of the contact between the South Carpathians and Moesia. Global and Planetary Change 103, 63–81. Leever, K.A., Matenco, L., Garcia-Castellanos, D., Cloetingh, S.A.P.L., 2011. The evolution of the Danube gateway between Central and Eastern Paratethys (SE Europe): insight from numerical modelling of the causes and effects of connectivity between basins and its expression in the sedimentary record. Tectonophysics 502, 175–195. Lericolais, G., Bourget, J., Popescu, I., Jermannaud, P., Mulder, T., Jorry, S., Panin, N., 2013. Late Quaternary deep-sea sedimentation in the western Black Sea: new insights from recent coring and seismic data in the deep basin. Global and Planetary Change 103, 232–247. Luth, S., Willingshofer, E., Sokoutis, D., Cloetingh, S., 2013. Does subduction polarity changes below the Alps? Inferences from analogue modelling. Tectonophysics 582, 130–161. Magyar, I., Radivojević, D., Sztanó, O., Synak, R., Ujszászi, K., Pócsik, M., 2013. Progradation of the paleo-Danube shelf margin across the Pannonian Basin during the Late Miocene and Early Pliocene. Global and Planetary Change 103, 168–173. Mancilla, F., Stich, D., Morales, J., Julià, J., Diaz, J., Pazos, A., Córdoba, D., Pulgar, J.A., Ibarra, P., Harnafi, M., Gonzalez-Lodeiro, F., 2012. Crustal thickness variations in northern Morocco. Journal of Geophysical Research 117, B02312. Matenco, L., Andriessen, P. (Eds.), 2013a. From source to sink — quantifying the mass transfer from mountain ranges to sedimentary basins: Global and Planetary Change, 103, pp. 1–260. Matenco, L., Andriessen, P., 2013b. Quantifying the mass transfer from mountain ranges to deposition in sedimentary basins: source to sink studies in the Danube Basin–Black Sea system. Global and Planetary Change 103, 1–18. Matenco, L., Radivojević, D., 2012. On the formation and evolution of the Pannonian Basin: constraints derived from the structure of the junction area between the Carpathians and Dinarides. Tectonics 31, TC6007. http://dx.doi.org/10.1029/2012tc003206. Maupin, V., Agostini, A., Artemieva, I., Balling, N., Beekman, F., Ebbing, J., England, R.W., Frassetto, A., Gradmann, S., Jacobsen, B.H., Köhler, A., Kvarven, T., Medhus, A.B., Mjelde, R., Ritter, J., Sokoutis, D., Stratford, W., Thybo, H., Wawerzinek, B., Weidle, C., 2013. The deep structure of the Scandes and its relation to tectonic history and present-day topography. Tectonophysics 602, 15–37 (this volume). Medhus, A.B., Balling, N., Jacobson, B.H., Weidle, C., England, R.W., Kind, R., Thybo, H., Voss, P., 2012. Upper-mantle structure beneath the Southern Scandes mountains and the Northern Tornquist Zone revealed by P-wave traveltime tomography. Geophysical Journal International 189, 1315–1334.

14

S. Cloetingh, S.D. Willett / Tectonophysics 602 (2013) 1–14

Meyssignac, B., Calafat, F.M., Somot, S., Rupolo, V., Stocchi, P., Llovel, W., Cazenave, A., 2011. Two-dimensional reconstruction of the Mediterranean sea level over 1970–2006 from tide gage data and regional ocean circulation model outputs. Global and Planetary Change 77, 49–61. Moucha, R., Forte, A.M., 2011. Changes in African topography driven by mantle convection. Nature Geoscience 4, 707–712. Moucha, R., Forte, A.M., Mitrovica, J.X., Rowley, D.B., Quere, S., Simmons, N.A., Grand, S.P., 2008. Dynamic topography and long-term sea-level variations: there is no such thing as a stable continental platform. Earth and Planetary Science Letters 271 (1–4), 101–108. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.epsl.2008.03.056. Munteanu, I., Matenco, L., Dinu, C., Cloetingh, S., 2012. Effects of large sea-level variations in connected basins: the Dacian–Black Sea system of the Eastern Paratethys. Basin Research 24, 583–597. Munteanu, I., Willingshofer, E., Sokoutis, D., Matenco, L., Dinu, C., Cloetingh, S., 2013. Transfer of deformation in back-arc basins with a laterally variable rheology: Constraints from analogue modelling of the Balkanides–Western Black Sea inversion. Tectonophysics 602, 223–236 (this volume). National Academy of Sciences, 2012. New Research Opportunities in the Earth Sciences. Natl. Acad. Press, Washington, D. C. (132 p.). Necea, D., Fielitz, W., Kadereit, A., Andriessen, P.A.M., Dinu, C., 2013. Middle Pleistocene to Holocene fluvial terrace development and uplift-driven valley incision in the SE Carpathians, Romania. Tectonophysics 602, 332–354 (this volume). Norton, K.P., Blanckenburg, F., DiBiase, R., Schlunegger, F., Kubik, P.W., 2011. Cosmogenic 10Be-derived denudation rates of the Eastern and Southern European Alps. International Journal of Earth Sciences 100 (5), 1163–1179. http://dx.doi.org/ 10.1007/s00531-010-0626-y. O'Neill, C., Muller, D., Steinberger, B., 2005. On the uncertainties in hot spot reconstructions and the significance of moving hot spot reference frames. Geochemistry, Geophysics, Geosystems 6, Q04003. Pous, J., Martínez Poyatos, D., Heise, W., Monteiro Santos, F., Galindo Zaldívar, J., Ibarra, P., Pedrera, A., Ruiz Constán, A., Anahnah, F., Gonçalves, R., Mateus, A., 2011. Constraints on the crustal structure of the internal Variscan Belt in SW Europe: a magnetotelluric transect along the eastern part of Central Iberian Zone, Iberian Massif. Journal of Geophysical Research 116, B02103. http://dx.doi.org/10.1029/ 2010JB007538. Presti, D., Billi, A., Orecchio, B., Totaro, C., Faccenna, C., Neri, G., 2013. Earthquake focal mechanisms, seismogenic stress, and seismotectonics of the Calabrian Arc, Italy. Tectonophysics 602, 153–175 (this volume). Reverman, R.L., Fellin, M.G., Herman, F., Willett, S.D., Fitoussi, C., 2012. Climatically versus tectonically forced erosion in the Alps: thermochronometric constraints from the Adamello Complex, Southern Alps, Italy. Earth and Planetary Science Letters 339-340(C), 127–138. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.epsl.2012.04.051. Ritsema, J., Deuss, A., van Heijst, H.J., Woodhouse, J.H., 2011. S40RTS: a degree-40 shearvelocity model for the mantle from new Rayleigh wave dispersion, teleseismic traveltime and normal-mode splitting function measurements. Geophysical Journal International. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-246X.2010.04884.x. Roure, F., Casero, P., Addoum, B., 2012. Alpine inversion of the North African margin and delamination of its continental lithosphere. Tectonics 31, TC3006. Saez, J.L., Corona, C., Stoffel, M., Berger, F., 2013. High-resolution fingerprints of past landsliding and spatially explicit, probabilistic assessment of future reactivations: Aiguettes landslide, Southeastern French Alps. Tectonophysics 602, 355–369 (this volume). Santra, M., Steel, R.J., Olariu, C., Sweet, M.L., 2013. Stages of sedimentary prism development on a convergent margin — Eocene Tyee Forearc Basin, Coast Range, Oregon, USA. Global and Planetary Change 103, 207–231. Schildgen, T.F., Cosentino, D., Caruso, A., Buchwaldt, R., Yıldırım, C., Bowring, S.A., Rojay, B., Echtler, H., Strecker, M.R., 2012. Surface expression of eastern Mediterranean slab dynamics: Neogene topographic and structural evolution of the southwest margin of the Central Anatolian Plateau, Turkey. Tectonics 31, TC2005. Schlunegger, F., Norton, K.P., 2013. Water versus ice: The competing roles of modern climate and Pleistocene glacial erosion in the Central Alps of Switzerland. Tectonophysics 602, 370–381 (this volume). Schlunegger, F., Badoux, A., McArdell, B.W., Gwerder, C., Schnydrig, D., Rieke-Zapp, D., Molnar, P., 2009. Limits of sediment transfer in an alpine debris-flow catchment,

Illgraben, Switzerland. Quaternary Science Reviews 28 (11–12), 1097–1105. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.quascirev.2008.10.025. Schmeer, M., Schmidt, M., Bosch, W., Seitz, F., 2012. Separation of mass signals within GRACE monthly gravity field models by means of empirical orthogonal functions. Journal of Geodynamics 59–60, 124–132. Shalev, E., Lyakhovsky, V., Weinstein, Y., Ben-Avraham, Z., 2013. The thermal structure of Israel and the Dead Sea Fault. Tectonophysics 602, 69–77 (this volume). Smit, J.H.W., Cloetingh, S.A.P.L., Burov, E., Tesauro, M., Sokoutis, D., Kaban, M., 2013. Interference of lithospheric folding in western Central Asia by simultaneous Indian and Arabian plate indentation. Tectonophysics 602, 176–193 (this volume). Stange, K.M., van Balen, R., Vandenberghe, J., Pena, J.L., Sancho, C., 2013. External controls on Quaternary fluvial incision and terrace formation at the Segre River, Southern Pyrenees. Tectonophysics 602, 316–331 (this volume). Steinberger, B., 2000. Plumes in a convecting mantle: models and observations for individual hotspots. Journal of Geophysical Research 105, 11127–11152. Steinberger, B., Schmeling, H., Marquart, G., 2001. Large-scale lithospheric stress field and topography induced by global mantle circulation. Earth and Planetary Science Letters 186, 75–91. Sternai, P., Herman, F., Champagnac, J.-D., Fox, M., Salcher, B., Willett, S.D., 2012. Preglacial topography of the European Alps. Geology 40, 1067–1070. Stojadinovic, U., Matenco, L., Andriessen, P.A.M., Toljić, M., Foeken, J.P.T., 2013. The balance between orogenic building and subsequent extension during the Tertiary evolution of the NE Dinarides: constraints from low-temperature thermochronology. Global and Planetary Change 103, 19–38. Stolk, W., Kaban, M., Beekman, F., Tesauro, M., Mooney, W.D., Cloetingh, S., 2013. High resolution regional crustal models from irregularly distributed data: Application to Asia and adjacent areas. Tectonophysics 602, 55–68 (this volume). Sztanó, O., Szafián, P., Magyar, I., Horányi, A., Bada, G., Hughes, D.W., Hoyer, D.L., Wallis, R.J., 2013. Aggradation and progradation controlled clinothems and deep-water sand delivery model in the Neogene Lake Pannon, Makó Trough, Pannonian Basin, SE Hungary. Global and Planetary Change 103, 149–167. ter Borgh, M., Vasiliev, I., Stoica, M., Knežević, S., Matenco, L., Krijgsman, W., Rundić, L., Cloetingh, S., 2013. The isolation of the Pannonian basin (Central Paratethys): new constraints from magnetostratigraphy and biostratigraphy. Global and Planetary Change 103, 99–118. Tesauro, M., Kaban, M.K., Cloetingh, S.A.P.L., 2008. EuCRUST-07: a new reference model for the European crust. Geophysical Research Letters 35, L05313. http://dx.doi.org/ 10.1029/2007GL032244. Tesauro, M., Audet, P., Kaban, M.K., Bürgmann, Cloetingh, S.A.P.L., 2012. The effective elastic thickness of the continental lithosphere: comparison between rheological and inverse approaches. Geochemistry, Geophysics, Geosystems 13, Q09001. Tesauro, M., Kaban, M.K., Cloetingh, S.A.P.L., 2013. Global model for the lithospheric strength and effective elastic thickness. Tectonophysics 602, 78–86 (this volume). Tiliţă, M., Matenco, L., Dinu, C., Ionescu, L., Cloetingh, S., 2013. Understanding the kinematic evolution and genesis of a back-arc continental “sag” basin: The Neogene evolution of the Transylvanian Basin. Tectonophysics 602, 237–258 (this volume). Torsvik, T.H., Steinberger, B., Gurnis, M., Gaina, C., 2010. Plate tectonics and net lithosphere rotation over the past 150 My. Earth and Planetary Science Letters 291, 106–112. Valla, P.G., Shuster, D.L., Van der Beek, P.A., 2011. Significant increase in relief of the European Alps during mid-Pleistocene glaciations. Nature Geoscience 4, 688–692. Van Baak, C.G.C., Vasiliev, I., Stoica, M., Kuiper, K.F., Forte, A.M., Aliyeva, E., Krijgsman, W., 2013. A magnetostratigraphic time frame for Plio-Pleistocene transgressions in the South Caspian Basin, Azerbaijan. Global and Planetary Change 103, 119–134. Van der Wal, W., Kurtenbach, E., Kusche, J., Vermeersen, L.L.A., 2011. Radial and tangential gravity rates from GRACE in areas of glacial isostatic adjustment. Geophysical Journal International 187, 797–812. Van der Wal, W., Barnhoorn, A., Stocchi, P., Gradmann, S., Wu, P., Drury, M.R., Vermeersen, L.L.A., 2013. Glacial isostatic adjustment model with composite 3D Earth rheology for Fennoscandia. Geophysical Journal International 194 (1), 61–77. Wawerzinek, B., Ritter, J.R.R., Roy, C., 2013. New constraints on the 3D shear wave velocity structure of the upper mantle underneath Southern Scandinavia revealed from non-linear tomography. Tectonophysics 602, 38–54 (this volume). Whipple, K.X., 2009. The influence of climate on the tectonic evolution of mountain belts. Nature Geoscience 2 (2), 97–104. http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/ngeo413.