- Email: [email protected]
Total Quality Management (TQM) in research and development
Microelectronic Engineering 19 (1992) 67-74 Elsevier
67
Total Quality Management (TQM) in Research and Development Keith Beasley GEC-Marconi Materials Technology Ltd, Caswell, Towcester, Northants, NN12 8EQ, United Kingdom
1. I N T R O D U C T I O N Traditionally the research fraternity within industry has kept it's distance from quality departments and indeed from any management or other interference. Research scientists have argued that Quality Assurance (QA) doesn't apply to them and that any attempt to 'manage' Research and Development (R&D) is doomed to failure. The belief has been that the research into new materials and development of new processes or product is a creative job: any attempt to stifle the creativity of those involved will merely constrain their inspiration and limit their capability to come up with the goods. This paper examines these ideas and explains how, in a Total Quality Management (TQM) culture, R&D activities can not only flourish but become part of effective and successful businesses. An examination of TQM across the electronics industry is given in Ref 1, and a list of abbreviations used in this paper is included as Table 3.
2. KEY E L E M E N T S O F T Q M 2.1 Customer Care All businesses are beginning to recognise the importance of satisfying customer demands. As those serving the consumer directly introduce Customer Care programmes and Charters, businesses without public customers also need to look at ways of putting the customer first. In TQM the conventional concept of 'external Customer' (as shown in Table 2) is taken a step further by introducing the concept of the 'internal customer'. As Table 1 shows, all organisations can be considered as a chain of suppliers and customers. Whatever you do, you have a customer - the next in line; they too have customers rights. However tempting it may be for researchers to immerse themselves in an exiting new technology, we should remember that we too are our own customers. What if the display you're designing ends up in a toy your children play with? What would you demand of it then? Would you still be impressed with it's half micron geometries or would you demand a guarantee of a five year life and no damaging radiation? 0167-9317/92/$05.00 © 1992 - Elsevier Science Publishers B.V. All rights reserved.
68
K. Beasley / TQM in research and development
Table 1 The internal customers chain .
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Table 2 The external customer chain .
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Marketing
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Component supplier
I [
I I
R & D
Equipment manufacturer
I I
b I
Design
Equipment suppliers
I b
[ I
Purchasing
You and me!
I I
Production .
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2.2 Total Cost Life Cycle Costing (LCC) is a concept widely used within Reliability circles. It acknowledges that the cost of a system is not just the cost of the initial design, but also the cost of the production, maintenance, and any other design changes, repairs or work needed to satisfy the customer. TQM extends this concept further and supports the identification and reduction in waste of any forrn. As financial institutions, businesses and Governments try to balance environmental sustainability with economic success, the topic of 'Green Economics' is no longer restricted to environmental pressure groups. Reference 2 includes the following examples from companies active in microelectronics: Dow has a "Waste Reduction Always Pays" (WRAP) programme Volvo is looking to eliminate emissions entirely 3M's 3P Programme (Pollution Prevention Pays) has, between 1975 and 1990, saved $482 million. Reduced waste is increased profit, and such waste may take the form of wasted materials, wasted energy (both within manufacture and during use) or waste of human potential: 2.3 People First In a company with a TQM culture, Management acknowledges that a motivated and involved work-force is likely to work far more efficiently and effectively than one that is kept in the dark or not allowed to take their own initiative. This is a question of attitude, and requires management to make time to listen to staff and not to be afraid of challenging convention. Such an element of trust may already exist in some R&D environments, but even then may
69
K. Beasley / TQM in research and development
only relate to technical matters. Openness and willingness to communicate must exist at all levels and on all topics. 2.4 Impact on Society
As the world's politicians come to acknowledge the dire state of the environment, so increasing legislation is being placed on Business to clean up. Business also realises that customer attitudes are also changing and that a wide reaching 'Green' policy is in the best interest of companies. TQM is inherently 'Green' and provides a basis for improving environmental performance. A good example might be the development of a process. European Community (EC) Directives may require us to keep the amount of certain pollutant below a given ppb or ppm level for which a monitoring procedure is needed. Analysis of process waste products and yield variations can tell us much about the effectiveness of the process. Pouring chemicals down the sink is not only unfriendly to nature, it's pouring money down the drain; perhaps they could be recycled. The Montreal Protocol on the elimination of Chloro-Fluoro-Carbons (CFC) to protect the ozone layer has indicated what can happen when a wider view of a problem is taken. In looking to develop a more efficient cleaning process, it was found that it would be most efficient not just to reduce or replace CFC, but to change others aspects of the whole surface mounting process so that the cleaning stage was eliminated all together.
3. KEY ELEMENTS OF R&D 3.1 The nature of a scientist
Fig 1 shows a typical research scientist. Typically he or she will exhibit the following characteristics: Intelligent Creative Independent Objects to being managed! David Suzuki in "Inventing the Future" (Ref 3) recognises the difficulties encountered in applying standard industrial management techniques to the research process: "Building a world-class community of scientists is not like setting up a factory to make radios or shoes".
i,._
j.'
Figure 1 A typical research scientist
70
K. Beasley / TQM in research and development
Whilst senior management accept the need for intelligent and creative individuals, they are not always sympathetic to the way in which such staff operate, expecting logical project management concepts (PERT charts, etc) to be applied to a creative thought process. You cannot turn a mind on and off like you can a computer! A gap in understanding often exists between those engaged in non-repetitive research type tasks and even the most creative of accountants. 3.2 'State of the art' Research Key features of research in many sectors of industry are that it is often 'State of the art' and at the limits of human understanding. Whilst this makes for an interesting job, it makes this line of business even less suited to conventional QA or production style management which rely on having a fair degree of repetitive activities and a limited number of uncertainties; neither is true of R&D at the forefront of technology. As we shall see later, no such conflict exists under TQM, where research and management objectives coincide.
4. T Q M IN R & D 4.1 Communications As more and more ways of generating, transmitting, analysing and presenting information are developed, we must not fall into the trap of technology for technologies sake. The world outside of high technology research will only respect that industry sector if it is seen to be developing products which are of genuine benefit to society. TQM gives us a framework for assessing the total quality of our activities as our customers and the general public are likely to perceive them. More specifically, we must ensure that within our industry we are using our own technology to break down barriers between departments, between companies, between countries and between individuals. The data we transfer between each other must be useful and understandable. What is the use of 64 MBit of data if it is not in a standard, readable form or if the information was not validated at source? "Garbage in, Garbage out" applies even more as mass memories expand. 4.2 Flexible use of tools and controls The quality and process control fraternity have developed a number of tools and procedures to assist in satisfying quality and objectives. Whilst these may appear non applicable to research activities, experience shows (e.g. Ref 4) that, with sensible use, statistical and production methods can be extremely useful. Techniques for logical, systematic experimental design such as those pioneered by G.Taguchi are well known in the production environment. Research scientists tend to eschew these techniques preffering the creative approach. However Taguchis techniques which concentrate on simplicity and low cost are equally applicable to a 'one-off' research exercise.
K. Beasley / TQM in research and development
71
4.3 Friendly standards In the past, research staff have had little interest in specifications or standards seeing them as restrictive practises only relevant to production. This is no longer the case. There are at least three areas where all engineers can now benefit from recent changes in the way that standards are being written: a) Standards are now written to guide and not to mandate. Whilst minimum objectives are still given, users are now given the flexibility to meet the requirements of standards as befits their business. A good example, currently under discussion by the European group concerned with reliability of electronic components (CECC Working Group Reliability) is a 'Reliability Guide to EN 29 000'. This guide explains how reliability can be assured by suitable attention to a site Quality System and by prudent use of recognised approval procedures. An introduction is given in Ref 5. b) To assist information transfer. EDI (Electronic Date Interchange) and OSI (Open System Interconnect) standards will do much to eliminate the time and effort wasted trying to transfer information from one computer system to another. c) Standard terminology and test methods. Because of the different world cultures, each country has, over the years, developed their own terms and ways of doing things. Unfortunately the ensuing differences cause considerable misunderstandings and confusions. The worlds' standards organisations ISO (International Organization for Standardization) and IEC (International Electrotechnical Commission) are thus enabling consensus agreement of terms to assist international trade. In Europe these moves are positively supported by the Commission of the European Communities (CEC) as a major requirement of the Single European Market which comes into force at the end of 1992. Further information on all standards can be obtained from your national standards bodies (e.g. BSI in Britain, UTE in France, DIN in Germany, etc). 4.4 Right First Time The need to redesign a product or to re-engineer a process between original design and production is a sign of failure. Both process and specific designs should be 'Right First Time' if expensive and time consuming changes are to be avoided. The traditional approach and the TQM alternative are illustrated in Figures 2 and 3. Key differences, emphasising the 'Right First Time' approach are explained below: a) Objectives - Traditionally a research team would work to a specific technical objective such as a "10 GHz, 2 micron bipolar process". The challenge was to demonstrate that such a technology was feasible. The challenge today is even greater. To the technical objective we must add at least the following: commercial objective ("Process to be capable of production throughput of x per annum at y ECU per wafer"), environmental objective ("No ozone depleting chemicals shall
72
K. Beasley / TQM in research and development
be released to the atmosphere") and reliability objective ("Time to 5% failures, at 125 degrees C ambient, shall be at least 10 years). Such objectives are only realistic when they are known at the start of the development. b) Capability - What is the capability of existing, or new, equipment, in terms of given performance parameters, consistency, etc? TQM calls for continuous improvement. This is only possible if a base-line performance is established and monitored routinely. c) Test vehicles - Under TQM, those test structures used to assess the process could also be used for Statistical Process Control (SPC) of production. They need to be designed with a specific purpose in mind. Design of Experiment techiques, such as those developed by Taguchi, should be considered. If a process capability is to be determined, it is not enough to know that a given performance is possible; there is a need to know what the limits of a process are, how values vary across a wafer, batch, etc. d) Any questions? - The main difference between 'then' and 'now' is the stage at which questions are asked. By asking them early on in a programme, costly redesigns can be avoided. Feedback from earlier processes and products together with brain-storming techniques can be used to identify potential causes of failure or low yield since that problems can be avoided, by design, from the outset.
Figure 2 ProcessDevelopment - Old Approach Define technical objectives
i
Figure 3 ProcessDevelopment - TQM Approach L Define objectives in light of i current capability i
4, Buy stkit available
i
I
"What can go wrong?"
Ask
]
Manufacture
~
I
Design experiment
i
samples
4, "What went wrong?"
4, ,,,
and evaluate
5. CONCLUSIONS Having examined the principles of both good TQM and good R&D it is clear that far from being in conflict the requirements are consistent and compatible. In a TQM company the departments will find support for their ideas, guidance on how to utilise them, but above all freedom to express them.
K. Beasley / TQM in research and development
73
6. REFERENCES
1. K.Beasley, TQM in the Electronics Industry - A users and suppliers guide, Management Briefing report to be published in 1992 by Technical Communications, 100 High Avenue, Letchworth, Herts, SG6 3RR, UK. 2. P.Ekins, Wealth Beyond Measure - An atlas of new economics, Gaia Books Limited. 3. D.Suzuki, Inventing the Future, Adamantine Press Limited. 4. J.Groocock, The Keys to Product Quality, Quality News, Vol. 18 No.4, April 1992, pp183-185. 5. K.Beasley, New Standards for Old, lEE Computing & Control Engineering Journal May 1991, pp137-141.
Table 3 Abbreviations .
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ASIC BIST BSI CEC CECC CENELEC CFC DIN EC EDI IEC ISO LCC OSI PERT ppb ppm QA R&D SPC TQM UTE .
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Application Specific Integrated Circuit Built In Self Test British Standards Institution Commission of the European Communities CENELEC Electronic Components Committee European Committee for Electrotechnical Standardisation Chloro-Fluoro-Carbon Deutschen Institut fur Normung European Community Electronic Data Interchange International Electrotechnical Commission International Organization for Standardization Life Cycle Costing Open Systems Interconnection Project Evaluation and Review Technique Parts per billion Parts per million Quality Assurance Research and Development Statistical Process Control Total Quality Management Union Technique de l'Electricite .
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67
Total Quality Management (TQM) in Research and Development Keith Beasley GEC-Marconi Materials Technology Ltd, Caswell, Towcester, Northants, NN12 8EQ, United Kingdom
1. I N T R O D U C T I O N Traditionally the research fraternity within industry has kept it's distance from quality departments and indeed from any management or other interference. Research scientists have argued that Quality Assurance (QA) doesn't apply to them and that any attempt to 'manage' Research and Development (R&D) is doomed to failure. The belief has been that the research into new materials and development of new processes or product is a creative job: any attempt to stifle the creativity of those involved will merely constrain their inspiration and limit their capability to come up with the goods. This paper examines these ideas and explains how, in a Total Quality Management (TQM) culture, R&D activities can not only flourish but become part of effective and successful businesses. An examination of TQM across the electronics industry is given in Ref 1, and a list of abbreviations used in this paper is included as Table 3.
2. KEY E L E M E N T S O F T Q M 2.1 Customer Care All businesses are beginning to recognise the importance of satisfying customer demands. As those serving the consumer directly introduce Customer Care programmes and Charters, businesses without public customers also need to look at ways of putting the customer first. In TQM the conventional concept of 'external Customer' (as shown in Table 2) is taken a step further by introducing the concept of the 'internal customer'. As Table 1 shows, all organisations can be considered as a chain of suppliers and customers. Whatever you do, you have a customer - the next in line; they too have customers rights. However tempting it may be for researchers to immerse themselves in an exiting new technology, we should remember that we too are our own customers. What if the display you're designing ends up in a toy your children play with? What would you demand of it then? Would you still be impressed with it's half micron geometries or would you demand a guarantee of a five year life and no damaging radiation? 0167-9317/92/$05.00 © 1992 - Elsevier Science Publishers B.V. All rights reserved.
68
K. Beasley / TQM in research and development
Table 1 The internal customers chain .
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Table 2 The external customer chain .
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Marketing
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Component supplier
I [
I I
R & D
Equipment manufacturer
I I
b I
Design
Equipment suppliers
I b
[ I
Purchasing
You and me!
I I
Production .
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2.2 Total Cost Life Cycle Costing (LCC) is a concept widely used within Reliability circles. It acknowledges that the cost of a system is not just the cost of the initial design, but also the cost of the production, maintenance, and any other design changes, repairs or work needed to satisfy the customer. TQM extends this concept further and supports the identification and reduction in waste of any forrn. As financial institutions, businesses and Governments try to balance environmental sustainability with economic success, the topic of 'Green Economics' is no longer restricted to environmental pressure groups. Reference 2 includes the following examples from companies active in microelectronics: Dow has a "Waste Reduction Always Pays" (WRAP) programme Volvo is looking to eliminate emissions entirely 3M's 3P Programme (Pollution Prevention Pays) has, between 1975 and 1990, saved $482 million. Reduced waste is increased profit, and such waste may take the form of wasted materials, wasted energy (both within manufacture and during use) or waste of human potential: 2.3 People First In a company with a TQM culture, Management acknowledges that a motivated and involved work-force is likely to work far more efficiently and effectively than one that is kept in the dark or not allowed to take their own initiative. This is a question of attitude, and requires management to make time to listen to staff and not to be afraid of challenging convention. Such an element of trust may already exist in some R&D environments, but even then may
69
K. Beasley / TQM in research and development
only relate to technical matters. Openness and willingness to communicate must exist at all levels and on all topics. 2.4 Impact on Society
As the world's politicians come to acknowledge the dire state of the environment, so increasing legislation is being placed on Business to clean up. Business also realises that customer attitudes are also changing and that a wide reaching 'Green' policy is in the best interest of companies. TQM is inherently 'Green' and provides a basis for improving environmental performance. A good example might be the development of a process. European Community (EC) Directives may require us to keep the amount of certain pollutant below a given ppb or ppm level for which a monitoring procedure is needed. Analysis of process waste products and yield variations can tell us much about the effectiveness of the process. Pouring chemicals down the sink is not only unfriendly to nature, it's pouring money down the drain; perhaps they could be recycled. The Montreal Protocol on the elimination of Chloro-Fluoro-Carbons (CFC) to protect the ozone layer has indicated what can happen when a wider view of a problem is taken. In looking to develop a more efficient cleaning process, it was found that it would be most efficient not just to reduce or replace CFC, but to change others aspects of the whole surface mounting process so that the cleaning stage was eliminated all together.
3. KEY ELEMENTS OF R&D 3.1 The nature of a scientist
Fig 1 shows a typical research scientist. Typically he or she will exhibit the following characteristics: Intelligent Creative Independent Objects to being managed! David Suzuki in "Inventing the Future" (Ref 3) recognises the difficulties encountered in applying standard industrial management techniques to the research process: "Building a world-class community of scientists is not like setting up a factory to make radios or shoes".
i,._
j.'
Figure 1 A typical research scientist
70
K. Beasley / TQM in research and development
Whilst senior management accept the need for intelligent and creative individuals, they are not always sympathetic to the way in which such staff operate, expecting logical project management concepts (PERT charts, etc) to be applied to a creative thought process. You cannot turn a mind on and off like you can a computer! A gap in understanding often exists between those engaged in non-repetitive research type tasks and even the most creative of accountants. 3.2 'State of the art' Research Key features of research in many sectors of industry are that it is often 'State of the art' and at the limits of human understanding. Whilst this makes for an interesting job, it makes this line of business even less suited to conventional QA or production style management which rely on having a fair degree of repetitive activities and a limited number of uncertainties; neither is true of R&D at the forefront of technology. As we shall see later, no such conflict exists under TQM, where research and management objectives coincide.
4. T Q M IN R & D 4.1 Communications As more and more ways of generating, transmitting, analysing and presenting information are developed, we must not fall into the trap of technology for technologies sake. The world outside of high technology research will only respect that industry sector if it is seen to be developing products which are of genuine benefit to society. TQM gives us a framework for assessing the total quality of our activities as our customers and the general public are likely to perceive them. More specifically, we must ensure that within our industry we are using our own technology to break down barriers between departments, between companies, between countries and between individuals. The data we transfer between each other must be useful and understandable. What is the use of 64 MBit of data if it is not in a standard, readable form or if the information was not validated at source? "Garbage in, Garbage out" applies even more as mass memories expand. 4.2 Flexible use of tools and controls The quality and process control fraternity have developed a number of tools and procedures to assist in satisfying quality and objectives. Whilst these may appear non applicable to research activities, experience shows (e.g. Ref 4) that, with sensible use, statistical and production methods can be extremely useful. Techniques for logical, systematic experimental design such as those pioneered by G.Taguchi are well known in the production environment. Research scientists tend to eschew these techniques preffering the creative approach. However Taguchis techniques which concentrate on simplicity and low cost are equally applicable to a 'one-off' research exercise.
K. Beasley / TQM in research and development
71
4.3 Friendly standards In the past, research staff have had little interest in specifications or standards seeing them as restrictive practises only relevant to production. This is no longer the case. There are at least three areas where all engineers can now benefit from recent changes in the way that standards are being written: a) Standards are now written to guide and not to mandate. Whilst minimum objectives are still given, users are now given the flexibility to meet the requirements of standards as befits their business. A good example, currently under discussion by the European group concerned with reliability of electronic components (CECC Working Group Reliability) is a 'Reliability Guide to EN 29 000'. This guide explains how reliability can be assured by suitable attention to a site Quality System and by prudent use of recognised approval procedures. An introduction is given in Ref 5. b) To assist information transfer. EDI (Electronic Date Interchange) and OSI (Open System Interconnect) standards will do much to eliminate the time and effort wasted trying to transfer information from one computer system to another. c) Standard terminology and test methods. Because of the different world cultures, each country has, over the years, developed their own terms and ways of doing things. Unfortunately the ensuing differences cause considerable misunderstandings and confusions. The worlds' standards organisations ISO (International Organization for Standardization) and IEC (International Electrotechnical Commission) are thus enabling consensus agreement of terms to assist international trade. In Europe these moves are positively supported by the Commission of the European Communities (CEC) as a major requirement of the Single European Market which comes into force at the end of 1992. Further information on all standards can be obtained from your national standards bodies (e.g. BSI in Britain, UTE in France, DIN in Germany, etc). 4.4 Right First Time The need to redesign a product or to re-engineer a process between original design and production is a sign of failure. Both process and specific designs should be 'Right First Time' if expensive and time consuming changes are to be avoided. The traditional approach and the TQM alternative are illustrated in Figures 2 and 3. Key differences, emphasising the 'Right First Time' approach are explained below: a) Objectives - Traditionally a research team would work to a specific technical objective such as a "10 GHz, 2 micron bipolar process". The challenge was to demonstrate that such a technology was feasible. The challenge today is even greater. To the technical objective we must add at least the following: commercial objective ("Process to be capable of production throughput of x per annum at y ECU per wafer"), environmental objective ("No ozone depleting chemicals shall
72
K. Beasley / TQM in research and development
be released to the atmosphere") and reliability objective ("Time to 5% failures, at 125 degrees C ambient, shall be at least 10 years). Such objectives are only realistic when they are known at the start of the development. b) Capability - What is the capability of existing, or new, equipment, in terms of given performance parameters, consistency, etc? TQM calls for continuous improvement. This is only possible if a base-line performance is established and monitored routinely. c) Test vehicles - Under TQM, those test structures used to assess the process could also be used for Statistical Process Control (SPC) of production. They need to be designed with a specific purpose in mind. Design of Experiment techiques, such as those developed by Taguchi, should be considered. If a process capability is to be determined, it is not enough to know that a given performance is possible; there is a need to know what the limits of a process are, how values vary across a wafer, batch, etc. d) Any questions? - The main difference between 'then' and 'now' is the stage at which questions are asked. By asking them early on in a programme, costly redesigns can be avoided. Feedback from earlier processes and products together with brain-storming techniques can be used to identify potential causes of failure or low yield since that problems can be avoided, by design, from the outset.
Figure 2 ProcessDevelopment - Old Approach Define technical objectives
i
Figure 3 ProcessDevelopment - TQM Approach L Define objectives in light of i current capability i
4, Buy stkit available
i
I
"What can go wrong?"
Ask
]
Manufacture
~
I
Design experiment
i
samples
4, "What went wrong?"
4, ,,,
and evaluate
5. CONCLUSIONS Having examined the principles of both good TQM and good R&D it is clear that far from being in conflict the requirements are consistent and compatible. In a TQM company the departments will find support for their ideas, guidance on how to utilise them, but above all freedom to express them.
K. Beasley / TQM in research and development
73
6. REFERENCES
1. K.Beasley, TQM in the Electronics Industry - A users and suppliers guide, Management Briefing report to be published in 1992 by Technical Communications, 100 High Avenue, Letchworth, Herts, SG6 3RR, UK. 2. P.Ekins, Wealth Beyond Measure - An atlas of new economics, Gaia Books Limited. 3. D.Suzuki, Inventing the Future, Adamantine Press Limited. 4. J.Groocock, The Keys to Product Quality, Quality News, Vol. 18 No.4, April 1992, pp183-185. 5. K.Beasley, New Standards for Old, lEE Computing & Control Engineering Journal May 1991, pp137-141.
Table 3 Abbreviations .
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.
.
.
.
.
.
.
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.
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.
.
ASIC BIST BSI CEC CECC CENELEC CFC DIN EC EDI IEC ISO LCC OSI PERT ppb ppm QA R&D SPC TQM UTE .
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.
.
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Application Specific Integrated Circuit Built In Self Test British Standards Institution Commission of the European Communities CENELEC Electronic Components Committee European Committee for Electrotechnical Standardisation Chloro-Fluoro-Carbon Deutschen Institut fur Normung European Community Electronic Data Interchange International Electrotechnical Commission International Organization for Standardization Life Cycle Costing Open Systems Interconnection Project Evaluation and Review Technique Parts per billion Parts per million Quality Assurance Research and Development Statistical Process Control Total Quality Management Union Technique de l'Electricite .
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