- Email: [email protected]
Tourism and Environmental Degradation in Sochi, Russia
Ann&
Pergamon
of Tourism Rexmch, Vol. 23, No. 3, pp. 654-665, 1996 Copyright 0 1996 Elsevier Science Ltd Printed in Great Britain. All rights reserved 0160.7383/96 $15.00+0.00
0160-7383(95)00086-O
TOURISM AND ENVIRONMENTAL DEGRADATION IN SOCHI, RUSSIA Nina S. Lukashina Marat M. Amirkhanov Valerii I. Anisimov Alexander Trunev
Russian Academy of Sciences, Russia Abstract: Fuel
cncrgctics, motor transport, and industrial resort and tourist enterprises all contribute to environmental pollution in the Sochi region of the Black Sea Coast of Russia. The rapid growth of the resort and tourism branch of the economy results in environmental degradation, because present technologies violate today’s ecology standards. Solutions to this extreme ecological situation must take into account the concept of the special economic and ecological region and the specific instruments of legal regulation necessary to control the state of the environment. Keywords: environmental pollution, resort and tourism business, Russia. Copyright 0 1996 Elscvicr Science Ltd
R&urn& Le tourismc et la degradation de I’environnement B Sochi (Russie). L’tnergCtiquc des combustibles, lcs transports motorists et les entrepriscs de villCgiaturc et de tourismc industriels ont tous contribut i la pollution de I’environncmrnt dans la rtgion de Sochi de la c&e de la mcr Noirc en Russie. La croissance rapidc du sccteur economique de tourismc et GllCgiature m*ne B la dkgradation de I’environncmcnt, parce quc lcs technologies actuelles contrcviennent aux normes tcologiqucs d’aujourd’hui. Lcs solutions B cctte situation tcologique dangcrcusc doivent tenw en compte le concept de la region economiquc et tcologique a priorit et les instrumrnts particuliers dcs rkglcments lCgaux qui sent ntccssail-es pour luttcr contre la degradation de l’cnvironnemcnt. Mots-cl&: pollution de I’environnemcnt, entrcpriscs de vilh?giature et de tourisme, Russic.
INTRODUCTION The development of large tourism centers significantly endangers the environment through pollutants and direct effects of tourist flow, owing to the alienation of land through new construction sites and new infrastructure. This study selectively assesses the state of environmental and human health of the Black Sea Coast of Russia, the most popular resort area of the Russian Federation. The research suggests that tourism in Russia is far from ecologically clean and this situation demands regulatory control of the environment backed by special legislation. The case in point, the city of Sochi, is a seaside climatic and balneological Russian resort, occupying a narrow strip of land on Nina Lukashina is a Senior Researcher of the Ecological Problems and Modeling Laboratory of the Sochi Research Center (8A Thcatralnaya Street, Sochi 354000, Russia. Email [email protected]); her Ph.D. is in biology. Marat Amirkhanov is Director of the Center; his Ph.D. is in economics. Valerii Anisimov is a Senior Researcher of the Center; his Ph.D. is in geography and geomorphology Alexander Trunev is Head of the research laboratory of the Center; his postgraduate degree is from the Institute of Theoretical and Applied Mechanics of the Siberian Branch uf the Academy of Sciences. 654
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the northeastern coast of the Black Sea, beside the southern spurs of the main Caucasian mountain range. Its territory is 3,500 km* and the majority of its 373,000 people are engaged in tourism. The city has grown and developed within the last few decades. From a mere 13,000 residents in 1926, the resort has become world famous as “the Summer Capital” in its best days, owing to its mild marine climate and curative nearby mineral waters. The region, with this natural and resources potential, has been providing treatment, rehabilitation, and rest for more than a century. The Sochi sanatoria and resort institutions alone have served some 1.5 to 2 million holidaymakers among the 4 million tourists visiting annually. The rapidly growing network of sanatoria and resorts and the increasing number of tourists put the environment in danger of degradation, because present technologies violate today’s ecological requirements. Sochi stretches for 146 km along the Black Sea coast from the Psou River bordering on Georgia in the southeast to the Shepsi River in the northwest (Figure 1). Only its narrow seaside strip of land, pressed by the main Causcasian mountain range against the Black Sea, is within the city boundaries. The wind rose, the breeze circulation, and the landscape make pollutants accumulate and precipitate here. The causes of pre-crisis ecological danger within the city boundaries and the littoral area have been studied. The present research is based on the comprehensive study of the Sochi environment in 1989-92. To date, the results of the research have been published only partially in various publications (Amirkhanov, Anisimov, Lukashina and Trunev 1993; Lukashina, Anisimov and Trunev 1993; Privalenko et al, 1992). The development of the city around the seaport in the Central district has resulted in disproportionate development of every other district. There are four administrative districts in Sochi: the Central, the Khostynsky, the Lazarevsky, the Adlersky. The Central district of Sochi, with less than 10% of the total area, is both the resort and the industrial center of the city. The Lazarevsky district with the largest area is not developed at all. The disproportion is illustrated by the figures on the density of the resort institutions and the number of tourists visiting Sochi annually (Figures 2 and 3). The density of industrial, motor transport, and thermal energetics enterprises is also highest in the Central district (Figure 4). This irrational economic development of the city has resulted in high gas and dust pollution of the Central district in comparison with the other districts (Figures 5 and 6). Figures 2-6 show that the most ecologically heterogeneous and endangered area lies only within the city boundaries, the strip of land 3 km wide adjoining the coast. The rest of the territory meets the most strict ecological requirements, since it includes the barely accessible highlands of the Caucasian State Biospherical Preserve and Sochi National Park, and the open countryside remote from industrial methods of economic development and management.
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Khostinsky 22
................... .................. ................... ................................... ................. ................. ................. ................. .............. ............... .............. ............... .............. .......... ......... .......... .........
Lazarevsky 35
Figure 2. Number
of Recreational
Institutions
in Administrative
Regions
140 r
80 60
Central Figure 3. Number
Khostinsky of Tourists
Lazarevsky
(thousands)
Adlersky
in Administrative
Regions
500 r
Central
Figure 4. Number
Khostinsky
of Pollution
Lazarevsky
Sources
Adlersky
in Administrative
Regions
....... r
658
TOURISM
AND THE ENVIRONMENT
Solid
Liquid
and gaseous
Lazarevsky
Khostinsky
Central
D
Figure 5. Air Pollution
by Stationary
Adlersky
Sources
5 0
Sulphur
q Nitrogen
4
HCarbon
dioxide
monoxide
n Hydrocarbons
oxides
3 2 I 0 I Central
Khostinsky
Figure 6. Air Pollution
TOURISM
AND ENVIRONMENTAL
Lazarevsky
by Stationary
Adlersky
Sources
RISKS
Heat Power Energetics and Motor Transport The enterprises of fuel energetics in Sochi include over 300 boiler works: 68% burning coal, 27% fuel oil, and only 5% natural gas. Due to the high content of sulfur (3-4%) in the coal and fuel oil and the minerals (13-20%) in coal, burning is forbidden without dust and gas purification; but the city boiler works omit this process (Sigal 1988). Further, fuel and heating industry works discharge over 8,000 t/yr of toxic substances to the atmosphere, which amounts to 11.6% of total discharge. In addition, the city car and truck fleet includes 11,000 motor vehicles belonging to various enterprises, and the sewages of these motor transport depots contain oil products at a concentration of 3-4 times the permissible limits. Of more than 45,000 motor vehicles in Sochi in 1990-91, only 500 vehicles operated on gas harmless to the environment. At the peak of the tourism season, an average of 15-20,000 vehicles is added to of vehicles driving those registered in Sochi. The total number through the city, including transit transport, makes about 2,400 operating motors per hour, or 1.5 million annually. Together, motor transport and fuel energetics account for 86% of the overall pollution of the atmosphere.
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Since 1986, the atmospheric air quality has been monitored. However, the only two stationary installations for continuous monitoring are located on the main motorway and do not cover the total area. According to data obtained with the help of these installations, CO and NO, are the main atmospheric pollutants. Their daily average concentrations are at peak maximum permissible limits, and maximum one-time concentrations reach ten times the maximum permissible concentrations (MPC). The MPG is the state sanitary standard adopted in Russia - not hazardous to present and future generations, not reducing the ability to work, and not detracting from general conditions and sanitary standards of living. Thus, daily concentrations of NO, in polluted areas make up an average of 0.04 mg/m3, and maximum NO, one-time concentrations make up 0.085 mg/m3. But the calculated discharge of pollutants from Sochi motor transport to the atmosphere was 52,600 t/yr (74.8% of total discharge) in 1991, including 2,200 t of dust (4.2%), 39,000 t of CO (15.4%). (74.7%), 2,100 t of NO, (4.0%), and 8,100 t of hydrocarbons Moreover, the only motorway for the local and transit motor vehicles crosses the city connecting Russia with the Transcaucasian states of Armenia and Georgia. It is known that the actively polluted space for all kinds of motorways is 200 m wide with its main axis coinciding with the main axis of the motorway (Dobrovolsky 1983). These very factors cause the extreme ecological situation in the city. The residential districts as well as the resort institutions (sanatoria, boarding houses, rest homes) are located in these actively polluted zones, rather close to the motorway. This obviously affects the state of health of the Sochi residents and interferes in the process of recuperation of those visiting the resort. Industrial Enterprises The 31 industrial enterprises in Sochi discharge about 10,000 t/yr of harmful substances into the atmosphere, accounting for 13.6% of the total discharge. According to available data, 25% of these pollutants are solid substances, such as SO, (33%), CO (15%), NO, (5%), hydrocarbons (15%), and others (7%). However, it should be noted that today the enterprises actually emit no solid substances and have gas and sewage purification plants. When extrapolating the data in Figure 7 to a zero value of the natural regeneration share, one can compute the critical value of NO, precipitation intensity. It makes up 10 mg/m’/day. This value can be viewed as an estimate of a critical state of the city ecosystems on the Black Sea Coast of Russia. The absence of correlation between the share of natural regeneration of beech and other components of atmospheric pollution should be noted. The discharges of the industrial enterprises on the Sochi river banks are of extreme danger to the Greater Sochi area. Among them are eight industrial enterprises, many motor transport enterprises, and storehouses for building materials. The resultant oil product concentrations in the Sochi river waters are 16 times the MPC, lo-100 times more than BCO, and 3-5 times more than permissible heavy metals (Cu, Fe, Zn, Pb, etc.) concentrations. MPCs of oil
660
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AND THE ENVIRONMENT
30 Infant
mortality
m
Adult
mortality
25
20
1.5
IO
5
0
Central Figure
Khostinsky
7. Infant
Lazarevsky
Adlersky
and Adult Mortality
products in water media are 0.1-0.5 mg/l; biological consumption oxygen (CBC02,) is not more than 2 mg/l 0,; Cu2+ is 0.005 mg/l; Fe + MPC is 0.05 mg/l; and Zn2+ is 0.01 mg/l. Every year the concentrations of the ammonium, nitrate and nitrite nitrogen, phosfates, silicates, synthetic active substances, and phenols have been increasing. The situation is much the same with the local rivers-the smaller the river flow the greater the changes in its chemical composition. No correlation has been discovered between the contamination of soil with heavy metals and the Sochi enterprises density. Nevertheless, several spots of contamination have been fixed in the industrial zone. The heavy metals content is many times the background value. On the premises of the building materials storehouse, for instance, the concentration of lead makes up 5,000 mg/kg, or 312 times the background values; the concentration of zinc is 38 times more than these values; the concentration of molybdenum is 20 times more. Hotbeds of this sort, from 7 to 40 hectare (ha) each, contaminated with a number of heavy metals (about 40 names), are spread over the territory of Sochi. More soils contaminated with mercury (approx. 4 ha) have been discovered on the city territory, with the concentration of mercury 50 times the MPC. There is no explanation for these spots contaminated with mercury. These areas were conceivably contaminated with heavy metals from atmospheric precipitation, as Sochi was the site of radioactive precipitation from April to May 1986, resulting in 2000 spots of ls7Cs with gamma- radiation values from 60 to 500 MkR/h radioactive (during 1990-91 the major hotbeds of radioactive contamination were eliminated). This situation is the evident result of the Chernobyl accident, and other sources of contamination of different origin are identifiable from aerospace pictures of this territory. Therefore, the results of research confirm the presence of intensive pollution of atmosphere, hydrosphere, and soils as a consefunctioning. This pollution of industrial enterprises’ quence
LUKASHINA,
undermines tial quality Farming
AMIRKHANOV,
ANISIMOV
AND TRUNEV
the health of Sochi residents and degrades of natural recreational resources.
and Environmental
661
the poten-
Pollution
There are 31,700 ha (8.9% of the total city area) under cultivation specializing in tea-farming and by local agricultural enterprises, fruit-growing - 5,900 ha (18.6%); vegetable growing - 2,100 ha (6.6%); and pasture - 4,900 ha (15.5%). The area of vegetables, though small, requires both organic and mineral fertilizers (nitrogen, phosphate, potassium). The poor chemical composition of soils is unfavorable for vegetable-growing, because of a narrow layer of humus and a shortage of mineral substances (Bushin 1961). Thus, the Sochi farms use 27% of the total local mineral fertilizers on only 18% of the local arable land in order to harvest cabbage seeds and cucumbers. Of the local total fertilizer, 42% is used on indoor vegetables which occupy only 7% of the total cultivated area. For outdoor lands, vegetables receive 14.6% (0.9 cwt/ha) and perennial plants receive some 16.9% (2.8 cwt/ha of mineral fertilizers). Organic fertilizers are not used outdoors. Many species of plants and animals live in the Sochi area because of the warm, mild climate. In particular, over 900 species of pests live here. Thirteen of these are quarantine species, and more than 10% infect local agricultural produce, forests, and parks. Of the 52 pest-killers used to control this number within a safe limit, only 33% are low toxic to the environment. The remaining 66% are undoubtedly of extreme danger to wild creatures and humans. However, the pest-killers’ effect on the pests has been decreasing rapidly, creating a compensatory growth of the amounts and frequencies of these extremely toxic applications. There are quite enough examples of plants in greenhouses being treated 30 times with toxic preparations during the vegetation period. It should be noted that pesticide use significantly decreased from 790 t (1981) to 99.2 t (1991), and from 27 to 5.8 kg/ha, respectively. Atmospheric precipitation (over 1,500 mm&) washes the residual pesticides and fertilizers to the rivers and to the sea, increasing the nitrate, nitrite, ammonium forms of nitrogen, phosfates, silicates, and pesticides in river and sea waters. Besides, considerable amounts of heavy metals, such as Cu (from 4 to 8 MPC) and Zn (from 0.4 to 0.8 MPC), are fied in river and sea waters. The sanitary and bacteriological characteristics of river and sea waters violate the state standards due to the economic management style in agriculture. The high amounts of fertilizers and pesticides result in pollution of farm produce. Unfortunately, the quality of local and imported products is poorly checked both on the city level and in produce marketing through private trade. The Sochi region cannot be viewed as a large scale agricultural area - with agrotechnics and mechanization typical of the surrounding region, with structure and agricultural specialization studies, with advanced methods of farm land use, with pasture and arable lands relief, with more fertile composition of soils, and with an intensive level of farm land development. Instead, Sochi farming is characterized by excessive mineral and organic fertilizers and pest
662
TOURISM AND THE ENVIRONMENT
killers, resulting in pollution of soil and water resources (river and sea waters), in the poor condition of the overland and water ecosystems, and in the endangered health of Sochi residents affected by foodstuffs. Foreign experience demonstrates that successful recreation regions specializing in tourism require local farm production. Yet, the narrow accent in Sochi is on tourism progress (Saliba 1990). As to alternatives to the present day methods of farming, the previous figures give a positive answer. Rural tourism may include small recreation-oriented farms. Biological farming and high living standards are important for such farms’ functioning; and the number of farms practicing biological methods is already increasing (Yablokov 1990). Furthermore, rural tourism provides a form of family rest popular worldwide, because families leave their apartments for tranquil, picturesque villages that reduce stresses typical of big cities. Rural recreational complexes are usually situated near national parks, where plant and animal life and the environment are preserved in a natural state. Yet, these areas for active recreation activities can also spread over small farms in an area where a country lifestyle and various handicrafts are promoted. The Sochi region is ideally suited to rural tourism progress. The countryside is spread over the very picturesque foothills of the Caucasus. This area is a unique climatic and balneological zone with fresh mountain air and rivers, with its own world of wild life and plant life, and with a great number of karst caves and mineral springs. Although these resources are not used to the full, according to the studies of the most popular world resorts, it is obvious that their recreational potential can be used extensively (Kurorty 1983). As to the Black Sea Coast of Russia, this suggested new way of social and economic development of the countryside should help to solve a number of ecological, economic, and social problems.
Resort Institutions and the Enuironmental Pollution In the city resort complexes aimed at spiritual/physical regeneration, rehabilitation, and recuperation, technological failures result in a loss of recreational potential. Of the 245 resort complexes in the city today, 127 are seasonal and 118 year-round. Of these, 54% have on-premise laundries but only 39% have their own sewage water purification plants. Sixty percent have their own boiler works and 50% have them nearby; 68% of boilers burn coal, 27% fuel oil, and 5% natural gas. Garages are on the premises of 62% of resort institutions, and 26% of sanatoria have their garages nearby. Dust-heaps are on the premises or nearby in 25% of the cases. The railway is located too close to the beaches of 83% of resort institutions. The motorway goes rather close to the premises of 94% of resort institutions. The noise level in Sochi far exceeds MPL for 125 m to both sides of the motorway. Therefore, 94% of resort institutions experience acoustic discomfort. High voltage lines go directly over the premises of 11% of resort institutions. Pesticides are used on the premises of 16% of resort institutions. Forest and park landscapes and public gardens degradation is observed on the premises of 90%
LUKASHINA,
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of resort institutions. This degradation is the result of excessive gas pollution, trampling, various diseases of trees, and unjustified cutting of trees for construction sites, causing negative geomorphological processes such as landslides and erosions. Therefore, holidaymakers, visiting the area for rest and treatment in the sanatoria and rest homes, complain of the high level of noise produced by the motorway (83%) and its negative effect on them (54%); aggressive odors (58%); discomfort, noise, and vibration produced by railway and air routes (15% in separate regions this figures is much higher); air pollution with gas and dust as the result of operating boilers (29%); noise, gas pollution, and aggressive odors as the result of garage work (29%); and state farms nearby, using pesticides, and private cattle (20%). Another principle characteristic of a resort by world standards is the beach area per person. In Sochi, 55% of the recreation institutions have less than 5 m2 per person and only 45% have more than 5 m2. According to the World Tourism Organization, this maximum permissible load varies from 5 to 25 m2 per person. But in summer in Sochi, in light of this data, Sochi this load is one person per m *. Therefore, resort institutions violate ecological standards and are, in general, unlikely to contribute to recuperation and spiritual potential growth. Not surprisingly, the analytical studies of the Sochi residents’ health have demonstrated an increase of mortality rate in the last decade. There were 11.7 deaths per 1,000 inhabitants in 1988 against 8.8 in 1979. For comparison, in Russia there were 10.5 deaths per 1,000 inhabitants (Lemeshev 1990). This high mortality rate is attributed to, primarily, cardiovascular diseases (61.8%), oncological diseases (17.1%), and traumatism (7.4%). The infant mortality rate has also grown. The highest rate is 33.1 cases per 1,000 infants born live (Figure 7). The stillborn rate has increased from 4.4 (1980) to 8.6 (1989) per 1,000 newborns. The high infant mortality is caused by respiratory diseases, asphyxia, and injuries at birth, and by hemorrhagic syndrome. 500
r
400
300
200
100
0
Central
Khostinsky
Figure 8. Number
Lazarevsky
of Oncological
Adlersky
Patients
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TOURISM AND THE ENVIRONMENT
Inherent anomalies (up to 25%) are the second factor, infectious diseases are the third. The oncologic case number has also grown to 455.2/1,000 (1988) from 388.2/1,000 (1979) (Figure 8). The high general mortality rate and infant mortality, in particular, as well as the increase of stillbirths and of cardiovascular and oncologic diseases of adults, all result from the destruction of the habitat aggravated by the poor social situation in the city. Special
Ecological
and Economic
Region Concept
The prospects of economic progress and social well-being of the region decrease with the degradation of the natural environment. Sochi, the only seaside balneological resort of Russia today, has an impressive recreational potential - to contribute to recuperation, human spiritual potential, and capacity for work restoration. Therefore, special regulations should be adopted in order to stabilize the ecological situation, to preserve and regenerate the unique natural environment, and to transform Sochi into an ecologically clean tourism center meeting world standards. The Resolution of July 1991, adopted by the Russian government, is aimed at forming a special ecological and economic region in Sochi. It is planned to establish the Sochi ecological and economic region for efficient use of natural and economic potential-for stabilization of the economic situation; for preservation of natural, historic, and cultural monuments, for protection of diverse species of plant and animal life and of wild natural landscapes; for creation of ecologically clean regional economies specializing in tourism and recreation; for transformation of Sochi into a world center of recreational and business tourism; and to encourage the operating enterprises to switch over to waste-free and low-waste technologies. The special ecological and economic region is a territorial complex with a unique legal background, different from the current legislation valid in the Russian Federation Territory. This region has far more rigid ecological restrictions and ecological regulations of economic activities than the rest of Russia, with a special financial and economic environment. CONCLUSIONS Among the problems to be addressed are environmental deterioration, degradation of curative natural potential throughout the Sochi territory, and improvement of the environment’s unfavorable ecological situations. These problems, of top priority, may be solved within this special ecological and through several measures economic region, as follows: (a) A permanent ecological service should be arranged to examine thoroughly and continuously the economic activity of operating and future enterprises, to control and to monitor the pollution of the natural medium. (b) The same service should conduct ecological certification of the region according to international standards.
LUKASHINA,
AMIRKHANOV,
ANISIMOV
AND
TRUNEV
66.5
(c) This should register the sources and study the amounts of pollutants discharged as far as they fit the current maximum permissible amounts and establish payment rates for pollution to improve the resource base of the authorities in charge of control. (d) The service should develop and implement a program of restructuring and elimination of ecologically harmful productions and enterprises. (e) The service should take action to prevent accidents which result in a sudden deterioration of the environment. Significantly, it is essential to set recommendations for reasonable nature utilization, to conduct ecological examinations, to monitor the state of the natural environment, and to administer ecological certification. This general environmental orientation will be one of the deciding conditions for the existence and progress of the Sochi region and its recreational vitalization of the economy in the future. 0 0 REFERENCES Amirkhanov, M. M., V. I. Anisimov, N. S. Lukashina, and A. P. Trunev 1993 Tourism in South of Russia and Ecological Summary of Regional Aspects of Current Social and Economic Policv Section (in Russian). 33rd Congress of the v European Association of Regional Sciences, Moscow, August. Bushin, P. M. 1961 Subtropical Area Soils of the Krasnodar Territory. The Reports of the Sochi Branch of the USSR Geographical Society (in Russian). Leningrad: The Earth’s Bowels. Dobrovolsky, V. V. 1983 Geography of Microelements: Global Dispersion (in Russian). Moscow: Mysl. Lemeshev, M. Ya. 1990 “Acceleration” Wrecking March. In Ecological Alternative, pp. 194-217 (in Russian). Moscow: Progress. Lukashina, N. S., V. I. Anisimov, V. G. Sherbina, and A. P. Trunev 1993 Estimation of Natural Recreational Resources in the Greater Sochi Region (in Russian). Deposited in Ull-Union Institute of Scientific and Technical Information, 05.3 1.1993, N 1445-B93 (available by request). Privalenko, V. V., G. G. Klimenko, N. S. Lukashina, A. D. Khovansky, and I. F. Cherkashina 1992 Comprehensive Assessment of Ecological Situation in Sochi Resort. In ( in Russian). Ecology and Economics, pp. 89-95 Kaliningrad: International Center of Scientific Literature. Resorts 1983 Encyclopaedic Dictionary (in Russian). Moscow: Soviet Encyclopedia. Saliba, L. 1990 Coastline Use and Environmental Problems of the Mediterranean Coast. Land Use Policy 3: 217-230. Sigal, I. Ya. 1988 Air Basin Protection When Burning Fuel (in Russian). Leningrad: Bowels of the Earth. Yablokov, A. V. 1990 Farming Without Pest-killers. Ecological Alternative (in Russian). Moscow: Progress. Submitted 11 May 1993 Resubmitted 24 September 1994 Accepted 10 December 1993 Final Version Prepared 26 July 1995 Coordinating Editor: Donald P. Getz
Pergamon
of Tourism Rexmch, Vol. 23, No. 3, pp. 654-665, 1996 Copyright 0 1996 Elsevier Science Ltd Printed in Great Britain. All rights reserved 0160.7383/96 $15.00+0.00
0160-7383(95)00086-O
TOURISM AND ENVIRONMENTAL DEGRADATION IN SOCHI, RUSSIA Nina S. Lukashina Marat M. Amirkhanov Valerii I. Anisimov Alexander Trunev
Russian Academy of Sciences, Russia Abstract: Fuel
cncrgctics, motor transport, and industrial resort and tourist enterprises all contribute to environmental pollution in the Sochi region of the Black Sea Coast of Russia. The rapid growth of the resort and tourism branch of the economy results in environmental degradation, because present technologies violate today’s ecology standards. Solutions to this extreme ecological situation must take into account the concept of the special economic and ecological region and the specific instruments of legal regulation necessary to control the state of the environment. Keywords: environmental pollution, resort and tourism business, Russia. Copyright 0 1996 Elscvicr Science Ltd
R&urn& Le tourismc et la degradation de I’environnement B Sochi (Russie). L’tnergCtiquc des combustibles, lcs transports motorists et les entrepriscs de villCgiaturc et de tourismc industriels ont tous contribut i la pollution de I’environncmrnt dans la rtgion de Sochi de la c&e de la mcr Noirc en Russie. La croissance rapidc du sccteur economique de tourismc et GllCgiature m*ne B la dkgradation de I’environncmcnt, parce quc lcs technologies actuelles contrcviennent aux normes tcologiqucs d’aujourd’hui. Lcs solutions B cctte situation tcologique dangcrcusc doivent tenw en compte le concept de la region economiquc et tcologique a priorit et les instrumrnts particuliers dcs rkglcments lCgaux qui sent ntccssail-es pour luttcr contre la degradation de l’cnvironnemcnt. Mots-cl&: pollution de I’environnemcnt, entrcpriscs de vilh?giature et de tourisme, Russic.
INTRODUCTION The development of large tourism centers significantly endangers the environment through pollutants and direct effects of tourist flow, owing to the alienation of land through new construction sites and new infrastructure. This study selectively assesses the state of environmental and human health of the Black Sea Coast of Russia, the most popular resort area of the Russian Federation. The research suggests that tourism in Russia is far from ecologically clean and this situation demands regulatory control of the environment backed by special legislation. The case in point, the city of Sochi, is a seaside climatic and balneological Russian resort, occupying a narrow strip of land on Nina Lukashina is a Senior Researcher of the Ecological Problems and Modeling Laboratory of the Sochi Research Center (8A Thcatralnaya Street, Sochi 354000, Russia. Email [email protected]); her Ph.D. is in biology. Marat Amirkhanov is Director of the Center; his Ph.D. is in economics. Valerii Anisimov is a Senior Researcher of the Center; his Ph.D. is in geography and geomorphology Alexander Trunev is Head of the research laboratory of the Center; his postgraduate degree is from the Institute of Theoretical and Applied Mechanics of the Siberian Branch uf the Academy of Sciences. 654
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the northeastern coast of the Black Sea, beside the southern spurs of the main Caucasian mountain range. Its territory is 3,500 km* and the majority of its 373,000 people are engaged in tourism. The city has grown and developed within the last few decades. From a mere 13,000 residents in 1926, the resort has become world famous as “the Summer Capital” in its best days, owing to its mild marine climate and curative nearby mineral waters. The region, with this natural and resources potential, has been providing treatment, rehabilitation, and rest for more than a century. The Sochi sanatoria and resort institutions alone have served some 1.5 to 2 million holidaymakers among the 4 million tourists visiting annually. The rapidly growing network of sanatoria and resorts and the increasing number of tourists put the environment in danger of degradation, because present technologies violate today’s ecological requirements. Sochi stretches for 146 km along the Black Sea coast from the Psou River bordering on Georgia in the southeast to the Shepsi River in the northwest (Figure 1). Only its narrow seaside strip of land, pressed by the main Causcasian mountain range against the Black Sea, is within the city boundaries. The wind rose, the breeze circulation, and the landscape make pollutants accumulate and precipitate here. The causes of pre-crisis ecological danger within the city boundaries and the littoral area have been studied. The present research is based on the comprehensive study of the Sochi environment in 1989-92. To date, the results of the research have been published only partially in various publications (Amirkhanov, Anisimov, Lukashina and Trunev 1993; Lukashina, Anisimov and Trunev 1993; Privalenko et al, 1992). The development of the city around the seaport in the Central district has resulted in disproportionate development of every other district. There are four administrative districts in Sochi: the Central, the Khostynsky, the Lazarevsky, the Adlersky. The Central district of Sochi, with less than 10% of the total area, is both the resort and the industrial center of the city. The Lazarevsky district with the largest area is not developed at all. The disproportion is illustrated by the figures on the density of the resort institutions and the number of tourists visiting Sochi annually (Figures 2 and 3). The density of industrial, motor transport, and thermal energetics enterprises is also highest in the Central district (Figure 4). This irrational economic development of the city has resulted in high gas and dust pollution of the Central district in comparison with the other districts (Figures 5 and 6). Figures 2-6 show that the most ecologically heterogeneous and endangered area lies only within the city boundaries, the strip of land 3 km wide adjoining the coast. The rest of the territory meets the most strict ecological requirements, since it includes the barely accessible highlands of the Caucasian State Biospherical Preserve and Sochi National Park, and the open countryside remote from industrial methods of economic development and management.
656
TOURISM AND THE EhVIRONMENT
LUKASHINA,
AMIRKHANOV,
ANISIMOV
657
AND TRUNEV
Khostinsky 22
................... .................. ................... ................................... ................. ................. ................. ................. .............. ............... .............. ............... .............. .......... ......... .......... .........
Lazarevsky 35
Figure 2. Number
of Recreational
Institutions
in Administrative
Regions
140 r
80 60
Central Figure 3. Number
Khostinsky of Tourists
Lazarevsky
(thousands)
Adlersky
in Administrative
Regions
500 r
Central
Figure 4. Number
Khostinsky
of Pollution
Lazarevsky
Sources
Adlersky
in Administrative
Regions
....... r
658
TOURISM
AND THE ENVIRONMENT
Solid
Liquid
and gaseous
Lazarevsky
Khostinsky
Central
D
Figure 5. Air Pollution
by Stationary
Adlersky
Sources
5 0
Sulphur
q Nitrogen
4
HCarbon
dioxide
monoxide
n Hydrocarbons
oxides
3 2 I 0 I Central
Khostinsky
Figure 6. Air Pollution
TOURISM
AND ENVIRONMENTAL
Lazarevsky
by Stationary
Adlersky
Sources
RISKS
Heat Power Energetics and Motor Transport The enterprises of fuel energetics in Sochi include over 300 boiler works: 68% burning coal, 27% fuel oil, and only 5% natural gas. Due to the high content of sulfur (3-4%) in the coal and fuel oil and the minerals (13-20%) in coal, burning is forbidden without dust and gas purification; but the city boiler works omit this process (Sigal 1988). Further, fuel and heating industry works discharge over 8,000 t/yr of toxic substances to the atmosphere, which amounts to 11.6% of total discharge. In addition, the city car and truck fleet includes 11,000 motor vehicles belonging to various enterprises, and the sewages of these motor transport depots contain oil products at a concentration of 3-4 times the permissible limits. Of more than 45,000 motor vehicles in Sochi in 1990-91, only 500 vehicles operated on gas harmless to the environment. At the peak of the tourism season, an average of 15-20,000 vehicles is added to of vehicles driving those registered in Sochi. The total number through the city, including transit transport, makes about 2,400 operating motors per hour, or 1.5 million annually. Together, motor transport and fuel energetics account for 86% of the overall pollution of the atmosphere.
LUKASHINA,
AMIRKHANOV,
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AND TRUNEV
659
Since 1986, the atmospheric air quality has been monitored. However, the only two stationary installations for continuous monitoring are located on the main motorway and do not cover the total area. According to data obtained with the help of these installations, CO and NO, are the main atmospheric pollutants. Their daily average concentrations are at peak maximum permissible limits, and maximum one-time concentrations reach ten times the maximum permissible concentrations (MPC). The MPG is the state sanitary standard adopted in Russia - not hazardous to present and future generations, not reducing the ability to work, and not detracting from general conditions and sanitary standards of living. Thus, daily concentrations of NO, in polluted areas make up an average of 0.04 mg/m3, and maximum NO, one-time concentrations make up 0.085 mg/m3. But the calculated discharge of pollutants from Sochi motor transport to the atmosphere was 52,600 t/yr (74.8% of total discharge) in 1991, including 2,200 t of dust (4.2%), 39,000 t of CO (15.4%). (74.7%), 2,100 t of NO, (4.0%), and 8,100 t of hydrocarbons Moreover, the only motorway for the local and transit motor vehicles crosses the city connecting Russia with the Transcaucasian states of Armenia and Georgia. It is known that the actively polluted space for all kinds of motorways is 200 m wide with its main axis coinciding with the main axis of the motorway (Dobrovolsky 1983). These very factors cause the extreme ecological situation in the city. The residential districts as well as the resort institutions (sanatoria, boarding houses, rest homes) are located in these actively polluted zones, rather close to the motorway. This obviously affects the state of health of the Sochi residents and interferes in the process of recuperation of those visiting the resort. Industrial Enterprises The 31 industrial enterprises in Sochi discharge about 10,000 t/yr of harmful substances into the atmosphere, accounting for 13.6% of the total discharge. According to available data, 25% of these pollutants are solid substances, such as SO, (33%), CO (15%), NO, (5%), hydrocarbons (15%), and others (7%). However, it should be noted that today the enterprises actually emit no solid substances and have gas and sewage purification plants. When extrapolating the data in Figure 7 to a zero value of the natural regeneration share, one can compute the critical value of NO, precipitation intensity. It makes up 10 mg/m’/day. This value can be viewed as an estimate of a critical state of the city ecosystems on the Black Sea Coast of Russia. The absence of correlation between the share of natural regeneration of beech and other components of atmospheric pollution should be noted. The discharges of the industrial enterprises on the Sochi river banks are of extreme danger to the Greater Sochi area. Among them are eight industrial enterprises, many motor transport enterprises, and storehouses for building materials. The resultant oil product concentrations in the Sochi river waters are 16 times the MPC, lo-100 times more than BCO, and 3-5 times more than permissible heavy metals (Cu, Fe, Zn, Pb, etc.) concentrations. MPCs of oil
660
TOURISM
AND THE ENVIRONMENT
30 Infant
mortality
m
Adult
mortality
25
20
1.5
IO
5
0
Central Figure
Khostinsky
7. Infant
Lazarevsky
Adlersky
and Adult Mortality
products in water media are 0.1-0.5 mg/l; biological consumption oxygen (CBC02,) is not more than 2 mg/l 0,; Cu2+ is 0.005 mg/l; Fe + MPC is 0.05 mg/l; and Zn2+ is 0.01 mg/l. Every year the concentrations of the ammonium, nitrate and nitrite nitrogen, phosfates, silicates, synthetic active substances, and phenols have been increasing. The situation is much the same with the local rivers-the smaller the river flow the greater the changes in its chemical composition. No correlation has been discovered between the contamination of soil with heavy metals and the Sochi enterprises density. Nevertheless, several spots of contamination have been fixed in the industrial zone. The heavy metals content is many times the background value. On the premises of the building materials storehouse, for instance, the concentration of lead makes up 5,000 mg/kg, or 312 times the background values; the concentration of zinc is 38 times more than these values; the concentration of molybdenum is 20 times more. Hotbeds of this sort, from 7 to 40 hectare (ha) each, contaminated with a number of heavy metals (about 40 names), are spread over the territory of Sochi. More soils contaminated with mercury (approx. 4 ha) have been discovered on the city territory, with the concentration of mercury 50 times the MPC. There is no explanation for these spots contaminated with mercury. These areas were conceivably contaminated with heavy metals from atmospheric precipitation, as Sochi was the site of radioactive precipitation from April to May 1986, resulting in 2000 spots of ls7Cs with gamma- radiation values from 60 to 500 MkR/h radioactive (during 1990-91 the major hotbeds of radioactive contamination were eliminated). This situation is the evident result of the Chernobyl accident, and other sources of contamination of different origin are identifiable from aerospace pictures of this territory. Therefore, the results of research confirm the presence of intensive pollution of atmosphere, hydrosphere, and soils as a consefunctioning. This pollution of industrial enterprises’ quence
LUKASHINA,
undermines tial quality Farming
AMIRKHANOV,
ANISIMOV
AND TRUNEV
the health of Sochi residents and degrades of natural recreational resources.
and Environmental
661
the poten-
Pollution
There are 31,700 ha (8.9% of the total city area) under cultivation specializing in tea-farming and by local agricultural enterprises, fruit-growing - 5,900 ha (18.6%); vegetable growing - 2,100 ha (6.6%); and pasture - 4,900 ha (15.5%). The area of vegetables, though small, requires both organic and mineral fertilizers (nitrogen, phosphate, potassium). The poor chemical composition of soils is unfavorable for vegetable-growing, because of a narrow layer of humus and a shortage of mineral substances (Bushin 1961). Thus, the Sochi farms use 27% of the total local mineral fertilizers on only 18% of the local arable land in order to harvest cabbage seeds and cucumbers. Of the local total fertilizer, 42% is used on indoor vegetables which occupy only 7% of the total cultivated area. For outdoor lands, vegetables receive 14.6% (0.9 cwt/ha) and perennial plants receive some 16.9% (2.8 cwt/ha of mineral fertilizers). Organic fertilizers are not used outdoors. Many species of plants and animals live in the Sochi area because of the warm, mild climate. In particular, over 900 species of pests live here. Thirteen of these are quarantine species, and more than 10% infect local agricultural produce, forests, and parks. Of the 52 pest-killers used to control this number within a safe limit, only 33% are low toxic to the environment. The remaining 66% are undoubtedly of extreme danger to wild creatures and humans. However, the pest-killers’ effect on the pests has been decreasing rapidly, creating a compensatory growth of the amounts and frequencies of these extremely toxic applications. There are quite enough examples of plants in greenhouses being treated 30 times with toxic preparations during the vegetation period. It should be noted that pesticide use significantly decreased from 790 t (1981) to 99.2 t (1991), and from 27 to 5.8 kg/ha, respectively. Atmospheric precipitation (over 1,500 mm&) washes the residual pesticides and fertilizers to the rivers and to the sea, increasing the nitrate, nitrite, ammonium forms of nitrogen, phosfates, silicates, and pesticides in river and sea waters. Besides, considerable amounts of heavy metals, such as Cu (from 4 to 8 MPC) and Zn (from 0.4 to 0.8 MPC), are fied in river and sea waters. The sanitary and bacteriological characteristics of river and sea waters violate the state standards due to the economic management style in agriculture. The high amounts of fertilizers and pesticides result in pollution of farm produce. Unfortunately, the quality of local and imported products is poorly checked both on the city level and in produce marketing through private trade. The Sochi region cannot be viewed as a large scale agricultural area - with agrotechnics and mechanization typical of the surrounding region, with structure and agricultural specialization studies, with advanced methods of farm land use, with pasture and arable lands relief, with more fertile composition of soils, and with an intensive level of farm land development. Instead, Sochi farming is characterized by excessive mineral and organic fertilizers and pest
662
TOURISM AND THE ENVIRONMENT
killers, resulting in pollution of soil and water resources (river and sea waters), in the poor condition of the overland and water ecosystems, and in the endangered health of Sochi residents affected by foodstuffs. Foreign experience demonstrates that successful recreation regions specializing in tourism require local farm production. Yet, the narrow accent in Sochi is on tourism progress (Saliba 1990). As to alternatives to the present day methods of farming, the previous figures give a positive answer. Rural tourism may include small recreation-oriented farms. Biological farming and high living standards are important for such farms’ functioning; and the number of farms practicing biological methods is already increasing (Yablokov 1990). Furthermore, rural tourism provides a form of family rest popular worldwide, because families leave their apartments for tranquil, picturesque villages that reduce stresses typical of big cities. Rural recreational complexes are usually situated near national parks, where plant and animal life and the environment are preserved in a natural state. Yet, these areas for active recreation activities can also spread over small farms in an area where a country lifestyle and various handicrafts are promoted. The Sochi region is ideally suited to rural tourism progress. The countryside is spread over the very picturesque foothills of the Caucasus. This area is a unique climatic and balneological zone with fresh mountain air and rivers, with its own world of wild life and plant life, and with a great number of karst caves and mineral springs. Although these resources are not used to the full, according to the studies of the most popular world resorts, it is obvious that their recreational potential can be used extensively (Kurorty 1983). As to the Black Sea Coast of Russia, this suggested new way of social and economic development of the countryside should help to solve a number of ecological, economic, and social problems.
Resort Institutions and the Enuironmental Pollution In the city resort complexes aimed at spiritual/physical regeneration, rehabilitation, and recuperation, technological failures result in a loss of recreational potential. Of the 245 resort complexes in the city today, 127 are seasonal and 118 year-round. Of these, 54% have on-premise laundries but only 39% have their own sewage water purification plants. Sixty percent have their own boiler works and 50% have them nearby; 68% of boilers burn coal, 27% fuel oil, and 5% natural gas. Garages are on the premises of 62% of resort institutions, and 26% of sanatoria have their garages nearby. Dust-heaps are on the premises or nearby in 25% of the cases. The railway is located too close to the beaches of 83% of resort institutions. The motorway goes rather close to the premises of 94% of resort institutions. The noise level in Sochi far exceeds MPL for 125 m to both sides of the motorway. Therefore, 94% of resort institutions experience acoustic discomfort. High voltage lines go directly over the premises of 11% of resort institutions. Pesticides are used on the premises of 16% of resort institutions. Forest and park landscapes and public gardens degradation is observed on the premises of 90%
LUKASHINA,
AMIRKHANOV,
ANISIMOV
AND TRUNEV
663
of resort institutions. This degradation is the result of excessive gas pollution, trampling, various diseases of trees, and unjustified cutting of trees for construction sites, causing negative geomorphological processes such as landslides and erosions. Therefore, holidaymakers, visiting the area for rest and treatment in the sanatoria and rest homes, complain of the high level of noise produced by the motorway (83%) and its negative effect on them (54%); aggressive odors (58%); discomfort, noise, and vibration produced by railway and air routes (15% in separate regions this figures is much higher); air pollution with gas and dust as the result of operating boilers (29%); noise, gas pollution, and aggressive odors as the result of garage work (29%); and state farms nearby, using pesticides, and private cattle (20%). Another principle characteristic of a resort by world standards is the beach area per person. In Sochi, 55% of the recreation institutions have less than 5 m2 per person and only 45% have more than 5 m2. According to the World Tourism Organization, this maximum permissible load varies from 5 to 25 m2 per person. But in summer in Sochi, in light of this data, Sochi this load is one person per m *. Therefore, resort institutions violate ecological standards and are, in general, unlikely to contribute to recuperation and spiritual potential growth. Not surprisingly, the analytical studies of the Sochi residents’ health have demonstrated an increase of mortality rate in the last decade. There were 11.7 deaths per 1,000 inhabitants in 1988 against 8.8 in 1979. For comparison, in Russia there were 10.5 deaths per 1,000 inhabitants (Lemeshev 1990). This high mortality rate is attributed to, primarily, cardiovascular diseases (61.8%), oncological diseases (17.1%), and traumatism (7.4%). The infant mortality rate has also grown. The highest rate is 33.1 cases per 1,000 infants born live (Figure 7). The stillborn rate has increased from 4.4 (1980) to 8.6 (1989) per 1,000 newborns. The high infant mortality is caused by respiratory diseases, asphyxia, and injuries at birth, and by hemorrhagic syndrome. 500
r
400
300
200
100
0
Central
Khostinsky
Figure 8. Number
Lazarevsky
of Oncological
Adlersky
Patients
664
TOURISM AND THE ENVIRONMENT
Inherent anomalies (up to 25%) are the second factor, infectious diseases are the third. The oncologic case number has also grown to 455.2/1,000 (1988) from 388.2/1,000 (1979) (Figure 8). The high general mortality rate and infant mortality, in particular, as well as the increase of stillbirths and of cardiovascular and oncologic diseases of adults, all result from the destruction of the habitat aggravated by the poor social situation in the city. Special
Ecological
and Economic
Region Concept
The prospects of economic progress and social well-being of the region decrease with the degradation of the natural environment. Sochi, the only seaside balneological resort of Russia today, has an impressive recreational potential - to contribute to recuperation, human spiritual potential, and capacity for work restoration. Therefore, special regulations should be adopted in order to stabilize the ecological situation, to preserve and regenerate the unique natural environment, and to transform Sochi into an ecologically clean tourism center meeting world standards. The Resolution of July 1991, adopted by the Russian government, is aimed at forming a special ecological and economic region in Sochi. It is planned to establish the Sochi ecological and economic region for efficient use of natural and economic potential-for stabilization of the economic situation; for preservation of natural, historic, and cultural monuments, for protection of diverse species of plant and animal life and of wild natural landscapes; for creation of ecologically clean regional economies specializing in tourism and recreation; for transformation of Sochi into a world center of recreational and business tourism; and to encourage the operating enterprises to switch over to waste-free and low-waste technologies. The special ecological and economic region is a territorial complex with a unique legal background, different from the current legislation valid in the Russian Federation Territory. This region has far more rigid ecological restrictions and ecological regulations of economic activities than the rest of Russia, with a special financial and economic environment. CONCLUSIONS Among the problems to be addressed are environmental deterioration, degradation of curative natural potential throughout the Sochi territory, and improvement of the environment’s unfavorable ecological situations. These problems, of top priority, may be solved within this special ecological and through several measures economic region, as follows: (a) A permanent ecological service should be arranged to examine thoroughly and continuously the economic activity of operating and future enterprises, to control and to monitor the pollution of the natural medium. (b) The same service should conduct ecological certification of the region according to international standards.
LUKASHINA,
AMIRKHANOV,
ANISIMOV
AND
TRUNEV
66.5
(c) This should register the sources and study the amounts of pollutants discharged as far as they fit the current maximum permissible amounts and establish payment rates for pollution to improve the resource base of the authorities in charge of control. (d) The service should develop and implement a program of restructuring and elimination of ecologically harmful productions and enterprises. (e) The service should take action to prevent accidents which result in a sudden deterioration of the environment. Significantly, it is essential to set recommendations for reasonable nature utilization, to conduct ecological examinations, to monitor the state of the natural environment, and to administer ecological certification. This general environmental orientation will be one of the deciding conditions for the existence and progress of the Sochi region and its recreational vitalization of the economy in the future. 0 0 REFERENCES Amirkhanov, M. M., V. I. Anisimov, N. S. Lukashina, and A. P. Trunev 1993 Tourism in South of Russia and Ecological Summary of Regional Aspects of Current Social and Economic Policv Section (in Russian). 33rd Congress of the v European Association of Regional Sciences, Moscow, August. Bushin, P. M. 1961 Subtropical Area Soils of the Krasnodar Territory. The Reports of the Sochi Branch of the USSR Geographical Society (in Russian). Leningrad: The Earth’s Bowels. Dobrovolsky, V. V. 1983 Geography of Microelements: Global Dispersion (in Russian). Moscow: Mysl. Lemeshev, M. Ya. 1990 “Acceleration” Wrecking March. In Ecological Alternative, pp. 194-217 (in Russian). Moscow: Progress. Lukashina, N. S., V. I. Anisimov, V. G. Sherbina, and A. P. Trunev 1993 Estimation of Natural Recreational Resources in the Greater Sochi Region (in Russian). Deposited in Ull-Union Institute of Scientific and Technical Information, 05.3 1.1993, N 1445-B93 (available by request). Privalenko, V. V., G. G. Klimenko, N. S. Lukashina, A. D. Khovansky, and I. F. Cherkashina 1992 Comprehensive Assessment of Ecological Situation in Sochi Resort. In ( in Russian). Ecology and Economics, pp. 89-95 Kaliningrad: International Center of Scientific Literature. Resorts 1983 Encyclopaedic Dictionary (in Russian). Moscow: Soviet Encyclopedia. Saliba, L. 1990 Coastline Use and Environmental Problems of the Mediterranean Coast. Land Use Policy 3: 217-230. Sigal, I. Ya. 1988 Air Basin Protection When Burning Fuel (in Russian). Leningrad: Bowels of the Earth. Yablokov, A. V. 1990 Farming Without Pest-killers. Ecological Alternative (in Russian). Moscow: Progress. Submitted 11 May 1993 Resubmitted 24 September 1994 Accepted 10 December 1993 Final Version Prepared 26 July 1995 Coordinating Editor: Donald P. Getz