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Tourism as an agent for landscape conservation: An assessment
The Science o f the Total Environment, 55 (1986) 387--395 Elsevier Science Publishers B.V., Amsterdam -- Printed in The Netherlands
387
TOURISM AS AN AGENT FOR LANDSCAPE CONSERVATION: AN ASSESSMENT P.E. MURPHY Geography Dept., U n i v e r s i t y of V i c t o r i a ,
P.O. Box 1700, V i c t o r i a ,
B.C., V8W 2Y2
(Canada)
ABSTRACT Taking an a n t h r o o o c e n t r i c approach to c o n s e r v a t i o n t h i s paper examines the s i m i l a r i t i e s t h a t e x i s t between c o n s e r v a t i o n and tourism i n t e r e s t s in the landscape. Based on these s i m i l a r i t i e s i t suggests t h a t tourism could become a more e f f e c t i v e p a r t n e r through the synergism process. Two examples of t h i s process are p r o v i d e d , one in a r u r a l the o t h e r in an urban s e t t i n g , to i l l u s t r a t e how the process can work f o r both p a r t i e s . INTRODUCTION While change in the landscape occurs as p a r t of our n a t u r a l e v o l u t i o n i t
is
d e s i r a b l e to i n t e r v e n e in t h i s process to save some resources f o r our f u t u r e g e n e r a t i o n s and to r e t a i n the best o f the past as r o o t s to our h e r i t a g e . U n f o r t u n a t e l y the pace of change and demands f o r new resources brought on by t e c h n o l o g i c a l advances and growing numbers seem to be o u t s t r i p p i n g our a b i l i t y to conserve. their
Rural areas have come under i n c r e a s i n g pressure to r a t i o n a l i z e
resource i n d u s t r i e s in o r d e r to remain c o m p e t i t i v e , o f t e n r e s u l t i n g
more monoculture and c e n t r a l i z a t i o n . I
in
For example, Muir and Duffey contend "the
c o u n t r y s i d e s of B r i t a i n are being dismantled a t a f r i g h t e n i n g and unprecedented r a t e ''2 thanks to the r i s e o f l a r g e scale agro-businesses, the impact of common market farm p o l i c i e s and the need to reduce l a b o r costs.
Likewise in the c i t y ,
t e c h n o l o g i c a l change and market forces have turned o l d commercial and i n d u s t r i a l districts
i n t o economic backwaters and vacated p r o p e r t y .
Many c i t i e s
have seen
t h e i r w a t e r f r o n t or r a i l r o a d o r i g i n s c l e a r e d in the name of urban renewal, destroying architectural 3 process.
s t y l e s and h i s t o r i c a l
l i n k s to the environment in the
Awareness o f t h i s s i t u a t i o n has not been l a c k i n g as the above references and convening o f t h i s conference t e s t i f y , insufficient heritage.
but a c t i o n has been l i m i t e d and g e n e r a l l y
to check the steady d e t e r i o r a t i o n The v a l i a n t e f f o r t s
of i n t e r n a t i o n a l
of our environmental o r g a n i z a t i o n s l i k e UNEP and
UNESCO, supported by government and p r i v a t e endeavors, have been hindered by high costs and intense c o m p e t i t i o n f o r the land, resources or b u i l d i n g s .
We
seem to have reached a p o i n t where governments and concerned c i t i z e n s cannot
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© 1986 Elsevier Science Publishers B.V.
388
continue to f i g h t the conservation b a t t l e alone, they need a partner.
One
which has s i m i l a r conservation goals and can compete on a more equal footing in the modern business world. The purpose of this paper is to suggest that tourism could be such a partner. Tourism is a major world-wide business, in v olv in g 2.25 b i l l i o n t o u r i s t t r i p s and generating over $900 b i l l i o n in 1981 according to World Tourist Organization (WTO) e~timates.
I t is an industry that s e lls the environment and heritage as
part of i t s t o u r i s t product and therefore i t needs to conserve such resources, in t h e i r various forms, as part of i t s own s u r v iv a l.
But before a business
venture and a philosophical outlook can come together in a mutually p r o f i t a b l e r e l a t i o n s h i p some issues need to be addressed. CONSERVATION AND TOURISM The terms conservation, landscape and tourism s i g n i f y d i f f e r e n t things to d i f f e r e n t people so i t is necessary to c l a r i f y t h e i r meaning in terms of this paper and i t s i n t e n t .
"Conservation, however the word may be defined",
according to Bennett, "has no meaning outside of the human context because i t is only the human species, among the thousands of other l i v i n g species, that e x p l o i t s the earth's resources in c u l t u r a l l y c o n t r o l l e d fashions".4
Similarly
the term landscape takes on meaning only in terms of those viewing and assessing 5 it. Lowenthal contends " i t is amorphous, c o n t i n u a l l y a l t e r i n g , impossible to dissociate from neighbouring areas, and i t surrounds observers who are in i t " ; while Hackett 6 s i m p l i f i e s things by saying "the landscape is the world in which we l i v e " (my emphases).
Tourism as a d i s c r e t i o n a r y a c t i v i t y is influenced by
i n d i v i d u a l perceptions and preferences, so much so that the industry has c l a s s i f i e d t o u r i s t s by t h e i r motivation 7 and directs i t s marketing at these various segments8.
Because conservation, landscape and tourism are
anthropocentric concepts i t follows that human values are central to the conservation and management of landscapes in general, and t o u r i s t landscapes in particular. Tourism has been f r i e n d l i e r , in general, to the environment than many other a c t i v i t i e s and past i n d u s t r i e s .
The conservation of beauty and heritage are key
factors to the industry's development and survival and there are many examples of i t s support f o r the protection of natural and c u l t u r a l landscapes.
National
parks around the world owe a great deal to the encouragement and p o l i t i c a l pressure of the tourism industry.
The preservation of h i s t o r i c buildings and
d i s t r i c t s is often supported or financed by tourism-related i n t e r e s t s . A paradox f o r tourism, however, is that the industry carries within i t the seed of i t s own destruction.
I t is an agent of change in the environment and
i t s success can lead to the destruction of those very landscape features which first
attracted v i s i t o r s and the industry.
Exceeding a destination area's
389
carrying capacity can occur in a physical sense, when scenic areas become trampled, polluted or eroded.
I t can also occur in a social sense, when
residents resent tourism taking over t h e i r community or v i s i t o r s ' expectations have not been met due to inaccurate promotion. Tourism's paradox is not unique, f or i t s f a c i l i t y much in common with conservation practices.
to modify the landscape has
Both aim to safeguard a landscape
by protecting i t from outside interference but such protection can arise only through i n t e r v e n t i o n and change.
Intervention to preserve landscapes requires
l e g i s l a t i o n and funding, and as the North American national park system is f i n d i n g the taxpayer who foots the b i l l those natural preserves are used. price of ski h i l l s ,
is demanding more consideration in how
The r e s u l t is preservation at a price, the
campgrounds, water sports and even resort towns.
New
a c t i v i t i e s to complement conservation objectives are rare, so some form of compromise and change often becomes necessary i f they are to be coaxed into partnership.
As Appleyard so c l e a r l y described i t :
Conservation, l i k e so many planning concepts, is often a mirage, an i l l u s i o n that i t is possible to r e t r i e v e the past or conserve the present by contemporary action. In f a c t , everything we touch, even the conceptual act of designating a neighborhood f or conservation, changes our view of i t and subtly modernizes i t . 9 Since conservation and tourism have so much in common, both in terms of t h e i r strength and weaknesses, the challenge becomes one of determining what type of partnership would strengthen both parties.
What features of the conservation
movement could appeal to the tourism industry and induce i t into more formal partnerships?
What aspects of the t o u r i s t business must be considered by
conservationists to ensure any such partnerships r e s u l t in safeguarding a landscape? CONSERVATION CONSIDERATIONS A prime goal f o r conservationists is to r e t a i n the natural landscape or recapture past landscapes in as authentic a manner as possible.
This quest f o r
a u t h e n t i c i t y is a growing feature of the tourism market as both the industry and i t s customers become more sophisticated and demanding.
MacCannell has gone so
f a r as to equate tourism to a pilgrimage, where t o u r i s t s attempt to seek the knowlege and t r u th of authentic experience by penetrating into the backstage inner workings of a destination community. I0
The ideal s i t u a t i o n would occur
where t o u r i s t s could experience a functioning landscape.
In this way they could
see a community at work, appreciate i t s problems and c o n t r i b u t i o n s , and return home with a better understanding of the landscape and i t s
inhabitants.
Under
these circumstances tourism would be providing a secondary and supportive function f o r the d e s t i n a t i o n ' s landscape.
An example would be the assistance
390
rendered to h i l l
farmers through farm tourism, p a r t i c u l a r l y bed and breakfast,
which has often made marginal operations p r o f i t a b l e and encouraged farming communities to maintain t h e i r t r a d i t i o n a l landscapes. Just how f a r destination areas can accommodate this quest f o r a u t h e n t i c i t y depends on t h e i r carrying capacity.
In hardened environments l i k e c i t i e s , with
adequate i n f r a s t r u c t u r e and f a c i l i t i e s , with l i t t l e
disturbance.
m i l l i o n s of v i s i t o r s can be accommodated
I f there is a problem at these locations i t is usually
one of social carrying capacity, where local residents react to the congestion and stress of serving so many v i s i t o r s .
Where the environment is f r a g i l e and
the social thresholds low the physical and social q u a l i t i e s of a landscape require more protection.
Under these circumstances backstage penetration should
be discouraged and the quest f o r a u t h e n t i c i t y should be provided via staged events of i n t e r p r e t i v e centers.
Staged events and a t t r a c t i o n s , such as pageants
and museums, do not have to be psuedo or spurious.
They provide an opportunity
f o r the n a t u r a l i s t , anthropologist and h i s t o r i a n to i n s t r u c t the layman about a landscape's heritage and the need fo r conservation. e f f e c t i v e is imagination and f l a i r , e x h i b i t . 11
What they do require to be
as in the case of York's new Viking
The key to maintaining the a u t h e n t i c i t y of a landscape without exceeding i t s physical and social carrying capacities is management. Conservation management involves i n t e r v e n t i o n with the natural or market processes so that certain desired features within a landscape may be maintained. take several forms.
Such intervention can
The most common is zoning, the a l l o c a t i o n of a single or
dominant land use to a p a r t i c u l a r area that enables c o n f l i c t i n g uses to be s p a t i a l l y separated.
This has become the standard planning tool in North
America's national parks as they t r y to meet the twin mandate of providing nature conservation and outdoor recreation.
Intervention also involves people
management as uncontrolled t o u r i s t movements can become the greatest danger to the landscape and themselves.
Bear management in Yellowstone has been 12 described as 90 percent people management. Few v i s i t o r s seeking authentic landscape experiences consciously come to destroy what they have come to admire, but they do need constant reminding of t h e i r o b l i g a t i o n s and r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s in those s e t t i n g s - - whether they be wandering through a wilderness or around a cathedral. The ultimate management tool is to r e s t r i c t admission to certain parts of the landscape.
This drastic step needs to be considered when the pressures on a
resource are so great that continued heavy use or exposure may destroy i t s authenticity.
I t can be achieved through i s o l a t i o n and l i m i t e d access, as in
the case of the national parks in Alaska and northern Canada, but more government agencies are being forced to consider reservation systems and
391
d i s c r i m i n a t o r y fee s t r u c t u r e s .
The states of C a l i f o r n i a and Oregon, f o r
example, use a campsite reservation system to a l l o c a t e campsites in popular coastal campgrounds, and there is a premium to be paid f o r using those along the southern C a l i f o r n i a coast during the summer. The above discussion represents only a few of the issues facing the conservat i o n movement, but the three considerations t h a t have been stressed a r i s e r e g u l a r l y in a tourism-conservation dialogue. possible i t
I f a partnership is to be
is necessary to examine the t o u r i s t industry in more depth, to
ascertain whether i t s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s can be matched with the conservation concepts of a u t h e n t i c i t y , carrying capacity and management. TOURISM CONSIDERATIONS Tourism can be successful only i f
it
has a product t h a t people want and those
people are w i l l i n g to pay f o r t r a v e l i n g to and experiencing t h a t product. major considerations f o r tourism, t h e r e f o r e , are the product v i a b i l i t y market v i a b i l i t y
Two
and
of those landscapes i t wishes to o f f e r .
By d e f i n i t i o n there are very few unique a t t r a c t i o n s in the world, so one seldom finds a s i n g l e feature which w i l l unique a t t r a c t i o n in i t s e l f vacation.
l u r e t o u r i s t s to an area, plus the
would probably not be s u f f i c i e n t to j u s t i f y
a whole
What tourism seeks is a product mix, or general landscape appeal,
t h a t w i l l draw v i s i t o r s to an area.
In t h i s case the t o u r i s t i n d u s t r y and
planners attempt to d i s t i n g u i s h the regional character of t h e i r product, so t h a t it
stands out in a very competitive market where there are p l e n t y of s i m i l a r
offerings.
To develop a v i a b l e product often involves the development of a
theme and the coordination of many i n d i v i d u a l s and i n t e r e s t s . Themes are successful i f they stress local resources, both natural and 13 Consequentl~
c u l t u r a l , t h a t d i s t i n g u i s h d e s t i n a t i o n areas from others nearby.
t o u r i s m ' s business needs are in tune w i t h the need to conserve regional landscapes, because t h e i r d i s t i n c t i v e q u a l i t i e s b u i l t up over the centuries w i l l
be
a major a t t r a c t i o n .
The more obvious examples include Greece as the cradle of
western c i v i l i z a t i o n
and c u l t u r e , and London as the focus of a past empire.
i t also operates on a smaller scale.
But
My home town of V i c t o r i a , B r i t i s h Columbia
is considering a h i s t o r i c a l theme "from Colony to Confederation" to d i s t i n g u i s h i t from surrounding west coast d e s t i n a t i o n s . Tourism is not only concerned with making i t s product a v i a b l e competitor i t must also t a r g e t i t s marketing of t h a t product to p o t e n t i a l customers who would appreciate i t .
I t should not be assumed t h a t everyone is i n t e r e s t e d in land-
scape conservation and seeking the backstage nuances.
The mass market is s t i l l
hedonistic in i t s p u r s u i t s , focusing on a t t r i b u t e s l i k e the sun, beach and nightlife;
yet there are growing numbers of t o u r i s t s who are looking f o r more
substance or challenge in t h e i r vacations.
A case in point is the recent change
392
in emphasis of Club Med marketing: Some clubs have begun to arrange sightseeing excursions f o r those who want some local color other than a tan. And Club Med has changed i t s ad slogan from "The Antidote to C i v i l i z a t i o n " , with i t s h i n t of primeval abandon, to "The Perfect Climate f o r Body and Soul", a phrase t h a t ' s supposed to suggest a broader range of r e l a x a t i o n . ''14 Thus tourism is showing a greater i n t e r e s t in conserving the landscape and introducing i t to p a r t i c u l a r market segments.
There is a growing trend to theme
tours which appeal to s p e c i f i c i n t e r e s t groups that can appreciate the q u a l i t i e s of certain environments and are w i l l i n g to be directed and managed as long as they see the common good in such practices. Success in the competitive tourism business needs another essential ingredi e n t , commitment to excellence.
In a worldwide market where there are many
s i m i l a r destinations i t requires a commitment to a u t h e n t i c i t y and q u a l i t y f or a landscape to stand out in the crowd.
Likewise, when you have i d e n t i f i e d your
p a r t i c u l a r market segment i t requires f i r s t
class i n t e r p r e t i v e f a c i l i t i e s ,
and service to bring them back again and create goodwill ambassadors.
tours
Peters
and Waterman, the current gurus of the marketing world, stress the importance of customer service and s a t i s f a c t i o n to successful companies.
One of t h e i r major
examples is the Disney philosophy: Disney expects the new "cast member" to know something about the company, i t s h i s t o r y and success, i t s management s t y le before he a c t u a l l y goes to work . . . The systems support f o r people on stage is also dramatic. For example, there are hundreds of phones hidden in the bushes, hot lines to a central question-answering service. And the amount of e f f o r t put into the d a i l y clean-up amazes even the most calloused outside observers. In these and scores of other ways, o v e r k i l l marks every aspect of Disney's approach to i t s customers. 15
SYNERGISM Synergism occurs according to Webster's d i c t i o n a r y , when "the combined action of two or more agencies achieves an e f f e c t greater than that of which each is i n d i v i d u a l l y capable", and t h i s is the proposition of this paper and Figure i . I t is apparent that the conservation and tourism considerations have much in conwnon. They are both advocating authentic landscapes, maintained within t h e i r carrying capacity thresholds by targeting l i m i t e d and sympathetic markets, and developing a renewable resource industry through commitment to excellence and careful management. To i l l u s t r a t e the synergism p o t e n t i a l between tourism and conservation two very d i f f e r e n t examples w i l l be presented.
The Reedy Creek
Improvement D i s t r i c t represents the saving of central Florida wetlands while building the 27,000 acre area into a world famous r e s or t , known as Walt Disney World.
The inner harbor area of Baltimore represents the breathing of new l i f e
393 into a declining waterfront area, by replacing dying port f a c i l i t i e s
with a
growing service industry and in the process r e t a i n i n g much of the area's o r i g i n al f a b r i c .
~
TOURISM CONSIDERATIONS Product Viability Market Viability
SYNERGISM Walt Disney World and Reedy Creek
Authenticity Capacity
Baltimore's
Commitment
Fig. 1
CONSERVATION CONSIDERATIONS
Management
Inner Harbor
Synergism p o t e n t i a l between conservation and tourism
The Reedy Creek Improvement D i s t r i c t is the adminstrative vehicle Disney created to consolidate,
plan and develop his various land holdings in Orange
and Osceola counties of central Florida.
When Disney assembled the land i t was
a mixture of swamp and scrub pasture, but the o r i g i n a l wetlands were under pressure from central F l o r i d a ' s expansion, which was lowering the watertable and increasing water p o l l u t i o n .
Disney's e f f o r t s have managed to combine two
major t o u r i s t a t t r a c t i o n s , catering to 15 m i l l i o n v i s i t o r s a year with e c o l o g i c a l l y sensitive development and the preservation of a 7,500 acre wetland conservation area.
The conservation area is well removed from the major t o u r i s t
areas and is focused on a 5,000 acre swamp. The area has been described as: a dense and tangled forestland of v i r g i n cypresses, palms, pines, vines and orchids . . . every wild bird and animal species of inland c e n t ~ l Florida l i v e s here, with room to survive and reproduce. ±~ and at present access is l i m i t e d to serious ecological students, mainly at the university level. This remarkable synergism has come about through water management and people management, with a continuous commitment to excellence.
The key to Reedy
Creek's success has been the flood control and water q u a l i t y management of water entering from the north end of the d i s t r i c t .
Water levels are maintained at
normal seasonal levels by a series of 17 s e l f - r e g u l a t i n g dams and the q u a l i t y of water entering the 40 miles of i r r i g a t i o n canals in monitored constantly.
If
the water entering Reedy Creek Improvement D i s t r i c t is not up to standard the Disney people have the r i g h t to d i v e r t i t away from the area.
I f t h i s happens
or there is a serious drought water can be drawn from the numerous natural and artificial
lakes on the property.
394
Epcot Center, Fantasy Land and Disney V i l l a g e have a l l been b u i l t on islands within the flood plain area with public t r a n s i t and access routes keeping v i s i t o r s to these areas.
All three have been designed to have minimal impact
on the surrounding areas, as can be seen in the layout of Disney V i l l a g e .
I t is
compact, with an a t t r a c t i v e focus of lake and commercial businesses surrounded by condominium clusters and muted hotels.
Throughout the v i l l a g e a l l u t i l i t y
services are underground, there is abundant open space, plenty of shade trees and public t r a n s i t is encouraged.
To ensure the t o u r i s t operations do not p o l l u t e
the area a t e r t i a r y sewage treatment plant and waste i n c i n e r a t o r have been installed.
The waste water from the plant is used to water the ornamental trees
and g o l f courses, helping to maintain the local watertable while those elsewhere continue to f a l l . In Baltimore's Inner Harbor area vacant warehouses and unused wharves have been replaced by a trade and convention center, science museum, planetarium and national aquarium, converting this forgotten waterfront into a v ibr ant l e i s u r e tourism focus f o r the c i t y and surrounding regions.
Beioley 17 contends the area
" a t t r a c t s over i0 m i l l i o n v i s i t o r s a year . . . (and) not only generates income f o r the c i t y , but has helped to project a new image of Baltimore to the outside world".
This was achieved by creating a new functional purpose f or the e x i s t i n g
landscape.
Many of the old brick buildings have been retained and new ones
designed to blend in with them and the waterfront theme. Throughout the development there has been pursuit of excellence, s t a r t i n g with the h i r i n g of James Rouse, a master planner of downtown r e v i t a l i z a t i o n whose "philosophy revolves not so much around real estate as around meeting the needs and desires of people".
Consequently the Inner Harbor area has become a
people place, with street performers on the causeway, people paddling boats in the harbor around the three-masted f r i g a t e U.S.F. Constellation and the many p ri v a t e yachts that seek moorage in t h i s l e i s u r e complex.
I t s conservation has
also been people oriented with many good old buildings in the surrounding neighborhoods being restored to t h e i r former elegance through programs such as "urban homesteading". CONCLUSION Synergisms of the sort o u t l i n e d above are not easy to achieve but i t is evident that conservation and tourism can work together f o r t h e i r common good i f conditions are appropriate.
Among the conditions necessary are a careful
assessment of the landscape's market p o t e n t i a l then a commitment to a u t h e n t i c i t y and excellence in bringing the supportive function of tourism i n t o that landscape.
While these examples may not meet everyone's expectations of ideal
conservation they are examples of working partnerships at a time when government support and p r i v a t e benefactors cannot carry the conservation load alone.
395
REFERENCES 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
Environment Canada, Canada's Special Resource Lands, Lands Directorate of Environment Canada, Ottawa, 1979, 232 pp. R. Muir and E. Duffey, The Shell Countryside Book, Dent and Sons, London, 1984, p. 7, 318 pp. D. Ley, Inner City R e v i t a l i z a t i o n in Canada: A Vancouver Case Study, Canadian Geographer, 25 (1981), 124-148; D. Holdsworth, ( e d . ) , Revivinq Main Street, U n i v e r s i t y of Toronto Press, 1985, 246 pp. C.F. Bennett, Conservation and Management of Natural Resources in the United States, Wiley, New York, 1983, p. i , 436 pp. D. Lowenthal, Finding Valued Landscapes, Working Paper No. 4, I n s t i t u t e for Environmental Studies, U n i v e r s i t y of Toronto, 1978, p. 35, 71 pp. B. Hackett, Landscape Conservation, Packard Publishing, Chichester, 1980, p. 9, 111 pp. P.E. Murphy, Tourism: A Community Approach, Methuen, London, 1985, pp. 5-7, 200 pp. D.J. Stynes, Marketing Tourism, Leisure Today, A p r i l 1983, pp. 43-45. D. Appleyard, The Conservation of European C i t i e s , MIT Press, Cambridge, Mass., 1979, p. 10, 308 pp. B. MacCannell, The T o u r i s t : A New Theory of the Leisure Class, Macmillan, London, 1976, 214 pp. Times-Colonist, Viking History Comes A l i v e After 1,000 Years in Mud, A p r i l 14, 1984, p. C-12. Newsweek, Finding Parking Space for Bears, June 14, 1982, p. 18. P.E. Murphy, Tourism: A Community Approach, Methuen, London, 1985, pp. 134-51, 200 pp. Newsweek, Club Mom and Pop, October 14, 1985, p. 66. T.J. Peters and R.H. Waterman, J r . , In Search of Excellence, Warner, New York, 1982, p. 168, 360 pp. L.E. Zehnder, F l o r i d a ' s Disney World: Promises and Problems, Peninsular, Tallahassee, Florida, 1975, p. 200, 360 pp. S. Beioley, Tourism and Urban Regeneration: Some Lessons from American C i t i e s , English Tourist Board, London, 1981, p. 25, 28 pp. Time, He Digs Downtown: For Master Planner James Rouse, Urban Life is a F e s t i v a l , August 24, 1981, p. 36, 36-43.
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TOURISM AS AN AGENT FOR LANDSCAPE CONSERVATION: AN ASSESSMENT P.E. MURPHY Geography Dept., U n i v e r s i t y of V i c t o r i a ,
P.O. Box 1700, V i c t o r i a ,
B.C., V8W 2Y2
(Canada)
ABSTRACT Taking an a n t h r o o o c e n t r i c approach to c o n s e r v a t i o n t h i s paper examines the s i m i l a r i t i e s t h a t e x i s t between c o n s e r v a t i o n and tourism i n t e r e s t s in the landscape. Based on these s i m i l a r i t i e s i t suggests t h a t tourism could become a more e f f e c t i v e p a r t n e r through the synergism process. Two examples of t h i s process are p r o v i d e d , one in a r u r a l the o t h e r in an urban s e t t i n g , to i l l u s t r a t e how the process can work f o r both p a r t i e s . INTRODUCTION While change in the landscape occurs as p a r t of our n a t u r a l e v o l u t i o n i t
is
d e s i r a b l e to i n t e r v e n e in t h i s process to save some resources f o r our f u t u r e g e n e r a t i o n s and to r e t a i n the best o f the past as r o o t s to our h e r i t a g e . U n f o r t u n a t e l y the pace of change and demands f o r new resources brought on by t e c h n o l o g i c a l advances and growing numbers seem to be o u t s t r i p p i n g our a b i l i t y to conserve. their
Rural areas have come under i n c r e a s i n g pressure to r a t i o n a l i z e
resource i n d u s t r i e s in o r d e r to remain c o m p e t i t i v e , o f t e n r e s u l t i n g
more monoculture and c e n t r a l i z a t i o n . I
in
For example, Muir and Duffey contend "the
c o u n t r y s i d e s of B r i t a i n are being dismantled a t a f r i g h t e n i n g and unprecedented r a t e ''2 thanks to the r i s e o f l a r g e scale agro-businesses, the impact of common market farm p o l i c i e s and the need to reduce l a b o r costs.
Likewise in the c i t y ,
t e c h n o l o g i c a l change and market forces have turned o l d commercial and i n d u s t r i a l districts
i n t o economic backwaters and vacated p r o p e r t y .
Many c i t i e s
have seen
t h e i r w a t e r f r o n t or r a i l r o a d o r i g i n s c l e a r e d in the name of urban renewal, destroying architectural 3 process.
s t y l e s and h i s t o r i c a l
l i n k s to the environment in the
Awareness o f t h i s s i t u a t i o n has not been l a c k i n g as the above references and convening o f t h i s conference t e s t i f y , insufficient heritage.
but a c t i o n has been l i m i t e d and g e n e r a l l y
to check the steady d e t e r i o r a t i o n The v a l i a n t e f f o r t s
of i n t e r n a t i o n a l
of our environmental o r g a n i z a t i o n s l i k e UNEP and
UNESCO, supported by government and p r i v a t e endeavors, have been hindered by high costs and intense c o m p e t i t i o n f o r the land, resources or b u i l d i n g s .
We
seem to have reached a p o i n t where governments and concerned c i t i z e n s cannot
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continue to f i g h t the conservation b a t t l e alone, they need a partner.
One
which has s i m i l a r conservation goals and can compete on a more equal footing in the modern business world. The purpose of this paper is to suggest that tourism could be such a partner. Tourism is a major world-wide business, in v olv in g 2.25 b i l l i o n t o u r i s t t r i p s and generating over $900 b i l l i o n in 1981 according to World Tourist Organization (WTO) e~timates.
I t is an industry that s e lls the environment and heritage as
part of i t s t o u r i s t product and therefore i t needs to conserve such resources, in t h e i r various forms, as part of i t s own s u r v iv a l.
But before a business
venture and a philosophical outlook can come together in a mutually p r o f i t a b l e r e l a t i o n s h i p some issues need to be addressed. CONSERVATION AND TOURISM The terms conservation, landscape and tourism s i g n i f y d i f f e r e n t things to d i f f e r e n t people so i t is necessary to c l a r i f y t h e i r meaning in terms of this paper and i t s i n t e n t .
"Conservation, however the word may be defined",
according to Bennett, "has no meaning outside of the human context because i t is only the human species, among the thousands of other l i v i n g species, that e x p l o i t s the earth's resources in c u l t u r a l l y c o n t r o l l e d fashions".4
Similarly
the term landscape takes on meaning only in terms of those viewing and assessing 5 it. Lowenthal contends " i t is amorphous, c o n t i n u a l l y a l t e r i n g , impossible to dissociate from neighbouring areas, and i t surrounds observers who are in i t " ; while Hackett 6 s i m p l i f i e s things by saying "the landscape is the world in which we l i v e " (my emphases).
Tourism as a d i s c r e t i o n a r y a c t i v i t y is influenced by
i n d i v i d u a l perceptions and preferences, so much so that the industry has c l a s s i f i e d t o u r i s t s by t h e i r motivation 7 and directs i t s marketing at these various segments8.
Because conservation, landscape and tourism are
anthropocentric concepts i t follows that human values are central to the conservation and management of landscapes in general, and t o u r i s t landscapes in particular. Tourism has been f r i e n d l i e r , in general, to the environment than many other a c t i v i t i e s and past i n d u s t r i e s .
The conservation of beauty and heritage are key
factors to the industry's development and survival and there are many examples of i t s support f o r the protection of natural and c u l t u r a l landscapes.
National
parks around the world owe a great deal to the encouragement and p o l i t i c a l pressure of the tourism industry.
The preservation of h i s t o r i c buildings and
d i s t r i c t s is often supported or financed by tourism-related i n t e r e s t s . A paradox f o r tourism, however, is that the industry carries within i t the seed of i t s own destruction.
I t is an agent of change in the environment and
i t s success can lead to the destruction of those very landscape features which first
attracted v i s i t o r s and the industry.
Exceeding a destination area's
389
carrying capacity can occur in a physical sense, when scenic areas become trampled, polluted or eroded.
I t can also occur in a social sense, when
residents resent tourism taking over t h e i r community or v i s i t o r s ' expectations have not been met due to inaccurate promotion. Tourism's paradox is not unique, f or i t s f a c i l i t y much in common with conservation practices.
to modify the landscape has
Both aim to safeguard a landscape
by protecting i t from outside interference but such protection can arise only through i n t e r v e n t i o n and change.
Intervention to preserve landscapes requires
l e g i s l a t i o n and funding, and as the North American national park system is f i n d i n g the taxpayer who foots the b i l l those natural preserves are used. price of ski h i l l s ,
is demanding more consideration in how
The r e s u l t is preservation at a price, the
campgrounds, water sports and even resort towns.
New
a c t i v i t i e s to complement conservation objectives are rare, so some form of compromise and change often becomes necessary i f they are to be coaxed into partnership.
As Appleyard so c l e a r l y described i t :
Conservation, l i k e so many planning concepts, is often a mirage, an i l l u s i o n that i t is possible to r e t r i e v e the past or conserve the present by contemporary action. In f a c t , everything we touch, even the conceptual act of designating a neighborhood f or conservation, changes our view of i t and subtly modernizes i t . 9 Since conservation and tourism have so much in common, both in terms of t h e i r strength and weaknesses, the challenge becomes one of determining what type of partnership would strengthen both parties.
What features of the conservation
movement could appeal to the tourism industry and induce i t into more formal partnerships?
What aspects of the t o u r i s t business must be considered by
conservationists to ensure any such partnerships r e s u l t in safeguarding a landscape? CONSERVATION CONSIDERATIONS A prime goal f o r conservationists is to r e t a i n the natural landscape or recapture past landscapes in as authentic a manner as possible.
This quest f o r
a u t h e n t i c i t y is a growing feature of the tourism market as both the industry and i t s customers become more sophisticated and demanding.
MacCannell has gone so
f a r as to equate tourism to a pilgrimage, where t o u r i s t s attempt to seek the knowlege and t r u th of authentic experience by penetrating into the backstage inner workings of a destination community. I0
The ideal s i t u a t i o n would occur
where t o u r i s t s could experience a functioning landscape.
In this way they could
see a community at work, appreciate i t s problems and c o n t r i b u t i o n s , and return home with a better understanding of the landscape and i t s
inhabitants.
Under
these circumstances tourism would be providing a secondary and supportive function f o r the d e s t i n a t i o n ' s landscape.
An example would be the assistance
390
rendered to h i l l
farmers through farm tourism, p a r t i c u l a r l y bed and breakfast,
which has often made marginal operations p r o f i t a b l e and encouraged farming communities to maintain t h e i r t r a d i t i o n a l landscapes. Just how f a r destination areas can accommodate this quest f o r a u t h e n t i c i t y depends on t h e i r carrying capacity.
In hardened environments l i k e c i t i e s , with
adequate i n f r a s t r u c t u r e and f a c i l i t i e s , with l i t t l e
disturbance.
m i l l i o n s of v i s i t o r s can be accommodated
I f there is a problem at these locations i t is usually
one of social carrying capacity, where local residents react to the congestion and stress of serving so many v i s i t o r s .
Where the environment is f r a g i l e and
the social thresholds low the physical and social q u a l i t i e s of a landscape require more protection.
Under these circumstances backstage penetration should
be discouraged and the quest f o r a u t h e n t i c i t y should be provided via staged events of i n t e r p r e t i v e centers.
Staged events and a t t r a c t i o n s , such as pageants
and museums, do not have to be psuedo or spurious.
They provide an opportunity
f o r the n a t u r a l i s t , anthropologist and h i s t o r i a n to i n s t r u c t the layman about a landscape's heritage and the need fo r conservation. e f f e c t i v e is imagination and f l a i r , e x h i b i t . 11
What they do require to be
as in the case of York's new Viking
The key to maintaining the a u t h e n t i c i t y of a landscape without exceeding i t s physical and social carrying capacities is management. Conservation management involves i n t e r v e n t i o n with the natural or market processes so that certain desired features within a landscape may be maintained. take several forms.
Such intervention can
The most common is zoning, the a l l o c a t i o n of a single or
dominant land use to a p a r t i c u l a r area that enables c o n f l i c t i n g uses to be s p a t i a l l y separated.
This has become the standard planning tool in North
America's national parks as they t r y to meet the twin mandate of providing nature conservation and outdoor recreation.
Intervention also involves people
management as uncontrolled t o u r i s t movements can become the greatest danger to the landscape and themselves.
Bear management in Yellowstone has been 12 described as 90 percent people management. Few v i s i t o r s seeking authentic landscape experiences consciously come to destroy what they have come to admire, but they do need constant reminding of t h e i r o b l i g a t i o n s and r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s in those s e t t i n g s - - whether they be wandering through a wilderness or around a cathedral. The ultimate management tool is to r e s t r i c t admission to certain parts of the landscape.
This drastic step needs to be considered when the pressures on a
resource are so great that continued heavy use or exposure may destroy i t s authenticity.
I t can be achieved through i s o l a t i o n and l i m i t e d access, as in
the case of the national parks in Alaska and northern Canada, but more government agencies are being forced to consider reservation systems and
391
d i s c r i m i n a t o r y fee s t r u c t u r e s .
The states of C a l i f o r n i a and Oregon, f o r
example, use a campsite reservation system to a l l o c a t e campsites in popular coastal campgrounds, and there is a premium to be paid f o r using those along the southern C a l i f o r n i a coast during the summer. The above discussion represents only a few of the issues facing the conservat i o n movement, but the three considerations t h a t have been stressed a r i s e r e g u l a r l y in a tourism-conservation dialogue. possible i t
I f a partnership is to be
is necessary to examine the t o u r i s t industry in more depth, to
ascertain whether i t s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s can be matched with the conservation concepts of a u t h e n t i c i t y , carrying capacity and management. TOURISM CONSIDERATIONS Tourism can be successful only i f
it
has a product t h a t people want and those
people are w i l l i n g to pay f o r t r a v e l i n g to and experiencing t h a t product. major considerations f o r tourism, t h e r e f o r e , are the product v i a b i l i t y market v i a b i l i t y
Two
and
of those landscapes i t wishes to o f f e r .
By d e f i n i t i o n there are very few unique a t t r a c t i o n s in the world, so one seldom finds a s i n g l e feature which w i l l unique a t t r a c t i o n in i t s e l f vacation.
l u r e t o u r i s t s to an area, plus the
would probably not be s u f f i c i e n t to j u s t i f y
a whole
What tourism seeks is a product mix, or general landscape appeal,
t h a t w i l l draw v i s i t o r s to an area.
In t h i s case the t o u r i s t i n d u s t r y and
planners attempt to d i s t i n g u i s h the regional character of t h e i r product, so t h a t it
stands out in a very competitive market where there are p l e n t y of s i m i l a r
offerings.
To develop a v i a b l e product often involves the development of a
theme and the coordination of many i n d i v i d u a l s and i n t e r e s t s . Themes are successful i f they stress local resources, both natural and 13 Consequentl~
c u l t u r a l , t h a t d i s t i n g u i s h d e s t i n a t i o n areas from others nearby.
t o u r i s m ' s business needs are in tune w i t h the need to conserve regional landscapes, because t h e i r d i s t i n c t i v e q u a l i t i e s b u i l t up over the centuries w i l l
be
a major a t t r a c t i o n .
The more obvious examples include Greece as the cradle of
western c i v i l i z a t i o n
and c u l t u r e , and London as the focus of a past empire.
i t also operates on a smaller scale.
But
My home town of V i c t o r i a , B r i t i s h Columbia
is considering a h i s t o r i c a l theme "from Colony to Confederation" to d i s t i n g u i s h i t from surrounding west coast d e s t i n a t i o n s . Tourism is not only concerned with making i t s product a v i a b l e competitor i t must also t a r g e t i t s marketing of t h a t product to p o t e n t i a l customers who would appreciate i t .
I t should not be assumed t h a t everyone is i n t e r e s t e d in land-
scape conservation and seeking the backstage nuances.
The mass market is s t i l l
hedonistic in i t s p u r s u i t s , focusing on a t t r i b u t e s l i k e the sun, beach and nightlife;
yet there are growing numbers of t o u r i s t s who are looking f o r more
substance or challenge in t h e i r vacations.
A case in point is the recent change
392
in emphasis of Club Med marketing: Some clubs have begun to arrange sightseeing excursions f o r those who want some local color other than a tan. And Club Med has changed i t s ad slogan from "The Antidote to C i v i l i z a t i o n " , with i t s h i n t of primeval abandon, to "The Perfect Climate f o r Body and Soul", a phrase t h a t ' s supposed to suggest a broader range of r e l a x a t i o n . ''14 Thus tourism is showing a greater i n t e r e s t in conserving the landscape and introducing i t to p a r t i c u l a r market segments.
There is a growing trend to theme
tours which appeal to s p e c i f i c i n t e r e s t groups that can appreciate the q u a l i t i e s of certain environments and are w i l l i n g to be directed and managed as long as they see the common good in such practices. Success in the competitive tourism business needs another essential ingredi e n t , commitment to excellence.
In a worldwide market where there are many
s i m i l a r destinations i t requires a commitment to a u t h e n t i c i t y and q u a l i t y f or a landscape to stand out in the crowd.
Likewise, when you have i d e n t i f i e d your
p a r t i c u l a r market segment i t requires f i r s t
class i n t e r p r e t i v e f a c i l i t i e s ,
and service to bring them back again and create goodwill ambassadors.
tours
Peters
and Waterman, the current gurus of the marketing world, stress the importance of customer service and s a t i s f a c t i o n to successful companies.
One of t h e i r major
examples is the Disney philosophy: Disney expects the new "cast member" to know something about the company, i t s h i s t o r y and success, i t s management s t y le before he a c t u a l l y goes to work . . . The systems support f o r people on stage is also dramatic. For example, there are hundreds of phones hidden in the bushes, hot lines to a central question-answering service. And the amount of e f f o r t put into the d a i l y clean-up amazes even the most calloused outside observers. In these and scores of other ways, o v e r k i l l marks every aspect of Disney's approach to i t s customers. 15
SYNERGISM Synergism occurs according to Webster's d i c t i o n a r y , when "the combined action of two or more agencies achieves an e f f e c t greater than that of which each is i n d i v i d u a l l y capable", and t h i s is the proposition of this paper and Figure i . I t is apparent that the conservation and tourism considerations have much in conwnon. They are both advocating authentic landscapes, maintained within t h e i r carrying capacity thresholds by targeting l i m i t e d and sympathetic markets, and developing a renewable resource industry through commitment to excellence and careful management. To i l l u s t r a t e the synergism p o t e n t i a l between tourism and conservation two very d i f f e r e n t examples w i l l be presented.
The Reedy Creek
Improvement D i s t r i c t represents the saving of central Florida wetlands while building the 27,000 acre area into a world famous r e s or t , known as Walt Disney World.
The inner harbor area of Baltimore represents the breathing of new l i f e
393 into a declining waterfront area, by replacing dying port f a c i l i t i e s
with a
growing service industry and in the process r e t a i n i n g much of the area's o r i g i n al f a b r i c .
~
TOURISM CONSIDERATIONS Product Viability Market Viability
SYNERGISM Walt Disney World and Reedy Creek
Authenticity Capacity
Baltimore's
Commitment
Fig. 1
CONSERVATION CONSIDERATIONS
Management
Inner Harbor
Synergism p o t e n t i a l between conservation and tourism
The Reedy Creek Improvement D i s t r i c t is the adminstrative vehicle Disney created to consolidate,
plan and develop his various land holdings in Orange
and Osceola counties of central Florida.
When Disney assembled the land i t was
a mixture of swamp and scrub pasture, but the o r i g i n a l wetlands were under pressure from central F l o r i d a ' s expansion, which was lowering the watertable and increasing water p o l l u t i o n .
Disney's e f f o r t s have managed to combine two
major t o u r i s t a t t r a c t i o n s , catering to 15 m i l l i o n v i s i t o r s a year with e c o l o g i c a l l y sensitive development and the preservation of a 7,500 acre wetland conservation area.
The conservation area is well removed from the major t o u r i s t
areas and is focused on a 5,000 acre swamp. The area has been described as: a dense and tangled forestland of v i r g i n cypresses, palms, pines, vines and orchids . . . every wild bird and animal species of inland c e n t ~ l Florida l i v e s here, with room to survive and reproduce. ±~ and at present access is l i m i t e d to serious ecological students, mainly at the university level. This remarkable synergism has come about through water management and people management, with a continuous commitment to excellence.
The key to Reedy
Creek's success has been the flood control and water q u a l i t y management of water entering from the north end of the d i s t r i c t .
Water levels are maintained at
normal seasonal levels by a series of 17 s e l f - r e g u l a t i n g dams and the q u a l i t y of water entering the 40 miles of i r r i g a t i o n canals in monitored constantly.
If
the water entering Reedy Creek Improvement D i s t r i c t is not up to standard the Disney people have the r i g h t to d i v e r t i t away from the area.
I f t h i s happens
or there is a serious drought water can be drawn from the numerous natural and artificial
lakes on the property.
394
Epcot Center, Fantasy Land and Disney V i l l a g e have a l l been b u i l t on islands within the flood plain area with public t r a n s i t and access routes keeping v i s i t o r s to these areas.
All three have been designed to have minimal impact
on the surrounding areas, as can be seen in the layout of Disney V i l l a g e .
I t is
compact, with an a t t r a c t i v e focus of lake and commercial businesses surrounded by condominium clusters and muted hotels.
Throughout the v i l l a g e a l l u t i l i t y
services are underground, there is abundant open space, plenty of shade trees and public t r a n s i t is encouraged.
To ensure the t o u r i s t operations do not p o l l u t e
the area a t e r t i a r y sewage treatment plant and waste i n c i n e r a t o r have been installed.
The waste water from the plant is used to water the ornamental trees
and g o l f courses, helping to maintain the local watertable while those elsewhere continue to f a l l . In Baltimore's Inner Harbor area vacant warehouses and unused wharves have been replaced by a trade and convention center, science museum, planetarium and national aquarium, converting this forgotten waterfront into a v ibr ant l e i s u r e tourism focus f o r the c i t y and surrounding regions.
Beioley 17 contends the area
" a t t r a c t s over i0 m i l l i o n v i s i t o r s a year . . . (and) not only generates income f o r the c i t y , but has helped to project a new image of Baltimore to the outside world".
This was achieved by creating a new functional purpose f or the e x i s t i n g
landscape.
Many of the old brick buildings have been retained and new ones
designed to blend in with them and the waterfront theme. Throughout the development there has been pursuit of excellence, s t a r t i n g with the h i r i n g of James Rouse, a master planner of downtown r e v i t a l i z a t i o n whose "philosophy revolves not so much around real estate as around meeting the needs and desires of people".
Consequently the Inner Harbor area has become a
people place, with street performers on the causeway, people paddling boats in the harbor around the three-masted f r i g a t e U.S.F. Constellation and the many p ri v a t e yachts that seek moorage in t h i s l e i s u r e complex.
I t s conservation has
also been people oriented with many good old buildings in the surrounding neighborhoods being restored to t h e i r former elegance through programs such as "urban homesteading". CONCLUSION Synergisms of the sort o u t l i n e d above are not easy to achieve but i t is evident that conservation and tourism can work together f o r t h e i r common good i f conditions are appropriate.
Among the conditions necessary are a careful
assessment of the landscape's market p o t e n t i a l then a commitment to a u t h e n t i c i t y and excellence in bringing the supportive function of tourism i n t o that landscape.
While these examples may not meet everyone's expectations of ideal
conservation they are examples of working partnerships at a time when government support and p r i v a t e benefactors cannot carry the conservation load alone.
395
REFERENCES 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
Environment Canada, Canada's Special Resource Lands, Lands Directorate of Environment Canada, Ottawa, 1979, 232 pp. R. Muir and E. Duffey, The Shell Countryside Book, Dent and Sons, London, 1984, p. 7, 318 pp. D. Ley, Inner City R e v i t a l i z a t i o n in Canada: A Vancouver Case Study, Canadian Geographer, 25 (1981), 124-148; D. Holdsworth, ( e d . ) , Revivinq Main Street, U n i v e r s i t y of Toronto Press, 1985, 246 pp. C.F. Bennett, Conservation and Management of Natural Resources in the United States, Wiley, New York, 1983, p. i , 436 pp. D. Lowenthal, Finding Valued Landscapes, Working Paper No. 4, I n s t i t u t e for Environmental Studies, U n i v e r s i t y of Toronto, 1978, p. 35, 71 pp. B. Hackett, Landscape Conservation, Packard Publishing, Chichester, 1980, p. 9, 111 pp. P.E. Murphy, Tourism: A Community Approach, Methuen, London, 1985, pp. 5-7, 200 pp. D.J. Stynes, Marketing Tourism, Leisure Today, A p r i l 1983, pp. 43-45. D. Appleyard, The Conservation of European C i t i e s , MIT Press, Cambridge, Mass., 1979, p. 10, 308 pp. B. MacCannell, The T o u r i s t : A New Theory of the Leisure Class, Macmillan, London, 1976, 214 pp. Times-Colonist, Viking History Comes A l i v e After 1,000 Years in Mud, A p r i l 14, 1984, p. C-12. Newsweek, Finding Parking Space for Bears, June 14, 1982, p. 18. P.E. Murphy, Tourism: A Community Approach, Methuen, London, 1985, pp. 134-51, 200 pp. Newsweek, Club Mom and Pop, October 14, 1985, p. 66. T.J. Peters and R.H. Waterman, J r . , In Search of Excellence, Warner, New York, 1982, p. 168, 360 pp. L.E. Zehnder, F l o r i d a ' s Disney World: Promises and Problems, Peninsular, Tallahassee, Florida, 1975, p. 200, 360 pp. S. Beioley, Tourism and Urban Regeneration: Some Lessons from American C i t i e s , English Tourist Board, London, 1981, p. 25, 28 pp. Time, He Digs Downtown: For Master Planner James Rouse, Urban Life is a F e s t i v a l , August 24, 1981, p. 36, 36-43.