Tourism development in the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park

Ocean & Shoreline Management 15 (1991) 57-78

Tourism Development in the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Richard Kenchington* Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority, PO Box 1379, Townsville, Queensland 4810, Australia (Received 10 May 1990; accepted 1 June 1990)

ABSTRACT The paper provides a management case study of tourism as a reasonable use of the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park. It summarises the multiple-use management concept applied in the Marine Park, and discusses the Great Barrier Reef as a tourist attraction. It describes the general provisions of zoning and management that affect tourism, and the specific approach of the permit system which provides for case-bycase management and control of tourist programs and developments. It outlines the interaction of Great Barrier Reef Marine Park controls with other Commonwealth and Queensland environmental legislation, and describes the development of site management and strategic plans to provide guidance to permit applicants and delegates regarding possible developments and activities within the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park.

INTRODUCTION The uneasy relationship b e t w e e n tourism and environmental conservation has been well summarised by B u d o w s k i who identified different relationships b e t w e e n tourism and nature conservation: conflict; coexistence; and symbiosis. ~ H e n o t e d that unplanned or poorly planned tourism in areas of conservation significance can often lead to conflict. In contrast he presented examples which d e m o n s t r a t e d that a symbiotic * Present address: Resource Assessment Commission, Locked Bag 1, Queen Victoria Terrace, Canberra, ACT 2600, Australia. 57 Ocean & Shoreline Management 0951-8312/91/$03-50 © 1991 Elsevier Science Publishers Ltd, England. Printed in Northern Ireland

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Richard Kenchington

relationship between tourism and conservation can lead to physical, cultural, ethical and economic benefits to a country. Salm discussed the possibilities and the benefits of the relationship between tourism and the conservation of marine environments. 2"3 The Great Barrier Reef is a World Heritage Site 4 and a feature of great national pride, significance and fascination for Australians. It illustrates the problems and issues which must be addressed in providing for sustainable tourism. For example, few people can visit the Great Barrier Reef in their own boats for purposes of recreation. The great majority go as tourists, on commercially organised day trips longer cruises; others stay at resorts on reef islands. The Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority (the Authority) must address the issues of providing for tourism in a sensitive environment if it is to achieve the objective of S 32 (7)(d) of the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Act (1975), 'reservation of areas of the Great Barrier Reef for its appreciation and enjoyment by the public'.

THE G R E A T B A R R I E R R E E F M A R I N E P A R K The Great Barrier Reef Region contains about 2900 reefs within a total area of some 350 000 square kilometres? The impetus for conservation and management of the Great Barrier Reef came in the late 1960s, driven by concerns over the likely impacts of petroleum exploration and production; mining for limestone and other minerals, and the need for environmental controls as a consequence of likely expansion of commercial fishing; development of a major tourist industry and impacts on the Reef stemming from terrestrial activities. 6 The Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Act, (1975) established a multiple use management approach providing specifically for conservation and 'reasonable use', or sustainable development of a large area of recognised conservational significance. In this it anticipated the World Conservation Strategy. 7 A unique feature was that the Act established legislative precedence over all Commonwealth and State legislation with the exception of some aspects of the regulation of shipping and transport which are subject to international agreements. Similar legislation (e.g. the Marine Parks Act, Canada) is subject to precedence of provisions under legislation for fisheries, mineral exploration or mineral extraction. A number of general accounts of the approach and extent of the GBRMP have been published. 4,5.s-1° The underlying purpose of conservation approaches, such as the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park, is to manage human demands and

Tourism in the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park

59

stresses upon the ecosystem so that they do not exceed levels which can be sustained without unacceptable changes. The scale and scope of the G B R M P have necessitated the development of a planning and management approach with few direct precedents. Great Barrier Reef Marine Park zoning plans use a combination of areal, temporal, permit, equipment and quota controls. The provisions of the zoning plan establish purposes for which zones may be used or entered: •

A use or purpose of entry may be specified as 'of right' - - a n y person may, without further permission or notification, undertake that use or purpose of entry subject to any condition specified in the plan; or

• • •

A use or purpose of entry may be specified as allowed only after prior notification of the Authority or its delegate; or A use or purpose of entry may be specified as allowed only with a permit; or A use or purpose of entry not specified as of right, after notification or by permit is not allowed except by a permit under the category of a use 'consistent with the objectives of the zone'.

Uses are also subject to regulations under other laws where compliance with those regulations is not inconsistent with the provisions of the zoning plan. A zoning plan specifies the purposes of use and entry into a number of zones. The zones range from General Use Zones in which all legal activities are allowed subject to m a n a g e m e n t to ensure sustainability, to highly protected Preservation Zones which may only be entered with a permit for the purposes of research which cannot be conducted in any other zone. The effect of a zoning plan upon users is indicated by the objectives expressed for each zone. These are listed in Table 1. The effect is more completely illustrated by Table 2 which summarises a range of activities under categories, 'as of right' and 'by permit' or 'not allowed' as they apply in the range of zones and periodically restricted areas of the Central Section Zoning Plan. The provisions of the Act make the zoning plan an inflexible instrument which cannot be readily altered. This is deliberate for the purpose of ensuring that the m a n a g e m e n t strategies approved by the legislature are not altered by executive government or its officials without consideration by the legislature. It also protects officials from possible political pressure to make changes. Nevertheless the inflexibility limits freedom of action in daily management.

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Richard Kenchington

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Creat BarrierReef MarineParkAuthority Map of the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park, showing the boundaries of Marine Park Sections and the location of major coastal cities.

Tourism in the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park

61

TABLE 1

Objectives of Zones of the Central Section, Great Barrier Reef Marine Park General Use 'A' Zone

To provide opportunities for reasonable general use consistent with the conservation of the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park. General Use 'B' Zone

To provide for the conservation of the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park while providing opportunities for reasonable general use in areas that are free from trawling and generally free from shipping. Marine National Park 'A' Zone

To provide for the protection of the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park while allowing opportunities for their appreciation and enjoyment by the public, including limited removal of natural resources. Marine National Park 'B' Zone

To provide for the protection of areas of the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park while allowing opportunities for their appreciation and enjoyment by the public free from activities that remove natural resources. Scientific Research Zone

To provide for the protection of the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park while allowing opportunities for authorised research to be carried out free from disturbance from other human activities. Preservation Zone

To provide for the preservation of areas of the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park in their natural state undisturbed by human activities.

I m m e d i a t e m a n a g e m e n t response is provided by the permit system which enables case-by-case consideration and control of new, m a j o r or sensitive activities. T h e d e m a n d s upon this system are unpredictable and usually urgent. Longer term m a n a g e m e n t response to changes in use, in c o m m u n i t y attitudes and particularly to increased understanding of the ecosystem is provided by a policy of reviewing zoning plans once they have been in effect for five years. T h e r e is, however, nothing to prevent the Authority deciding to review a zoning plan earlier.

T H E G R E A T B A R R I E R R E E F AS A T O U R I S T A T T R A C T I O N The earliest recreational or tourist uses of the G r e a t Barrier R e e f were fishing and collecting. Sepia-toned photographs record massive recrea-

Richard Kenchington

62

TABLE 2 Activities Guide for the Central Section of the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park a

~

CentralSection

Boating. diving Recreational collecting (shells, coral, aquarium fish) Commercial collecting (shells, coral, aquarium fish) Line fishing Gill netting Bait netting Trolling (for pelagic species) Spearfishing (n,b. not with underwater breathing apparatus) -Pole & line tuna fishing Trawling Traditional fishing Cruise ships General shippingc (+500 tonne) Scientific research

~

~

~

~

Yes Yes

Yes Yes

Yes No

Yes No

No No

Yes No

Yes No

Permit No

Permit

Permit

No

No

No

No

No

No

Yes Yes Yes Yes

Yes Yes Yes Yes

Yes No Yes Yes

No No No No

No No No No

No No No NO

No No No No

Yes

Yes

No

No

No

Permit

Permit

No

No

No

Yes Yes Yes Yes

No Yes Permit No

No Permit Permit No

No Permit Permit No

Permit

Permit

Permit

Permit

~ No •, ~ No "~ ~ No ~- Yes

~.s

.~ ~

NO

No

No

~,~

No

No

No

No No No No

No No Yes Yes

No No Permit No

No No No No

Permit

Permit

Permit

Permit

" Yes: as of right; No: not allowed; Permit: may be allowed with permit.

b See Table 1 for details. c General shipping will be allowed in zones other than General Use 'A' within designated shipping areas.

tional catches from fishing camps which were the forerunners of resorts at places such as Green Island and Heron Island. Large shell collections were accumulated over years of holiday visits to the Reef. Until about the middle of the 20th Century the Great Barrier Reef could only be inspected closely by reef walking at low tide or by looking down from above through a glass bottomed box. The availability of face masks, followed by snorkels, fins and, later, scuba equipment, made it possible to observe the animals and plants of the Great Barrier Reef functioning in their natural environment. The diversity of colour and form of plants and animals make coral reefs places of rare beauty for many. Coral reefs, clear waters and white coral sands and, in many places, backdrops of islands or

Tourism in the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park

63

coastlines with tropical forests, provide romantic settings which are clearly different from the pressures of urban living in temperate areas. Even where they occupy a small part of the activities of a vacation the availability of coral reefs can be the key to selection of a destination for a tropical holiday. This principle and the fact that the Great Barrier Reef is the largest coral reef system in the world have underlain much of Australia's and Queensland's tourist promotion for many years. Despite the fascination of reefs the Great Barrier Reef is a difficult tourist destination. For most of its length the major and most spectacular reefs and clearest waters lie well offshore. With a displacement hull capable of 7-10 knots the Reef is 2-5 hours offshore across an exposed channel frequently subject to winds of 25 knots or more. Before the development of high speed passenger vessels, few reefs were accessible for day trips. Despite the obvious potential for increased reef tourism, access was a major problem, so a number of operators experimented with highspeed displacement hull vessels, hydrofoils and hovercraft. The introduction, in 1982, of highspeed diesel-powered catamarans capable of carrying 150 people at over 25 knots made many reefs potentially accessible to day trip tourism. As a consequence, between 1977 and 1987 figures for tourist operations showed dramatic increases. The number of operators increased more than tenfold to 180, the number of passengers, more than 35 fold to 450000 with a quadrupling of the number of sites used regularly. The alternative to the day trip is to put the tourist into the reef environment for a longer period. This can be done by island resorts, cruises or moored vessels. Again the problems of the geography of the Great Barrier Reef arise. Compared with other coral reef environments the Great Barrier Reef is remarkably short of islands on significant coral reefs. Inshore there are continental or rocky islands such as the Cumberland, Northumberland and Whitsunday Groups. These occur in an area subject to large, 5 or 6 m , tidal movements and, often, to high turbidity. Some have substantial fringing reefs on their coasts but the most accessible ones are generally subject to high turbidity when the wind exceeds 15 knots. The most diverse fringing reefs tend to occur on the exposed coasts of outer islands which makes them rarely or irregularly accessible. Offshore, there are some 80 vegetated coral cays----islands of accumulated coral sand and rubble on the top of coral reefs. There are several in the Capricorn/Bunker Group at the south of the Great Barrier Reef but most are north of Port Douglas where there is no substantial coastal

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Richard Kenchington

road, with the consequence that they are largely inaccessible. All are important nesting areas for seabirds, and in many cases, turtles. Lady Elliott, Heron and Green Islands carry tourist resorts, Lady Musgrave, North West Islands are used for camping and Low Isles for tourist day trips.

THE TOURIST EXPERIENCE Fishing and collecting, which used to be the prime motivation for Reef visits have been joined and displaced by activities in which visitors come to see, appreciate the beauty, and learn something of the nature of corals and associated communities. For many this occurs in a basic day visit where a trip in a coral viewing vessel and presentation of educational videos are the basic 'product', with additional activities such as snorkelling extending the range of activities. An enriched activity offered by some operators is a guided snorkelling trip where a leader with marine biological training and educational expertise provides a more information-based experience for those who wish to learn more. Diving is a specialised but significant component. Warm clear waters are ideal for scuba diving and coral reefs provide a rich and fascinating environment to explore. A large part of the market concerns introductory resort divers for whom the main activity is learning to dive. A typical diving course will provide one or two dives at a reef site but the business of teaching and learning the techniques of diving tends to dominate and to displace any detailed look at the reef. The advanced diving market is increasing and with it demand for attractive sites and for activities and information relating to reef ecology. Island resort attractions combine the generic sun, sea and sand holiday components with the apparent exclusivity of an island. The resorts offer access to the reef for diving and fishing. Most have library and video materials on the Great Barrier Reef. Some resorts emphasise reef activities. Others can offer these activities, subject to the vagaries of the weather but they typically occupy a small proportion of a visitor's time. The Authority with its day-to-day managing agency, the Queensland National Parks and Wildlife Service (QNPWS), runs courses to train tourist industry staff about the Marine Park and the nature of the Great Barrier Reef and in activities which may increase opportunities for guests to appreciate and enjoy their reef experience.

Tourism in the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park

65

TYPES OF IMPACT ON REEFS A N D R E L A T E D SYSTEMS According to Kenchington and Agardy, H there are three forms of environmental impact or threat which may be addressed by conservation planning and management. The first impact is upon structure, resulting from deliberate gross modification or destruction of ecosystems in order to change the nature or use of the areas in which they occur. Structural damage to marine ecosystems occurs particularly in the shallow coastal fringes, where it takes the form of dredging, port development, coastal stabilisation, causeway construction, mariculture pond development and land creation through alienation or 'reclamation'. The subject has been recently reviewed for tropical systems by Hatcher et al. ~2 It can also arise as a consequence of trawling under some circumstances. ~3 As a coast becomes heavily developed the increasing extent of alienation of particular community types may become a matter of structural conservation significance. An example is the destruction of mangrove on tropical coasts. ~4 Structural impacts associated with tourist activity in the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park include smothering and alienation, by the addition of landfill for reclamation, and dredging and removal to improve vessel access or safety. The second class of impact is process damage or distortion. This involves indirect, incidental and generally unintended effects on ecosystems through alteration of physical, chemical or biological factors. In the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park physical concerns generally relate to changes in current patterns, levels of silt or flow of fresh water into the marine environment which distort the conditions which sustain the plant and animal communities. Chemical concerns relate to pollution where introduced chemicals distort or alter biological processes. Biological concerns relate to selective removal or favouring of key or sensitive components of the ecosystem which distort the competitive or selective processes that gave rise to diverse or distinctive biological communities. In general the consequences of inadequate process conservation are not immediately obvious and tend to take the form of a gradual decline in environmental diversity and quality, particularly in areas most accessible to people. The third class of impact concerns the maintenance of amenity value or the options for human use of natural areas and resources. Management to maintain amenity involves considering present and future use and potential use of natural environments and resources, including uses and purposes not yet known. In the short term it may be a matter of

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Richard Kenchington

making arrangements to avoid over-use or resolve conflicts between user groups. It involves seeking economic and environmental strategies based upon conscious choices regarding the nature, the impact and interaction of forms of use on each other and on the structures and processes which sustain a productive, diverse natural environment. The nature of amenity value covers a broad range of human interactions with the marine environment. The most common, at one extreme, is the utilitarian approach of value in terms of materials collected or harvested for food or as materials for construction or ornament. At the other extreme are cultural, spiritual or philosophical views of the value of wilderness, undisturbed by humans. The types of impact may be interrelated. Clearly a structural impact which removes, or a process impact which degrades a coral reef will affect the amenity value of that reef as a site for reef viewing. In the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park amenity issues relate to achieving a reasonable balance between types of use, such as fishing or fish watching, and types of users, such as local recreational users and visitors or tourists. The impacts of tourism may be divided into tourist activity impacts, which arise directly from the activity carried out by the tourist, and tourist facility impacts which arise from installation or operation of plant, equipment or transportation which enable that activity to occur conveniently and safely.

Tourist activity impacts These include intentional impacts, arising from fishing or collecting, where the object of the recreational or tourist activity is the removal of animals or their skeletal remains. They also include unintentional impacts, such as reef or seabed impacts from boating, reef walking, snorkelling or diving, which arise in the course of activities designed to see and appreciate the environment without necessarily removing or harming the plants and animals.

Tourist facility impacts These include the one-off, designed or anticipated impacts arising in the course of construction or installation of structures, such as jetties, moorings, marinas, observatories, resorts, and supporting facilities such as sewerage, power or water supply. Once the structure is complete there should be no more construction or installation impacts. They also include the operational impacts and consequential accidental impacts

Tourism in the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park

67

which arise in the course of use of such facilities and structures. Decisions on the acceptability of tourist facility impacts involve assessing the benefits of the project in terms of making the Reef available to those who would visit it for recreation, education or contemplation and comparing those benefits with the costs in terms of adverse impacts on the structure, process and amenity of the area affected.

IMPACT MANAGEMENT Impacts may be avoided or reduced by m a n a g e m e n t measures introduced to prevent, minimise and control impacts. Where an adverse impact and its causes are clear, m a n a g e m e n t actions to remove or alleviate those impacts are generally accepted. Few instances are that clear-cut. Typically the impacts arising from an activity are trivial at low levels but as they increase they may reach levels which require limitation, prohibition or m a n a g e m e n t controls upon the level or form of activity. Such controls may involve directing activities to areas that can sustain them t5 or providing hardening or facilities to prevent damage, such as moorings. 16

G R E A T B A R R I E R R E E F M A R I N E P A R K C O N T R O L S OF TOURISM Tourist programs and the construction, installation and operation of facilities for tourism in the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park all require permits. The permit provisions most relevant to the tourist industry are listed in Table 3. Tourist facility permit requests are addressed by consideration of the likely impact: • •

•

upon the structure of the reef area affected --will it destroy corals or other ecological components? upon the processes which sustain the reef --will it alter current flows or nutrient levels or introduce toxic materials? upon the amenity of the area affected --will it affect the nature and quality of other existing and potential uses?

Zoning plans and Regulations under the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Act set out the information required for, and the issues to be

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Richard Kenchington TABLE 3

Activities Connected with Establishment and Operation of Tourist Facilities and Programs Z o n e a.b

Activity

Operation of tourist program Operation of vessel in one vicinity Construction and conduct of a mooring facility Navigation and operation of vessels: <1500 tonnes for tourism hovercraft <1500 tonnes Operation of a landing area Operation of aircraft <500 feet (at landing area) other <500 feet Installation/Operation of a structure Works, reclamations, etc.

GUA

GUB

MNPA

MNPB

SCI/PR

Permit Permit Permit Permit

Permit Permit Permit Permit

No No

Permit

Permit

Permit

Permit

No

Permit Permit Permit Permit Yes Yes Permit Permit

Permit Permit Yes Permit

Permit Permit Yes Permit

No No No No

Yes Yes Permit Permit Permit Permit

Yes Yes Permit Permit Permit Permit

No Permit No

Permit Permit

Permit Permit

Permit

° Zones GUA: General Use 'A'; GUB: General Use 'B'; MNPA: Marine National Park 'A'; MNPB: Marine National Park 'B'; SCI/PR: Scientific Research or Preservation. Effect of zoning provisions: Yes: Allowed as of right; Permit: Permit required, may be issued subject to consistency with Marine Park and Zone Objectives; No: Not allowed, no permit may be issued. considered in, making decisions regarding permit applications. The A u t h o r i t y may require an applicant to advertise so that the public may have an opportunity to c o m m e n t . If the A u t h o r i t y considers that an application concerns an activity that could have significant environmental impact the m a t t e r is referred for consideration u n d e r the Environment Protection (Impact of Proposals) Act (1974). Decisions of the A u t h o r i t y and its delegates are subject to appeal. In the first instance a permit applicant or a n o t h e r person affected by the decision may, within 21 days of publication of a decision in the C o m m o n w e a l t h Gazette, request the A u t h o r i t y to review its decision. Thereafter the decision may be referred to the Administrative Appeals Tribunal. The decision-making process is structured to ensure that the requirements of the Act and Regulations are t a k e n into account and documented. The permit procedures involve a series of steps which must be

Tourism in the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park

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undertaken systematically to ensure that issues are properly considered and that decisions are made consistently and fairly. The combined procedures under Commonwealth (Federal) legislation, the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Act and the Environment Protection (Impact of Proposals) Act provide for judgement to be applied in order to achieve an appropriate response ranging from rapid permitting of a simple uncontroversial facility, such as a mooring, to full consideration of a major proposal, such as a floating hotel. ~7 Some simple requests, such as one for a permit for aircraft operations or tourist cruise ship reef visits can be handled in a few days but permits for major operations may take weeks or months. A permit request which involves invocation of the Environment Protection (Impact of Proposals) Act, or public advertising in accordance with Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Regulations will almost certainly take some months from initial application to decision. Problems have arisen in some instances because developers have not applied for permission until the last moment before they hope to start site work in the Marine Park. This can totally disrupt their schedules and costs. It also makes the consideration of alternative design and construction techniques to minimise impacts extremely expensive, since they involve variations to existing contracts rather than being part of the overall costings. The Authority is undertaking an information program in an attempt to ensure that those who may become involved in tourist activities requiring permits understand the process and allow adequate time for proper consideration. The Authority has always taken the view that sustainable tourism is a reasonable use of the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park and has therefore encouraged developers and their consultants to discuss their concepts before they commit themselves to options which are likely to be rejected or greatly modified as a result of permit and environmental impact assessment. Queensland (State) legislation may also apply to many tourist developments in the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park. This may arise directly through application of State powers under the terms of the Commonwealth's Sea Installations Act, or because a facility lies within the three mile territorial sea and thus within State jurisdiction, in which case the Queensland Off-Shore Facilities Act (1986) may apply. State policy and legislative issues may also arise because an economic activity in the Great Barrier Reef Region is functionally part of the Queensland regional economy and the immediate social and economic costs and benefits may be significant local factors. Overall, environmental issues are key factors in consideration of the development and tourist operations. Environmental consideration

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Richard Kenchington

may be required under a wide range of legislation from local government to the Foreign Investment Review Board. Part of the co-operative arrangement between the Commonwealth and the State, overseen by the Great Barrier Reef Ministerial Council, provides for collaboration in seeking and assessing relevant information. Claridge provided a checklist for the consideration of reef-related development proposals. ~8 Unfortunately the handbook in which it appears is difficult to obtain so a slightly amended version is provided in the Appendix. Claridge's list is an expansion of the requirements for the content of an environmental impact statement set out in Section 4.1 of the Environment Protection (Impact of Proposals) Administrative Procedures. ~9 Most proposals for the Great Barrier Reef are relatively minor and consequently many of the categories may be irrelevant, nevertheless the list provides a good starting point for identifying issues and information which may have a bearing on individual decisions.

MONITORING AND O T H E R PERMIT CONDITIONS Permits for development, installation or operation of facilities are now usually subject to the requirement that the developer pay for the conduct of a monitoring program to assess the impacts of the activity on the environment. The arrangements typically include the conduct of a baseline study, monitoring of facility impacts and activity or operational impacts. Arrangements have been described by Gillies and Craik. 2° The studies are designed by the Authority in consultation with the technical specialists and representatives of the developer. The developer funds the studies by paying the Authority which arranges contracts and supervises progress and standards. The data resulting from such studies are the property of the Authority. In the case of facility or construction activities, the monitoring is designed to provide an immediate feedback function so that, if the construction technique causes unpredicted and excessive levels of suspended sediment, operations can be halted and another safer technique used. Operational monitoring enables changes to be assessed with the objectivity possible from a statistically designed approach. This enables operator, manager and the observing public to understand the extent to which an activity causes detectable impacts, to make decisions on the apparent significance of the impacts and any consequential management response which is needed. Over the years as human impacts, and the ability of the natural system to absorb them, become better understood

Tourism in the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park

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it can be expected that management techniques and the nature of monitoring programs will change. In the meantime caution and enquiry are the most appropriate approaches to the application of new technologies and new intensities of use in a complex and little understood environment.

OTHER TECHNIQUES R e e f use plans

The Zoning Plan and Regulations under the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Act, 1975 and the requirements of the Environment Protection (Impact of Proposals) Act, 1974 provide for case-by-case consideration of individual proposals. Recent experience has revealed the need for further guidance at two levels: site specific and broader, long-term strategic consideration from the perspectives of environment management and the long-term goals for tourism. Zoning Plans provide an immediate strategic framework for managing activities within the Marine Park. They specify the purposes of use or entry for each zone but not the level or the amenity setting. Thus Marine National Park 'B' Zone provides for a wide range of activities other than fishing and collecting. However, without being inconsistent with the zoning plan, at a specific reef the level could range from a few small boat parties to large day trip operations and the amenity setting could range from 'wilderness' boating and diving to serviced natural history tourism with pontoons and coral viewing vessels. Without more specific guidance in the form of reef use or site management plans there is a risk that all reasonably accessible reefs will gradually approach over-use or that some forms of reasonable activity will be squeezed out. Reef use plans cannot be inconsistent with the Zoning Plan. They are developed by the Authority in consultation with the Queensland National Parks and Wildlife Service through a process which also involves consultation with known users and other parties which may have particular interest in the reef in question. Once adopted by the Authority, reef use plans provide guidance for permit applicants and delegates. They may be reviewed by the Authority at any time. An example is Lady Musgrave Island Reef at the south of the Great Barrier Reef. The island is used for camping and day trip visits. One major day trip operator is established there, offering an unpressured visit to reef and island. The lagoon is a major anchorage for cruising yachts and fishing vessels. The island is a National Park and an

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Richard Kenchington

important bird nesting area. Existing levels of use are considered to be sustainable yet experienced yachtsmen claim that the experience has already been degraded by increased numbers of visitors. The reef and lagoon could, physically, cope with greater numbers of vessels and visitors. The island could not sustain greater visitor levels without encroaching on the bird-nesting areas and changing the nature of the island experience. Additional operators would like to take day visitors to the reef and lagoon even if they might not get on to the island. Provided it were possible to prevent visitors from a second major day trip from going to the island there are no immediate resource-based reasons for refusing a permit, although it is clear that to permit a second operation would further change the nature of the experience and create management pressures. A Management Plan has been developed for Lady Musgrave which defines the opportunities, conditions and the setting for use of the reef, lagoon and island within the provisions of the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Act, the Queensland National Parks and Wildlife Act and the Queensland Marine Parks Act. It makes clear to permit applicants and to permit delegates what will or will not be considered appropriate and should thereby save time, effort and conflict which might otherwise be involved in design, decision and appeal over inappropriate proposals.

Tourism strategy The course of tourist industry development in the Cairns area since 1982 has made it clear that major changes in use and demand can occur in short periods of time as a consequence of the application of new technologies. The introduction of the high speed catamarans, pontoons and coral viewing vessels enabled large numbers of day visitors to see the reef and placed a major new demand on sheltered anchorages with reasonable coral for viewing within 50 nautical miles of Cairns or Port Douglas. It generated opportunities and employment and provided a distinctive attraction as a basis for the development of the transport and accommodation sectors of the Cairns tourist industry. G B R M P A permit data returns indicate that day visitor use out of Cairns and Port Douglas rose at approximately 30% per annum between 1985 and 1988. In the same period the number of tourist program permits has increased from 52 to 185 and the number of site-specific permits from 23 to 86. 2~ The rapid development of reef tourism gave rise to concern in the community and the industry. For the community there was concern at encroachment upon the amenity of

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existing recreational and small charter boat usage which gave rise to fears that all possible sites would be developed. Sites perceived to be most suitable in terms of access, anchorage and attraction were quickly taken up and by 1988 it could be foreseen that at some time all suitable sites would be allocated. For the industry there were two avenues of concern. Existing operators were concerned from the perspective of disaster planning. Some saw that if all sites were allocated there would be little scope for recovery after a natural disaster such as coral destruction by a major cyclone. One operator had already changed sites because of coral damage by crown of thorns starfish. Industry strategists were alarmed at the concept that scarcity of sites might dampen the potential for tourism growth. In 1988 the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority held a workshop to consider innovative approaches to planning and management of the Marine Park to 1998 and beyond. At that workshop there was general agreement that a strategic overlay to Zoning Plans was required to provide for long-term management of development which involves long-term or permanent site tenure tourism. In reviewing the Cairns Section Zoning Plan the Authority is developing an approach to strategic management. An initial approach, considering three intensities of tourism developmentw'wilderness', medium and high--was rejected after public discussion since the boundary conditions were essentially arbitrary and the limiting factors are often not directly related to the number of passengers or clients. A second approach, tested in formal public participation concerning a draft revised zoning plan, consists of defining some areas as off-limits for tourist development. Reefs available for tourist development will, as soon as practicable, be the subject of specific management plans to provide additional guidance on the nature of the amenity and recreational or activity setting intended for the sites. This combination should protect the amenity of those users whose activities may be adversely affected by tourism, while defining the resource potentially available to the tourist industry and enabling the industry to develop realistic long-term plans on the basis of capacity for reef activities with existing or new technology. In terms of general and imprecisely expressed unease about tourist development on the Great Barrier Reef the adoption of such a strategy should make it clear that the accessible Great Barrier Reef will not be subject to capacity development of all reefs and that it will not be used as a source of cheap real estate for tourist operations unconnected with reef activities. The combination of strategy and site planning should define a framework in which tourism can continue to operate as a reasonable use of the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park.

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CONCLUSION Tourism is a key factor in sustainable management of the Great Barrier Reef. As a reasonable use based on appreciation and enjoyment of the Great Barrier Reef by the public, tourism can help fulfil one of the prime purposes of the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park a-d generate economic and social benefits for Queensland, Australia and the global community. The key lies in a collaborative approach between reef managers and tourism managers. This should ensure that the Reef is used sustainably for purposes which are made possible because of the existence of the largest coral reef system in the world. If tourist development on the reef seeks to move in the direction of synthetic activities which use the shallow continental shelf as real estate unconnected with Marine Park activities it is likely to come into conflict with conservation. The Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority is currently at a critical stage in the development of strategies for reef tourism. The basis for sustainable management of Great Barrier Reef tourism is in place. With continuing refinement of tourism strategy and site management in response to increased understanding through experience and research the benefits of tourism should continue to outweigh the costs. If this is so, then the result will be, in Budowski's terms, symbiosis, rather than mere coexistence or, worse, conflict.

REFERENCES 1. Budowski, G., Tourism and environmental conservation: Conflict, coexistence or symbiosis. Environmental Conservation, 3(1) (1976) 27-31. 2. Salm, R. V., Integrating marine conservation and tourism. Intern. J. Environ. Studies, 25 (1985) 229-38. 3. Salm, R., Coral reefs and tourist carrying capacity: the Indian Ocean experience. UNEP Industry and Environment, 9(1) (1986) 11-14. 4. Kelleher, G. G. & Kenchington, R. A., Australia's Great Barrier Reef Marine Park: Making development compatible with conservation. Ambio, 11(5) (1982) 262-9. (Reprinted 1984 in National Parks, Conservation and Development: The Role of Protected Areas in Sustaining Society, ed. J. A. McNeely & K. R. Miller, Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington DC.) 5. Kelleher, G., Managing the Great Barrier Reef. Oceanus, 29(2) (1986) 13-19. 6. Wright, J., The Coral Battleground. Thomas Nelson (Australia), Melbourne, 1977, 203pp. 7. IUCN, The World Conservation Strategy. Gland, Switzerland, 1981.

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8. Kenchington, R. A., Marine park management principles. In Proc. Workshop on the Far Northern Sector of the Great Barrier Reef, Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority, Townsville, Australia, pp. 422-31. 9. Kenchington, R. A., Managing Marine Environments. Taylor and Francis, New York and London, 1990, pp. 109-72. 10. KeUeher, G., The Great Barrier Reef Marine Park. In Marine Parks and Conservation: Challenge and Promise, (2). The National and Provincial Parks Association of Canada, 1985, pp. 17-28. 11. Kenchington, R. A. & Agardy, M. T., Achieving marine conservation through Biosphere Reserve planning and management. Environmental Conservation 17 (1) (1990) 39-44. 12. Hatcher, B. G., Johannes, R. E. & Robertson, A. I., Review of research relevant to the conservation of shallow tropical marine ecosystems. Mar. Biol. Ann. Rev., 27 (1989) 337-414. 13. Sainsbury, K. & Poiner, I. R., A preliminary review of the effects of trawling in the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park. Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority. Technical Memorandum No. 24, 1990, 49pp. 14. Hamilton, L. S. & Snedaker, S. C. (eds), Handbook for Mangrove Area Management. Public IUCN, Gland Switzerland, ix + 123pp. 15. Kay, A. M. & Liddle, M. J., Manual for the assessment, location, and design of reefwalking activities. Unpublished Technical Report to GBRMPA, 32pp. 16. Halas, J. C., A unique mooring system for reef management in the Key Largo National Marine Sanctuary. Proc. Fifth Internat'l Coral Reef Symp., 4 (1985) 237-42. 17. Woodley, S. J., Environmental impact management in the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park. In Proc. Coastal Management Seminar--Integrating Developing and Conservation. Gritiith University, Brisbane, 1989, 9pp. 18. Claridge, G., Assessing development proposals. In UNESCO Coral Reef Management Handbook. 2nd Edition, ed. R. A. Kenchington & E. T. Hudson Brydget. Unesco Jakarta, Indonesia, 1987, pp. 131-8. 19. Administrative Procedures under the Environment Protection (Impact of Proposals) Act (1974). Australian Govt. Publishing Service, Canberra, 12785/87. (1987) 20pp. 20. Gillies, J. & Craik, W., Environmental Monitoring Programs for developments in the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park. In Environmental Practice--Sustainable Development, Proc. 2nd National Conference, Environment Institute of Australia. 21. GBRMPA, Cairns Zoning Plan Review: Issues. Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority, Townsville, Australia, 24pp.

APPENDIX Checklist for consideration of reef development projects (after Claridge, 1987) 1. Summary • Title of project

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• • • • •

Name of p r o p o n e n t Project objectives and b a c k g r o u n d Environmental impacts Possible safeguards, alternatives and monitoring procedures Explanation of contents of E n v i r o n m e n t Impact S t a t e m e n t

2. Introduction • Scope of study • History and objectives of proposal • Justification for the proposal • Prudent and feasible alternatives • Status, consents r e q u i r e d / r e c e i v e d • Status, studies r e q u i r e d / u n d e r t a k e n 3. Detailed description of proposal • Maps, diagrams, photographs as appropriate • Location and p r o p o s e d tenure • Duration of site or activity d e v e l o p m e n t • E x p e c t e d life of project • Experience and credentials of o p e r a t o r • On-shore support facilities • Vessel or structure design • Mooring of structural foundations • Marina or smallcraft moorings • Recreation opportunities for staff or clients • Servicing arrangements • Maintenance practices, hygiene and anti-fouling • Effluents and emissions • Plans for expansion or further facilities • Plans for removal and making good at end of useful life 4. E c o n o m i c issues • Market d e m a n d s • Service requirements from regional e c o n o m y • E m p l o y m e n t opportunities 5. Description of the environment • Physical structure • Climate • Currents and tides • Biological communities • Local, regional or globally significant elements 6. Current activities or impacts at site • Existing commercial and recreational use • Current d e m a n d s and likely future d e m a n d s for use and access

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7. Regulations governing the d e v e l o p m e n t • Tenure • Zoning • Applicable design, operation and emission standards • Consultation with local, regional or national g o v e r n m e n t • Applicable international conventions 8. Environmental impacts during establishment or construction • Disturbance of seabed and sediments • Disturbance of marine and other life • Noise and vibration levels • Effect of a c c o m m o d a t i o n for construction crews • V o l u m e of construction traffic, vessels, aircraft • Monitoring plan 9. Environmental impacts during operation • P r o p o s e d activities • Chemical impacts on water quality • Impacts on turbidity • Impacts on water t e m p e r a t u r e • Changes to water m o v e m e n t s • A r r a n g e m e n t s for disposal of wastes • Content and m e t h o d of disposal of effluents • Anti-fouling measures • Provision for technical and human error accidents • Provision for extreme weather events • Primary biological impacts of activity • Incidental biological impacts, e.g. of noise, vibration, emissions and shading • Operational impacts on amenity of other users • Impacts on adjacent areas • Shore-based social and economic impacts • D e m a n d for shore-based amenities, e.g. sewage or waste disposal • Energy use and conservation • Impacts of alternatives 10. Operational safeguards of the d e v e l o p m e n t • Construction and design criteria for on-site facilities • Control of accidental spills or leakage of harmful substances • Control of recreational activities • Operational procedures for heavy weather • Contingency plans for safety of staff or clients • Evacuation plan and decision criteria for evacuation • Monitoring plan

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11. Consultation and Information sources • Details of consultation and c o m m e n t from local c o m m u n i t y and other users of the area • Description of relevant studies c o m p l e t e d or under way • Source of information • Consultation with g o v e r n m e n t agencies