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Tourism development within planning paradigms: the case of Turkey
Tourivm Management. Vol. 17, No. 5, pp. 367--377, 1996
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Copyright © 1996 Elsevier Science Lid Printcd in Great Britain. All rights reserved 0261-5177/96 $15.0tl ~ (}.0(}
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Tourism development within planning paradigms: the case of Turkey Habib Alipour Eastern Mediwrranean University, School of Tourism and Hospitality Management, North ('yprus, Gazi Magusa (via Mersin 10, Turkey)
The focus of this study is to examine the Turkish government's policy and planning process that was directly or indirectly involved in tourism development with the major aim of identifying the variables that are at work within the tourism organizations and administrative system. A case study of planning and implementation processes suggests that Turkey's tourism development was subject to various deliberate influences and spontaneous dynamics without a proactive national tourism policy. Furthermore, the planning process has remained limited to physical planning to the detriment of social, environmental and integrated planning. The tourism industry is confined to a few enclave developments as directed by market forces rather than as a derivative of formal planning decisions. This study also acknowledges that a 'planning' paradigm for tourism has been established, but not necessarily adopted/applied in every tourism development project (particularly in Turkey). Copyright © 1996 Elsevier Science Ltd Kcywords: tourism phmning, policy analysis, development, implementation
methods were employed. First, library research was conducted, which consisted mainly of content analysis of reports and available materials of any related literature on tourism development, including the policy and planning process, project development, the administrative organization of tourism and the policy analysis approach to project development (ie formulation of policies, objectives, implementation, evaluation, monitoring and feedback). Close attention was given to issues of centralized decision making versus the decentralized approach. The second major method was a field study undertaken at two locations, Ankara (the capital city) and the resort of Bodrum. The studies in Ankara were concentrated on the Ministry of Culture and Tourism (MCT) (recently renamed "Ministry of Tourism'), the state planning organization (SPO), the tourism bank (recently renamed 'Bank of Development'), the Turkish Travel Agents Association (TURSAB), and the State Institute of Statistics. This study consisted of extensive interviews with the planners, architects, managers, coordinators and administrators of each applicable agency within those organizations. Also interviewed were former
The aim of this study is to investigate and analyse the development of tourism in Turkey by examining how far (if at all) planning and policy development have taken account of the major tourism planning 'paradigms', such as those elaborated by Clare Gunn and Edward lnskeep. The organization of the study encompasses three sections. First, an establishment of 'tourism planning" principles which are drawn from basic urban planning paradigms with respect to the process of historical changes in planning itself (ie an evolutionary process from the city beautiful movement to advocacy planning).l Second, Turkey's case will be analysed through an examination of the governmcnt's policy and planning approach to tourism. The final stage of the paper will focus on the deficiencies and shortfalls in Turkey's tourism planning process with respect to the aforementioned criteria and principles. The absence of a proactive planning approach and its implications will be discussed. Research procedure In carrying out this particular study, two major 367
Tourism development within planning paradigms: H Alipour
officials and experts who have served in the MCT but were no longer active in the government. Bodrum tourist resort provides an excellent site for a study of the implementation and organizational coordination between the centre and its locale. Field study at the local level consisted of discussions and interviews with members of the municipality - the sole representative of the MCT - hoteliers, holiday village owners and managers and yachting companies, as well as businesses and tourists themselves. The basic design of this research is based on a policy analysis framework, which is a powerful tool for examining and exploring the interaction among the social, political and economic organization of a development enterprise. Policy analysis is an investigative tool which becomes attractive when the highly developed quantitative techniques and models are not perfectly tractable and realistically descriptive. To this extent it becomes conceivable to move away from assumptions of a linear process of development and incorporate some key political and organizational variables, hitherto commonly overlooked in standard mo.deling. 2
Planning paradigms The fundamental direction of planning has been its interventionist character to remedy urban problems and prevent further unpredictable problems from arising in urban living conditions. For instance, a historical view of 19th-century American planning demonstrates that certain urban conditions called forth a certain planning intervention. As Jackson noted, 'the social reforms that those conditions promoted led to the first effective planning and land use regulations designed to upgrade housing quality in low-income neighbourhoods. '3 Land use regulations were upheld by the US Supreme Court in 1877. The court stated, 'when therefore, one devotes his [her] property to a use in which the public has an interest, he [she], in effect, grants to the public an interest to that use and must submit to be controlled by the public for the common good, to the extent of the interest he [she], has thus created'. 4 A dialectical/historical look at 'planning' paradigms indicates that 'planning' has gone through an evolutionary metamorphosis to adjust and resolve various problems as communities grow in complexity. In this process, 'planning' itself also needed to change and synthesize new forms/functions in order to be an applicable tool for problem solving and problem prevention. One example of such a process was"
Traceable to the Columbian exposition of 1893 - a movement was formed in early history of city planning which has come to be known as City Beautiful . It was not until the early 1900s, however, that a different movement took place, known as City Efficient e r a . . . Yet a third movement recognizing .
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the limits of the thesis of form in the city beautiful movement and that of its antithesis, function in the City Efficient, gave rise in the 1920s to new synthesis epitomized in the paradigm of 'Master Planning'. r With such an evolutionary process, 'planning for tourism' calls forth the most crucial synthesis yet to be developed; such a synthesis should reconcile tourism-sector-specific problems. An example of such problems is portrayed by Edgell when he notes: Recent commentaries paint a bleak picture for tourism's interaction with the environment.., polluted beaches, urban blight, eroded landscapes, and sprawling scumlike developments are mentioned as frequent sights in tourism areas. Many tourism developments are demeaning to local residents, overcrowded, noisy, conducive to traffic congestion, architecturally tasteless, and an overload on the infrastructure. Much of this kind of development in the past has been due to laissez-faire tourism policies and a lack of national, regional, or local planning. 5
Tourism planning: a synthesis" It was not until the 1970s that research on tourism began to look into its planning. Past research on the tourism industry can be classified into three main categories. First, description of the industry and its operation, management and marketing. Second, the spatial development and interactions which characterise the industry on a local, national and international scale; and third, the effects which result from the development of the industry, including economic, social, cultural, political and environmental repercussions .6 Gunn had already began to interrelate planning which is, 'a multidimensional activity and seeks to be integrative, it embraces social, economic, political, psychological, anthropological, and technological factors, it is concerned with the past, present and future (Rose, 1984, p 45)'. 7 Gunn's articulation to build the case for tourism planning is based on those elements which are needed by the tourism sector in order to be sustained and succeed. Therefore, 'strategic planning' is offered to deal with the site scale need, conservation and environmental protection, impact minimization and haphazard development. Finally, Gunn verifies a synthesis (ie of the planning paradigam) for tourism development which is 'strategic' and leads to the concept of 'planning for integrated development'. This ordains the development of the alternatively viable tourism planning paradigm in which certain dilemmas and contradictory dimensions of tourism are reconciled.
lnskeep's model~synthesis A n o t h e r paradigmatic approach that has been offered by World Tourism Organization Planners (ie
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Process for preparing the comprehensive Tourism Development plan at the National and Regional Levels. Source: Inskeep, E Tourism Planning Van Nostrand Reinhold, New York (1991) 50. Figure I
Inskeep) is a combination of formal and functional plan elements known as 'comprehensive planning'. 8 lnskeep's methodology in paradigm development is a superb contribution for guiding the tourism sector towards what has come to be known as "sustainable tourism development'. His analysis interrelates an important aspect of planning known as "land-use planning'. Land-use planning has addressed the fundamental need for land management and use. Nationally it aims to achieve three macro objectives. First, it can provide the exploitation of the riches of virgin land; second, it can minimize the environmental land-use problems resulting from human activity; third, it can even search out new opportunities by reclaiming land which has been degraded by previous cultures. 9 On this ground, lnskeep builds his case for tourism planning as he notes: 'urban tourism development requires land-use planning . . . there can be special tourism plans prepared for urban places or, more appropriately, tourism is included as one element of the comprehensive urban general plan'.~ Finally, Inskeep's model is presented as a 'comprehensive tourism development plan' with the emphasis on land-use issues at the national and regional levels, s His comprehensive tourism development plan offers a sophisticated process which has a cohesive commonality with what Gunn named 'strategic' planning. A significant characteristic of
both methods is the 'implementation" stage which poses a critical demand upon most of the tourism development plans. Inskeep's model emphasizes an 'implementation' stage which should be considered throughout the plan preparation and especially during the policy and plan formulation and recommendation stages, so that the final plan is realistic to achieve and implementable, s Figure 1 demonstrates Inskeep's model.
The case of Turkey Tourism potential Turkey has an exceptional wealth of tourism assets which compare favourably with those of competing countries in the Mediterranean region and elsewhere, l°'li Its natural attractions include a vast, varied and unspoiled landscape with forests, rivers and mountains as well as an extensive selection along its 8333 km of coastline (vs 2753 km of landline) extending on three sides.12 Turkey's geographical location forms a bridge between Europe and Asia, giving it the role of a transition culture between East and West. Turkey, owing to her position as a Mediterranean, Middle Eastern and Balkan country, is situated on the most important main development axis of international tourism activities. Turkey is at the juncture of the Asian,
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Tourism development within planning paradigms: H Alipour Table 1 Number of tourism arrivals and tourism revenue, Turkey: percentage of tourism share in GNP
Year
Number of tourism
Revenue
Tourism share in
arrivals
($ million)
GNP (%)
1963 1964 1965 1966 1967 1968
196 841 229 347 361 758 440 534 574 055 602 996
7.7 8.3 13.8 12.1 13.2 24.1
1969 1970 1971 1972 1973 1974 1975 1976 1977 1978 1979 1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989
694 229 724 784 926 019 1 034 955 1 341 527 1 110 298 1 540 904 1 675 846 1 661 416 1 644 177 1 523 658 1 288 060 1 405 311 1 291 717 1 625 099 2 117 094 2 614 924 2 391 085 2 855 546 4 172 727 4 459 151
36.6 51.6 62.9 103.7 171.5 193.7 200.9 180.5 204.9 230.4 280.7 326.7 381.3 370.3 411.1 840.0 1482.(I 1215.(I 1721.0 2355.3 2556.5
0.1 0.1 0.2 0.1 0.1 0.2
0.3 0.5 0.5 0.6 0.8 0.6 0.5 (1.4 0.4 0.4 (1.5 0.6 11.6 0.7 (I.8 1.7 2.8 2.1 2.7 3.3 3.2
Source: Turizm El Kitabi T.C Turizm Bankasl, Ankara, Turkey
(1990) 42-4332 E u r o p e a n and African continents. Because of this geographical position, it is a prime site for m a j o r international tourism development. 13 Table 1 demonstrates the n u m b e r of tourists and tourism revenue for the years 1963-89. The arrivals for 1990 were reported as a total of 5 389 308,14 and the n u m b e r of arrivals increased by 7 076 000 in 1992, which constituted 2.4% of the tourism share within the E u r o p e a n countries and accounted for 7.5% of T u r k e y ' s international trade.~5
Planning approach Despite the lack of a national tourism policy and minimal attention to the tourism sector in the fiveyear development plans, the Ministry of Culture and Tourism (MCT) took certain approaches to tourism planning during the 1980s. This particular approach to tourism planning focused specifically on tourism goals (ie foreign exchange earning) with little direct reference to broader d e v e l o p m e n t issues. 6'16 Thus, there is no planning for tourism at the national level. Tourism development is divided into seven tourist areas: Istanbul, Izmit, Bursa, A n k a r a , Izmir, Mugla and Antalya (Figure 2). Except for A n k a r a , the rest of the tourist areas are located along the A e g e a n and each area has its clusters of tourist centres. Three of
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these tourist a r e a s - lzmir, Mugla and Antalya have been subject to planning and development guidelines known as the 'Southwest Turkey Touristic Investment Areas' ( S T I ' I A ) . These three investment areas are located in two regions of the Aegean (covering Izmir and Mugla), and part of southern Anatolia (covering Antalya). With the tourist b o o m of the 1980s, M C T began to take a planning approach which concentrated on the two tourist areas of Mugla and Antalya (with the highest potential of tourist-attracting resources: sea, sand and sun). From those two areas they have targeted 13 touristic centres as STRIA (see Figure
3).
Figure 3 demonstrates two elements. The top section shows 13 areas along the Aegean Sea designated by the government for tourism planning and development. The bottom map illustrates specific zones planned by the government for tourism investment and development of resorts in A r e a 1 along the coast of the Bodrum Peninsula.17
Purpose and process Tourism development centres (STTIA) are further delineated into tourism installations zones. In order to facilitate tourism investment, M C T has developed a package of planning maps called 'Tourism Yaunm Alanlan' or tourist investment areas. This package contains two distinctive, but overlapping detailed plans: implementation (uygulama imar plato) and master (nazim imarphmt). These two planning maps are in fact the land use plan of 16 tourist centres encompassing 13 MCT-targeted tourist activity centres. Their planning concerns are in the three tourist areas of S T T I A . The M C T may expropriate privately owned lands located in touristic zones and touristic centres and allocate them for tourism purposes in accordance with land-use plans. Following expropriation, such real property, having gained the status of 'treasury owned lands', may be allocated to enterpreneurs under the provisions of the 'By-law on Allocating Public-owned Lands to Tourism Investments'. I:
Nature of the plans The three so-called planning tools in Turkey's tourism development - master plan, land use plan and implementation plan - are strictly physical plans. For instance, the master land-use plan (nazim imar plato), in its broader definition, indicates a systematic approach to what uses land may be allocated for in a specific area. However, in order to proceed with construction, it is necessary to have implementation plans (uygulama imar plato) which directly restrict and facilitate the architectural project itself. The 'implementation plans' may be part of a previously endorsed 'master plan' or drawn up inde-
7burism development within planning paradignts: tt Alipour
Figure 2 pendently for an area for which no master plan has previously been prepared. Furthermore, cadastral divisions, if available, are also indicated on such maps. T h e s e d i v i s i o n s are e n d o r s e d by the municipalities if they relate to municipal and adjacent areas and are endorsed by the provincial governments if they relate to other areas. Another task of implementation plans is to delineate the coastal lines or 'the coast/bank brinkline'. The coast brinkline is the natural border where the waters of sea, lake or river touch the land - excluding flooding and overflowing situations, and where sandy, gravel, rocky, marshy and swampy beaches have been formed by water activity. These procedures are established by the provincial government. Two more authoritative bodies are involved in the process of these plans: the Municipal Council and Provincial Administrative Council of the Provincial
Government. These councils are expected to review those tourist activities that MCT directly encourages either within or outside the municipality.
Pitfalls in planning The absence of strategic planning is conspicuous in parts of the coastline of Turkey in which haphazard building and polluting of resources has endangered the future of tourism. This type of strip development lacks any integration, which also corresponds to deficient land-use policies, is For instance, all of the master plans are devoid of policies for focusing tourism development according to Gunn's model. In addition, the government's passive role in tourism on one hand, and lack of a proactive planning process on the other allowed the industry to be developed by external actors. As Sinclair and Stab371
Tourism development withinplanning paradigms: H Alipour
Figure 3 ler note: 'The producers in this context were principally tour operators based on the markets of north western Europe, who played the initiating role in developing Turkish tourism'. 6 While tourism requires strategic planning and an inclusive approach to its various aspects, a look at Turkey's five-year development plans clearly shows that the dominant theme is economics. 6'19 In addition, the development plans and their relationship to the tourism sector have shown various linkage problems, an example being the lack of linkage between the first and the fifth five-year plans in terms of environmental protection for the coastline. In the context of national/regional development, plans remain theoretical: land-use delineation without any local implementation. Plans contain no policies for sustaining or directing tourism develop372
ment and integration, resulting in haphazard strip development which neither meets the multipurpose planning goals nor complies with a clarified singlepurpose planning objective.
Planning at the local level Bodrum tourist resort is illustrative of the implementation of tourism planning and its success or failure (Figure 4). In this case study, a functioning tourism system can be seen through various factors. These factors not only concern Turkey, but also are of concern to planners worldwide, especially where development of tourism threatens to run out of control. 20 The Bodrum Tourist Center is what Lamar called:
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Figure 4 . . . unpolluted, unspoiled, unconventional and a genuine bargain. It has grown from a small fishing village to a center of tourism explosion which houses nearly 100,000 tourists even though its population capacity is around 10,000. This has taken not only Bodrum by surprise, but Turkey itself. Bodrum has become the hottest tourist spot in Europe. 2~ B o d r u m ' s case can be seen as an experiment in tourism development implementation. In B o d r u m the process of implementation and its function in a centralized administrative system has been observed. It was in the implementation field that the shortcomings of B o d r u m ' s d e v e l o p m e n t project manifested themselves in what the International Tourism Report n o t e d as ' c o n s t r u c t i o n site syndrome . ~ B o d r u m was most frequently singled out because it appeared to have run out of essential services, sewage disposal being a particular problem. Based on observations, critics charge that it is already on its way to becoming a spoiled Eden. These strains include, first, environmental stress due to haphazard construction development on a deficient infrastructure; and, second, lack of impact studies or procedures to overcome the stress that results from the generation of new or increased waste residues. Two precedents are the collapse of the Millstatter Lake in Austria during the 1970s following a tenfold increase in tourist traffic in the preceding two decades, and the restriction on bathing at certain Mediterranean beaches. 22 Regardless of the fragility of the environment, which is signifi-
cant, the problems in B o d r u m are basically ones of planning and m a n a g e m e n t , and the means to control and regulate the infrastructure malaise that has been created. Bodrum is also in the process of struggling between retaining a locally oriented scale of tourism or allowing large industrial development. This has manifested itself in resentment between local craftsmen and large-scale tourism enterprises. A change in development plans was perceived as a threat to craft tourism. As R o d e n b u r g noted: Different scales of tourism provide different services but compete directly with one another. The competitive advantage held by large industrial tourism, in attracting package and group tourists, is due Io its economic muscle and international connections, not to 'economies of scale'. 23 Nonetheless, B o d r u m ' s case reveals a failure in the local planning process which identifies those policy goals that have little consideration for the implem e n t a t i o n of s t r a t e g y b e y o n d m a r k e t i n g programmes. 24 F u r t h e r m o r e , the pursuit of tourism planning goals in B o d r u m without considering the social and environmental aspects of tourism remains 'incomplete and at times even d a m a g i n g ' ] This has been realized in the context of four fundamental tourism goals that are identified for every tourism enterprise. These goals are: satisfaction to users, rewards to owners, protected utilization of environmental resources and local adaptation. B o d r u m ' s case man-
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Tourism development withinplanning paradigms: H Alipour ifested the ills that existed in the whole process, namely the lack of communication and the antagonism between governmental agencies and private enterprise.
Failures of local planning The first dilemma at the local level was the lack of autonomy in planning which resulted in the lack of initiative for a locally oriented development plan. First, the local effort was concerned primarily with regulating physical development and did not include marketing analysis and promotional elements nor sufficient attention to the broader issues of development. Second, there was a lack of statutory authority to prevent certain establishments from bypassing all the municipality's regulations. For example, certain tourist establishments in Bodrum were allowed to operate independently from local regulations, with the permission of the MCT. Third, Bodrum's municipality lacked the knowledge to develop tourism. A local tourism advisory board was needed to advise the municipality on implementation and to devise an annual marketing plan. An advisory board also needed to include knowledgeable people in the following areas: (a) a representative of the state who is knowledgeable on tourism promotion; (b) a representative from a labour organization representing employees of the industry; (c) a consumer advocate from the organized public interest community; (d) an economist or a statistican; (e) an individual who is knowledgeable in tourism, recreation and conservation. 5
Alternative approach How could Turkey's tourism be better planned? The first step in the realization of an alternative tourism development policy is the establishment of an organization that is aware of general development policies and able to integrate tourism-sector-specific policies. Although the MCT functions as Turkey's National Tourism Organization (NTO), the MCT needs to be converted to an organization that is knowledgeable about tourism. Its traditional administrative nature is rather general/governmental with little or no expertise in development of tourism. The task of the true NTO is twofold. As demonstrated in the hypothetical model (Figure 5), it has to be armed with autonomy, capacity and policy instruments related to the tourism sector in order to be able to implement, evaluate and monitor continuously. The NTO must have the capability to articulate an orderly development process. It needs to survey the national tourism in numerous areas; it has to have a department to analyse and synthesize. For example, it would need to analyse the external tourist travel pattern, past and present tourist arrivals and existing/potential tourist attractions. Then,
374
based on these aspects, a market analysis of tourist projections would be made. An NTO (contrary to the MCT) would plan and make strategic decisions before a project's implementation rather than following its implementation. An NTO would represent and demonstrate the public sector's role in tourism development, lnskeep's model could be an important method to reconcile all these difficulties, which the MCT faces today. In Turkey's case, the provincial administrative system could fill the vacuum of regionalism, and in coordination with an NTO develop a series of cooperative agencies to coordinate development and reduce the f r a g m e n t a t i o n within the tourism industry. 25 Equally important, such a coordinated relation between an NTO and provincial/local agencies would produce a form of tourism that would be conducive to Turkey's social structure. For example, farm tourism or rural tourism can be operated and encouraged as an alternative form for those regions that are away from the Aegean beaches. This option, being a rather locally oriented project, would benefit local communities more than enclave developments. An NTO, contrary to the MCT, would need to adopt a platform as its planning guideline not only to achieve policy formulation, but also to encompass numerous tourism-related aspects. This process would come about by determination of preliminary objectives. The new tourism organization could facilitate and adopt policies which would enhance the tourism system on one hand and assist the local municipalities on the other. For instance, the 'comprehensive plan principle' could be adopted for environmental/ ecological purposes as well as being a check mechanism against hazardous private ventures. Comprehensive planning also calls forth specific techniques of implementation, such as preparation of the project development programme (sometimes referred to as the action programme) or development or action strategy, s Although decentralization and delegation of authority to the municipalities was defined as a development goal, it has not yet become a reality in the tourism sector. This situation consequently blurs the spectral implications of the 'formal/informal' sector concept. As Oppermann notes: Given the higher integration of the informal tourism sector enterprises into the local economic structure, it is capable of producing a higher multiplier effect on the local economy than the formal tourism sector. 2¢' In fact MCT's behaviour overlooked the informal tourism sector where it was discriminated against under 'non-registered' tourism activities. Furthermore, the non-registered tourism sector has a higher regional economic impact. 2~
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Conclusion As regards the tourism sector, the Turkish government has failed to come up with guidelines to protect and manage this multifaceted industry. This has occurred because of the lack of recognition and understanding of this sector which comprises an eclectic set of industries. The crisis in Turkish tourism is duc in part to the weakness of the existing institutions that are responsible for tourism planning. They are plagued by what Gunn elaborated as, 'conventional planning [that] has too often been oriented only to a plan, too vague and allencompassing, reactive, sporadic, divorced from budgets and extraneous data p r o d u c i n g ' / At the
same time the policy makers fail to recognize the nature of the tourism sector. Again, as Gunn continued: But organizations, government, and all sectors involved in tourism are not recognizing how interdependent are all the separate entities and fragments that make up the whole. Tourism markets and supply are more widely scattered across the earth than for any other economic activity. It is at this interface of the many parts that many problems arise, requiring a more complex but a more broadscale planning horizon than has been practiced in the past. 7
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Tourism development within planning paradigms: H Alipour
In the context of planning/development paradigms, Gunn's elaboration of 'strategic planning' offers a synthesis to overcome the difficulties of planning for tourism. However, further research is needed to explore and devise new strategies to combat the inevitable reality of tourism inputs. Turkey's case is not an exception to the bitter realities of tourism planning. Butler realistically addressed a pessimistic overview of the relationship between tourism, heritage and sustainable development: • . . not only are planning arrangements often contradictory and fragmented, but they rarely include an integrative approach. It is unrealistic at the local level to attempt to minimize tourist numbers because of environmental impacts, when a higher policy is to increase numbers because of economic benefits, as is often the case. 27 All told, the new paradigm for tourism development should overcome the deficiencies of the 'conventional' approach. This new synthesis can come close to meeting Butler's solution as he notes that: . . . coordination of policies, proactive planning, acceptance of limitations on growth, education of all parties involved, and commitment to a long term viewpoint, are prerequisites to the successful linking of tourism and sustainable development. 27 Innovative planning can complement this paradigm by approaching: (1) institutional change - pertaining to local government; (2) action orientation - a creative social response to problem situations that are often vaguely understood; (3) resource mobilization. 2~ The non-registered informal sector in Turkey's tourism covers a vast part of the industry. Therefore, any planning venture needs to reorganize and protect this sector from the powerful and large-scale formal sector. This is essential since the formal sector penetrates the established informal resorts, as in the case of Bodrum. 26 'Sustainable Development has achieved wide currency as a policy objective integrating environmental and developmental concerns. '~9 Both Inskeep and Gunn, in their effort to develop a 'tourism planning paradigm', have established this principle as a fundamental consideration for tourism development. With respect to tourism planning and development in Turkey, environmental issues have not been addressed in any of the tourism development procedures. This comes as a shock when sustainable tourism development has become the major feature of the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development ( U N C E D ) . Lack of integration of sustainability in tourism development has become a major issue in various Third World countries which
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are desperate to capitalize on tourism. For example, in early 1993 the Thai government was forced to close the major tourist area of Samet - a popular tourist resort south of Bangkok - which resulted in a loss of US$20 million in tourist revenue. 29 Turkey's tourism is part of the continuous global tourism growth which is expected to continue into the foreseeable future. However, there is a missing point between Turkey's own industrial development (as a newly industrialized country) and tourism development to fuel its modernization. This may very well be the lack of awareness of 'alternative tourism' options which are strongly advocated for sustainable tourism development. Finally, a 'win-win' situation can be possible both for tourism and development in general if there is an integrative planning policy to reconcile tourism's informal sector on one hand, and to coordinate public/private sector cooperation on the other. To achieve some of the paradigmatic goals of sustainable tourism, policies should move beyond definition and toward action. These goals are as follow: • To develop greater awareness and understanding of the significant contributions that tourism can make to the environment and economy. • To promote equity in development. • To improve the quality of life of the host. • To provide a high quality of experience satisfaction for the visitor. • To maintain the quality of the environment on which the foregoing objectives depend, s In Turkey's case, there is a lack of clear policy juxtaposed with the absence of any planning paradigm. This has resulted in the government's ambiguity in terms of its role in the tourism sector. This can be witnessed in the case of the non-registered (Belgesiz) tourism sector which has remained without any direction or support knowing that it plays an important role in Turkey's tourism. Non-registration is certainly one characteristic of the informal sector which is labour intensive, and has a higher multiplier effect with a larger per unit of profit margin. 26 The informal sector could have profound spatial and economic implications if it was incorporated into a planning strategy. In fact, its characteristics are incongruent with the notion of 'alternative', 'integrated' and 'soft' or appropriate tourism. The government's role has also remained passive in terms of the public/private sector relationship in the tourism sector. Such passivity can have undermining implications where the private-public sector tourism planning domain includes all activities undertaken in these sectors, which together may determine (a) the quality and quantity of tourism flows into the community, (b) the quality of the tourist experience, and hence (c) the quality of life of tourists and the community. It is suggested that there is a link between the quality of life effects and
Tourism development within planning paradigms: H Alipour
t h e i m a g e o f t h e o v e r a l l t o u r i s m p r o d u c t . 24 T h i s p a p e r d o e s n o t e x h a u s t all t h e p o s s i b i l i t i e s f o r t o u r i s m d e v e l o p m e n t ; f u r t h e r r e s e a r c h is n e e d e d to reconcile the 'local level' oriented planning synthesis which contains rural-oriented dilemmas. Both Gunn's and lnskeep's planning guidelines - despite t h e i r u s e f u l n e s s - h a v e f a i l e d to a d d r e s s l o c a l issues in T h i r d W o r l d s i t u a t i o n s . T h e y h a v e also n o t addressed those unique cases which require distinct r e l e v a n c e to s p e c i f i c s o c i o p o l i t i c a l e n v i r o n m e n t s .
References ~Banai, R Tlanning paradigms: contradictions and synthesis" J Architectural and Planning Research 1988 5 (1) 14--34 3Chatlerjcc, L and Nijkamp, P (eds) 'Prospects of policy analysis" in Urban and Regional Policy Analysis in Developing Countries Gower, Brookfield 119791 ~Jackson. R H 'United Stales of America" in Patricious, N N (ed) International Handbook on [.and Use Planning Greenwood Press. New York (19861 498-523 %o el al (cds) The Practice of Local Government Planning International City Management Association, Washington DC [ 1979) ~Edgell, Sr. I. D International Tourism Policy Van Nostrand Reinhold New York (1990) "Sinclair, M T and Stabler, M J (eds) The Tourism lndust O, CAB International, UK (1991) ~Gunn, ( ' A Tourism Planning Taylor & Francis, New York ! 19881 ~lnskeep, E Tourism Planning Van Nostrand Reinhold, New York (1991) "Fabos, J G Y Land Use Planning: From Global or Local Challenge Dowden and Culver Books, New York (1985) ~"Diamond, J 'Tour(sin's role in economic development; the case reexamined" Economic Development and Cultural Change 1977 25 13) 53%553 ~Firat, F ~'Fourism and marketing and development: structural constraints facing underdeveloped countries" in Singh, T V et al (cds) 7~wards Appropriate Tourism: The Case of Developing ('ountries Peter Lang, New York (1989) 127-143 ~Turizm El Kitabi "F.C. Turizm Bankasi, Ankara, Turkey (1988) E~Ako~lu, 3" 'Tourism policy and tourism planning in Turkey" in Tourism Promotion in Turkey Economic and Social Studies ('onfcrence Board, Istanbul (1970)
14Baykal, F "Akdeniz Havasmda Uluslararasl Turizm Hareketleri ve Tfirkiye" in Turizm Ydh~l 1992 Turizm Kalkmma Bankasl, Ankara, Turkey (1992) ~51coz, Orhan '2000"1i ylllara do~ru Tiirkiyc'nin D(inya vc Avrupa Turizmindeki Yeri" in Turizm Ydh~,l 1994 Tfirkiye Kalkmma Bankasl Ankara (June 1994) 143-158 ~¢'Atach, R I 'Public planning for tourism: a general method for establishing economic, environmental, social and administrative criteria" PhD dissertation, University of Washington, Seattle (19841 WTourism Bank Southwest Turkey Touristic hwestment Areas (STTIA) Tourism Bank, Ankara (1987) ISAhmet Vekif "Alp. Ku,sadasl, the Ancient "Scalanova": the degrading effect ~ff uncontrolled growth and poor physical planning and design on touristic attractions', International Symposium on Architecture of Tourism in the Mediterranean, Istanbul, Turkey, 13-18 October 1991 t"Atach, R 1 'Turizm plan[amasl: Ulkc qapmda ahnan" "~C}lnternational Tourism Report, Economist Intelligence I hilt Turkey, 1989 (11 35-55 -'lLamar, J V ~Turkey, the hot new tourist draw' Time 198Y,(June) ~2Pearce, D G Four(sin Development Longman, New York (19851 2~Rodenburg, E E "The effects of scale in economic development tourism in Bali' in Singh T V et al (cds) Towards Appropriate Tourism: The (~lse ~ff" Developing,, Countries Peter Lang, New York (1989) Z4Jackson, A G Tourism planning and the public/prwatc sector relationship" Hospitality Research J 19911 14 (2) 475-484 :~Montgomery, (i and Murphy, P E 'Government involvement in tourism development: a case study of TIDSA implementation m British Columbia" in Murphy, P E (cd) University of Victoria, Victoria (1983) New York (19891 Tourism In ('anada: Selected Issues and Options z~'Oppermann, M 'Tourism space in developing counlrics" Anna{~ of 7~)urism Research 1993 20 (3) 535-556 27Bullcr, R W 'Tourism, environment, and sustainable development' Environmental Conservation 1991 18 (3) 2111 209 -'SFricdmann. J Urbanization, Planning and National Development Sage Publications, London (1973) 2~'Delvin. F and Yap, N T 'Sustainable development and the NICs: cautionary talcs for the South in the New World (DIS) order" Third World Quarterly 1994 15 ( 1) 4%62 3~Mansur, F B~drum: A Town in the Aegean E J Brill The Netherlands 11972) 3fMinistry of Culture and Tourism, Turkey Tourism. Opportunities fi~r Investor.~ Ministry of Culture and Tourism~ Ankara (1987) 3"-Turizm El Kitabt T.C. Turizm Bankasl, Ankara. Turkey ( 19901
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Copyright © 1996 Elsevier Science Lid Printcd in Great Britain. All rights reserved 0261-5177/96 $15.0tl ~ (}.0(}
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Tourism development within planning paradigms: the case of Turkey Habib Alipour Eastern Mediwrranean University, School of Tourism and Hospitality Management, North ('yprus, Gazi Magusa (via Mersin 10, Turkey)
The focus of this study is to examine the Turkish government's policy and planning process that was directly or indirectly involved in tourism development with the major aim of identifying the variables that are at work within the tourism organizations and administrative system. A case study of planning and implementation processes suggests that Turkey's tourism development was subject to various deliberate influences and spontaneous dynamics without a proactive national tourism policy. Furthermore, the planning process has remained limited to physical planning to the detriment of social, environmental and integrated planning. The tourism industry is confined to a few enclave developments as directed by market forces rather than as a derivative of formal planning decisions. This study also acknowledges that a 'planning' paradigm for tourism has been established, but not necessarily adopted/applied in every tourism development project (particularly in Turkey). Copyright © 1996 Elsevier Science Ltd Kcywords: tourism phmning, policy analysis, development, implementation
methods were employed. First, library research was conducted, which consisted mainly of content analysis of reports and available materials of any related literature on tourism development, including the policy and planning process, project development, the administrative organization of tourism and the policy analysis approach to project development (ie formulation of policies, objectives, implementation, evaluation, monitoring and feedback). Close attention was given to issues of centralized decision making versus the decentralized approach. The second major method was a field study undertaken at two locations, Ankara (the capital city) and the resort of Bodrum. The studies in Ankara were concentrated on the Ministry of Culture and Tourism (MCT) (recently renamed "Ministry of Tourism'), the state planning organization (SPO), the tourism bank (recently renamed 'Bank of Development'), the Turkish Travel Agents Association (TURSAB), and the State Institute of Statistics. This study consisted of extensive interviews with the planners, architects, managers, coordinators and administrators of each applicable agency within those organizations. Also interviewed were former
The aim of this study is to investigate and analyse the development of tourism in Turkey by examining how far (if at all) planning and policy development have taken account of the major tourism planning 'paradigms', such as those elaborated by Clare Gunn and Edward lnskeep. The organization of the study encompasses three sections. First, an establishment of 'tourism planning" principles which are drawn from basic urban planning paradigms with respect to the process of historical changes in planning itself (ie an evolutionary process from the city beautiful movement to advocacy planning).l Second, Turkey's case will be analysed through an examination of the governmcnt's policy and planning approach to tourism. The final stage of the paper will focus on the deficiencies and shortfalls in Turkey's tourism planning process with respect to the aforementioned criteria and principles. The absence of a proactive planning approach and its implications will be discussed. Research procedure In carrying out this particular study, two major 367
Tourism development within planning paradigms: H Alipour
officials and experts who have served in the MCT but were no longer active in the government. Bodrum tourist resort provides an excellent site for a study of the implementation and organizational coordination between the centre and its locale. Field study at the local level consisted of discussions and interviews with members of the municipality - the sole representative of the MCT - hoteliers, holiday village owners and managers and yachting companies, as well as businesses and tourists themselves. The basic design of this research is based on a policy analysis framework, which is a powerful tool for examining and exploring the interaction among the social, political and economic organization of a development enterprise. Policy analysis is an investigative tool which becomes attractive when the highly developed quantitative techniques and models are not perfectly tractable and realistically descriptive. To this extent it becomes conceivable to move away from assumptions of a linear process of development and incorporate some key political and organizational variables, hitherto commonly overlooked in standard mo.deling. 2
Planning paradigms The fundamental direction of planning has been its interventionist character to remedy urban problems and prevent further unpredictable problems from arising in urban living conditions. For instance, a historical view of 19th-century American planning demonstrates that certain urban conditions called forth a certain planning intervention. As Jackson noted, 'the social reforms that those conditions promoted led to the first effective planning and land use regulations designed to upgrade housing quality in low-income neighbourhoods. '3 Land use regulations were upheld by the US Supreme Court in 1877. The court stated, 'when therefore, one devotes his [her] property to a use in which the public has an interest, he [she], in effect, grants to the public an interest to that use and must submit to be controlled by the public for the common good, to the extent of the interest he [she], has thus created'. 4 A dialectical/historical look at 'planning' paradigms indicates that 'planning' has gone through an evolutionary metamorphosis to adjust and resolve various problems as communities grow in complexity. In this process, 'planning' itself also needed to change and synthesize new forms/functions in order to be an applicable tool for problem solving and problem prevention. One example of such a process was"
Traceable to the Columbian exposition of 1893 - a movement was formed in early history of city planning which has come to be known as City Beautiful . It was not until the early 1900s, however, that a different movement took place, known as City Efficient e r a . . . Yet a third movement recognizing .
368
.
the limits of the thesis of form in the city beautiful movement and that of its antithesis, function in the City Efficient, gave rise in the 1920s to new synthesis epitomized in the paradigm of 'Master Planning'. r With such an evolutionary process, 'planning for tourism' calls forth the most crucial synthesis yet to be developed; such a synthesis should reconcile tourism-sector-specific problems. An example of such problems is portrayed by Edgell when he notes: Recent commentaries paint a bleak picture for tourism's interaction with the environment.., polluted beaches, urban blight, eroded landscapes, and sprawling scumlike developments are mentioned as frequent sights in tourism areas. Many tourism developments are demeaning to local residents, overcrowded, noisy, conducive to traffic congestion, architecturally tasteless, and an overload on the infrastructure. Much of this kind of development in the past has been due to laissez-faire tourism policies and a lack of national, regional, or local planning. 5
Tourism planning: a synthesis" It was not until the 1970s that research on tourism began to look into its planning. Past research on the tourism industry can be classified into three main categories. First, description of the industry and its operation, management and marketing. Second, the spatial development and interactions which characterise the industry on a local, national and international scale; and third, the effects which result from the development of the industry, including economic, social, cultural, political and environmental repercussions .6 Gunn had already began to interrelate planning which is, 'a multidimensional activity and seeks to be integrative, it embraces social, economic, political, psychological, anthropological, and technological factors, it is concerned with the past, present and future (Rose, 1984, p 45)'. 7 Gunn's articulation to build the case for tourism planning is based on those elements which are needed by the tourism sector in order to be sustained and succeed. Therefore, 'strategic planning' is offered to deal with the site scale need, conservation and environmental protection, impact minimization and haphazard development. Finally, Gunn verifies a synthesis (ie of the planning paradigam) for tourism development which is 'strategic' and leads to the concept of 'planning for integrated development'. This ordains the development of the alternatively viable tourism planning paradigm in which certain dilemmas and contradictory dimensions of tourism are reconciled.
lnskeep's model~synthesis A n o t h e r paradigmatic approach that has been offered by World Tourism Organization Planners (ie
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Inskeep) is a combination of formal and functional plan elements known as 'comprehensive planning'. 8 lnskeep's methodology in paradigm development is a superb contribution for guiding the tourism sector towards what has come to be known as "sustainable tourism development'. His analysis interrelates an important aspect of planning known as "land-use planning'. Land-use planning has addressed the fundamental need for land management and use. Nationally it aims to achieve three macro objectives. First, it can provide the exploitation of the riches of virgin land; second, it can minimize the environmental land-use problems resulting from human activity; third, it can even search out new opportunities by reclaiming land which has been degraded by previous cultures. 9 On this ground, lnskeep builds his case for tourism planning as he notes: 'urban tourism development requires land-use planning . . . there can be special tourism plans prepared for urban places or, more appropriately, tourism is included as one element of the comprehensive urban general plan'.~ Finally, Inskeep's model is presented as a 'comprehensive tourism development plan' with the emphasis on land-use issues at the national and regional levels, s His comprehensive tourism development plan offers a sophisticated process which has a cohesive commonality with what Gunn named 'strategic' planning. A significant characteristic of
both methods is the 'implementation" stage which poses a critical demand upon most of the tourism development plans. Inskeep's model emphasizes an 'implementation' stage which should be considered throughout the plan preparation and especially during the policy and plan formulation and recommendation stages, so that the final plan is realistic to achieve and implementable, s Figure 1 demonstrates Inskeep's model.
The case of Turkey Tourism potential Turkey has an exceptional wealth of tourism assets which compare favourably with those of competing countries in the Mediterranean region and elsewhere, l°'li Its natural attractions include a vast, varied and unspoiled landscape with forests, rivers and mountains as well as an extensive selection along its 8333 km of coastline (vs 2753 km of landline) extending on three sides.12 Turkey's geographical location forms a bridge between Europe and Asia, giving it the role of a transition culture between East and West. Turkey, owing to her position as a Mediterranean, Middle Eastern and Balkan country, is situated on the most important main development axis of international tourism activities. Turkey is at the juncture of the Asian,
369
Tourism development within planning paradigms: H Alipour Table 1 Number of tourism arrivals and tourism revenue, Turkey: percentage of tourism share in GNP
Year
Number of tourism
Revenue
Tourism share in
arrivals
($ million)
GNP (%)
1963 1964 1965 1966 1967 1968
196 841 229 347 361 758 440 534 574 055 602 996
7.7 8.3 13.8 12.1 13.2 24.1
1969 1970 1971 1972 1973 1974 1975 1976 1977 1978 1979 1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989
694 229 724 784 926 019 1 034 955 1 341 527 1 110 298 1 540 904 1 675 846 1 661 416 1 644 177 1 523 658 1 288 060 1 405 311 1 291 717 1 625 099 2 117 094 2 614 924 2 391 085 2 855 546 4 172 727 4 459 151
36.6 51.6 62.9 103.7 171.5 193.7 200.9 180.5 204.9 230.4 280.7 326.7 381.3 370.3 411.1 840.0 1482.(I 1215.(I 1721.0 2355.3 2556.5
0.1 0.1 0.2 0.1 0.1 0.2
0.3 0.5 0.5 0.6 0.8 0.6 0.5 (1.4 0.4 0.4 (1.5 0.6 11.6 0.7 (I.8 1.7 2.8 2.1 2.7 3.3 3.2
Source: Turizm El Kitabi T.C Turizm Bankasl, Ankara, Turkey
(1990) 42-4332 E u r o p e a n and African continents. Because of this geographical position, it is a prime site for m a j o r international tourism development. 13 Table 1 demonstrates the n u m b e r of tourists and tourism revenue for the years 1963-89. The arrivals for 1990 were reported as a total of 5 389 308,14 and the n u m b e r of arrivals increased by 7 076 000 in 1992, which constituted 2.4% of the tourism share within the E u r o p e a n countries and accounted for 7.5% of T u r k e y ' s international trade.~5
Planning approach Despite the lack of a national tourism policy and minimal attention to the tourism sector in the fiveyear development plans, the Ministry of Culture and Tourism (MCT) took certain approaches to tourism planning during the 1980s. This particular approach to tourism planning focused specifically on tourism goals (ie foreign exchange earning) with little direct reference to broader d e v e l o p m e n t issues. 6'16 Thus, there is no planning for tourism at the national level. Tourism development is divided into seven tourist areas: Istanbul, Izmit, Bursa, A n k a r a , Izmir, Mugla and Antalya (Figure 2). Except for A n k a r a , the rest of the tourist areas are located along the A e g e a n and each area has its clusters of tourist centres. Three of
370
these tourist a r e a s - lzmir, Mugla and Antalya have been subject to planning and development guidelines known as the 'Southwest Turkey Touristic Investment Areas' ( S T I ' I A ) . These three investment areas are located in two regions of the Aegean (covering Izmir and Mugla), and part of southern Anatolia (covering Antalya). With the tourist b o o m of the 1980s, M C T began to take a planning approach which concentrated on the two tourist areas of Mugla and Antalya (with the highest potential of tourist-attracting resources: sea, sand and sun). From those two areas they have targeted 13 touristic centres as STRIA (see Figure
3).
Figure 3 demonstrates two elements. The top section shows 13 areas along the Aegean Sea designated by the government for tourism planning and development. The bottom map illustrates specific zones planned by the government for tourism investment and development of resorts in A r e a 1 along the coast of the Bodrum Peninsula.17
Purpose and process Tourism development centres (STTIA) are further delineated into tourism installations zones. In order to facilitate tourism investment, M C T has developed a package of planning maps called 'Tourism Yaunm Alanlan' or tourist investment areas. This package contains two distinctive, but overlapping detailed plans: implementation (uygulama imar plato) and master (nazim imarphmt). These two planning maps are in fact the land use plan of 16 tourist centres encompassing 13 MCT-targeted tourist activity centres. Their planning concerns are in the three tourist areas of S T T I A . The M C T may expropriate privately owned lands located in touristic zones and touristic centres and allocate them for tourism purposes in accordance with land-use plans. Following expropriation, such real property, having gained the status of 'treasury owned lands', may be allocated to enterpreneurs under the provisions of the 'By-law on Allocating Public-owned Lands to Tourism Investments'. I:
Nature of the plans The three so-called planning tools in Turkey's tourism development - master plan, land use plan and implementation plan - are strictly physical plans. For instance, the master land-use plan (nazim imar plato), in its broader definition, indicates a systematic approach to what uses land may be allocated for in a specific area. However, in order to proceed with construction, it is necessary to have implementation plans (uygulama imar plato) which directly restrict and facilitate the architectural project itself. The 'implementation plans' may be part of a previously endorsed 'master plan' or drawn up inde-
7burism development within planning paradignts: tt Alipour
Figure 2 pendently for an area for which no master plan has previously been prepared. Furthermore, cadastral divisions, if available, are also indicated on such maps. T h e s e d i v i s i o n s are e n d o r s e d by the municipalities if they relate to municipal and adjacent areas and are endorsed by the provincial governments if they relate to other areas. Another task of implementation plans is to delineate the coastal lines or 'the coast/bank brinkline'. The coast brinkline is the natural border where the waters of sea, lake or river touch the land - excluding flooding and overflowing situations, and where sandy, gravel, rocky, marshy and swampy beaches have been formed by water activity. These procedures are established by the provincial government. Two more authoritative bodies are involved in the process of these plans: the Municipal Council and Provincial Administrative Council of the Provincial
Government. These councils are expected to review those tourist activities that MCT directly encourages either within or outside the municipality.
Pitfalls in planning The absence of strategic planning is conspicuous in parts of the coastline of Turkey in which haphazard building and polluting of resources has endangered the future of tourism. This type of strip development lacks any integration, which also corresponds to deficient land-use policies, is For instance, all of the master plans are devoid of policies for focusing tourism development according to Gunn's model. In addition, the government's passive role in tourism on one hand, and lack of a proactive planning process on the other allowed the industry to be developed by external actors. As Sinclair and Stab371
Tourism development withinplanning paradigms: H Alipour
Figure 3 ler note: 'The producers in this context were principally tour operators based on the markets of north western Europe, who played the initiating role in developing Turkish tourism'. 6 While tourism requires strategic planning and an inclusive approach to its various aspects, a look at Turkey's five-year development plans clearly shows that the dominant theme is economics. 6'19 In addition, the development plans and their relationship to the tourism sector have shown various linkage problems, an example being the lack of linkage between the first and the fifth five-year plans in terms of environmental protection for the coastline. In the context of national/regional development, plans remain theoretical: land-use delineation without any local implementation. Plans contain no policies for sustaining or directing tourism develop372
ment and integration, resulting in haphazard strip development which neither meets the multipurpose planning goals nor complies with a clarified singlepurpose planning objective.
Planning at the local level Bodrum tourist resort is illustrative of the implementation of tourism planning and its success or failure (Figure 4). In this case study, a functioning tourism system can be seen through various factors. These factors not only concern Turkey, but also are of concern to planners worldwide, especially where development of tourism threatens to run out of control. 20 The Bodrum Tourist Center is what Lamar called:
Tourism development within planning paradigms: H Alipour
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Figure 4 . . . unpolluted, unspoiled, unconventional and a genuine bargain. It has grown from a small fishing village to a center of tourism explosion which houses nearly 100,000 tourists even though its population capacity is around 10,000. This has taken not only Bodrum by surprise, but Turkey itself. Bodrum has become the hottest tourist spot in Europe. 2~ B o d r u m ' s case can be seen as an experiment in tourism development implementation. In B o d r u m the process of implementation and its function in a centralized administrative system has been observed. It was in the implementation field that the shortcomings of B o d r u m ' s d e v e l o p m e n t project manifested themselves in what the International Tourism Report n o t e d as ' c o n s t r u c t i o n site syndrome . ~ B o d r u m was most frequently singled out because it appeared to have run out of essential services, sewage disposal being a particular problem. Based on observations, critics charge that it is already on its way to becoming a spoiled Eden. These strains include, first, environmental stress due to haphazard construction development on a deficient infrastructure; and, second, lack of impact studies or procedures to overcome the stress that results from the generation of new or increased waste residues. Two precedents are the collapse of the Millstatter Lake in Austria during the 1970s following a tenfold increase in tourist traffic in the preceding two decades, and the restriction on bathing at certain Mediterranean beaches. 22 Regardless of the fragility of the environment, which is signifi-
cant, the problems in B o d r u m are basically ones of planning and m a n a g e m e n t , and the means to control and regulate the infrastructure malaise that has been created. Bodrum is also in the process of struggling between retaining a locally oriented scale of tourism or allowing large industrial development. This has manifested itself in resentment between local craftsmen and large-scale tourism enterprises. A change in development plans was perceived as a threat to craft tourism. As R o d e n b u r g noted: Different scales of tourism provide different services but compete directly with one another. The competitive advantage held by large industrial tourism, in attracting package and group tourists, is due Io its economic muscle and international connections, not to 'economies of scale'. 23 Nonetheless, B o d r u m ' s case reveals a failure in the local planning process which identifies those policy goals that have little consideration for the implem e n t a t i o n of s t r a t e g y b e y o n d m a r k e t i n g programmes. 24 F u r t h e r m o r e , the pursuit of tourism planning goals in B o d r u m without considering the social and environmental aspects of tourism remains 'incomplete and at times even d a m a g i n g ' ] This has been realized in the context of four fundamental tourism goals that are identified for every tourism enterprise. These goals are: satisfaction to users, rewards to owners, protected utilization of environmental resources and local adaptation. B o d r u m ' s case man-
373
Tourism development withinplanning paradigms: H Alipour ifested the ills that existed in the whole process, namely the lack of communication and the antagonism between governmental agencies and private enterprise.
Failures of local planning The first dilemma at the local level was the lack of autonomy in planning which resulted in the lack of initiative for a locally oriented development plan. First, the local effort was concerned primarily with regulating physical development and did not include marketing analysis and promotional elements nor sufficient attention to the broader issues of development. Second, there was a lack of statutory authority to prevent certain establishments from bypassing all the municipality's regulations. For example, certain tourist establishments in Bodrum were allowed to operate independently from local regulations, with the permission of the MCT. Third, Bodrum's municipality lacked the knowledge to develop tourism. A local tourism advisory board was needed to advise the municipality on implementation and to devise an annual marketing plan. An advisory board also needed to include knowledgeable people in the following areas: (a) a representative of the state who is knowledgeable on tourism promotion; (b) a representative from a labour organization representing employees of the industry; (c) a consumer advocate from the organized public interest community; (d) an economist or a statistican; (e) an individual who is knowledgeable in tourism, recreation and conservation. 5
Alternative approach How could Turkey's tourism be better planned? The first step in the realization of an alternative tourism development policy is the establishment of an organization that is aware of general development policies and able to integrate tourism-sector-specific policies. Although the MCT functions as Turkey's National Tourism Organization (NTO), the MCT needs to be converted to an organization that is knowledgeable about tourism. Its traditional administrative nature is rather general/governmental with little or no expertise in development of tourism. The task of the true NTO is twofold. As demonstrated in the hypothetical model (Figure 5), it has to be armed with autonomy, capacity and policy instruments related to the tourism sector in order to be able to implement, evaluate and monitor continuously. The NTO must have the capability to articulate an orderly development process. It needs to survey the national tourism in numerous areas; it has to have a department to analyse and synthesize. For example, it would need to analyse the external tourist travel pattern, past and present tourist arrivals and existing/potential tourist attractions. Then,
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based on these aspects, a market analysis of tourist projections would be made. An NTO (contrary to the MCT) would plan and make strategic decisions before a project's implementation rather than following its implementation. An NTO would represent and demonstrate the public sector's role in tourism development, lnskeep's model could be an important method to reconcile all these difficulties, which the MCT faces today. In Turkey's case, the provincial administrative system could fill the vacuum of regionalism, and in coordination with an NTO develop a series of cooperative agencies to coordinate development and reduce the f r a g m e n t a t i o n within the tourism industry. 25 Equally important, such a coordinated relation between an NTO and provincial/local agencies would produce a form of tourism that would be conducive to Turkey's social structure. For example, farm tourism or rural tourism can be operated and encouraged as an alternative form for those regions that are away from the Aegean beaches. This option, being a rather locally oriented project, would benefit local communities more than enclave developments. An NTO, contrary to the MCT, would need to adopt a platform as its planning guideline not only to achieve policy formulation, but also to encompass numerous tourism-related aspects. This process would come about by determination of preliminary objectives. The new tourism organization could facilitate and adopt policies which would enhance the tourism system on one hand and assist the local municipalities on the other. For instance, the 'comprehensive plan principle' could be adopted for environmental/ ecological purposes as well as being a check mechanism against hazardous private ventures. Comprehensive planning also calls forth specific techniques of implementation, such as preparation of the project development programme (sometimes referred to as the action programme) or development or action strategy, s Although decentralization and delegation of authority to the municipalities was defined as a development goal, it has not yet become a reality in the tourism sector. This situation consequently blurs the spectral implications of the 'formal/informal' sector concept. As Oppermann notes: Given the higher integration of the informal tourism sector enterprises into the local economic structure, it is capable of producing a higher multiplier effect on the local economy than the formal tourism sector. 2¢' In fact MCT's behaviour overlooked the informal tourism sector where it was discriminated against under 'non-registered' tourism activities. Furthermore, the non-registered tourism sector has a higher regional economic impact. 2~
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Conclusion As regards the tourism sector, the Turkish government has failed to come up with guidelines to protect and manage this multifaceted industry. This has occurred because of the lack of recognition and understanding of this sector which comprises an eclectic set of industries. The crisis in Turkish tourism is duc in part to the weakness of the existing institutions that are responsible for tourism planning. They are plagued by what Gunn elaborated as, 'conventional planning [that] has too often been oriented only to a plan, too vague and allencompassing, reactive, sporadic, divorced from budgets and extraneous data p r o d u c i n g ' / At the
same time the policy makers fail to recognize the nature of the tourism sector. Again, as Gunn continued: But organizations, government, and all sectors involved in tourism are not recognizing how interdependent are all the separate entities and fragments that make up the whole. Tourism markets and supply are more widely scattered across the earth than for any other economic activity. It is at this interface of the many parts that many problems arise, requiring a more complex but a more broadscale planning horizon than has been practiced in the past. 7
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Tourism development within planning paradigms: H Alipour
In the context of planning/development paradigms, Gunn's elaboration of 'strategic planning' offers a synthesis to overcome the difficulties of planning for tourism. However, further research is needed to explore and devise new strategies to combat the inevitable reality of tourism inputs. Turkey's case is not an exception to the bitter realities of tourism planning. Butler realistically addressed a pessimistic overview of the relationship between tourism, heritage and sustainable development: • . . not only are planning arrangements often contradictory and fragmented, but they rarely include an integrative approach. It is unrealistic at the local level to attempt to minimize tourist numbers because of environmental impacts, when a higher policy is to increase numbers because of economic benefits, as is often the case. 27 All told, the new paradigm for tourism development should overcome the deficiencies of the 'conventional' approach. This new synthesis can come close to meeting Butler's solution as he notes that: . . . coordination of policies, proactive planning, acceptance of limitations on growth, education of all parties involved, and commitment to a long term viewpoint, are prerequisites to the successful linking of tourism and sustainable development. 27 Innovative planning can complement this paradigm by approaching: (1) institutional change - pertaining to local government; (2) action orientation - a creative social response to problem situations that are often vaguely understood; (3) resource mobilization. 2~ The non-registered informal sector in Turkey's tourism covers a vast part of the industry. Therefore, any planning venture needs to reorganize and protect this sector from the powerful and large-scale formal sector. This is essential since the formal sector penetrates the established informal resorts, as in the case of Bodrum. 26 'Sustainable Development has achieved wide currency as a policy objective integrating environmental and developmental concerns. '~9 Both Inskeep and Gunn, in their effort to develop a 'tourism planning paradigm', have established this principle as a fundamental consideration for tourism development. With respect to tourism planning and development in Turkey, environmental issues have not been addressed in any of the tourism development procedures. This comes as a shock when sustainable tourism development has become the major feature of the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development ( U N C E D ) . Lack of integration of sustainability in tourism development has become a major issue in various Third World countries which
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are desperate to capitalize on tourism. For example, in early 1993 the Thai government was forced to close the major tourist area of Samet - a popular tourist resort south of Bangkok - which resulted in a loss of US$20 million in tourist revenue. 29 Turkey's tourism is part of the continuous global tourism growth which is expected to continue into the foreseeable future. However, there is a missing point between Turkey's own industrial development (as a newly industrialized country) and tourism development to fuel its modernization. This may very well be the lack of awareness of 'alternative tourism' options which are strongly advocated for sustainable tourism development. Finally, a 'win-win' situation can be possible both for tourism and development in general if there is an integrative planning policy to reconcile tourism's informal sector on one hand, and to coordinate public/private sector cooperation on the other. To achieve some of the paradigmatic goals of sustainable tourism, policies should move beyond definition and toward action. These goals are as follow: • To develop greater awareness and understanding of the significant contributions that tourism can make to the environment and economy. • To promote equity in development. • To improve the quality of life of the host. • To provide a high quality of experience satisfaction for the visitor. • To maintain the quality of the environment on which the foregoing objectives depend, s In Turkey's case, there is a lack of clear policy juxtaposed with the absence of any planning paradigm. This has resulted in the government's ambiguity in terms of its role in the tourism sector. This can be witnessed in the case of the non-registered (Belgesiz) tourism sector which has remained without any direction or support knowing that it plays an important role in Turkey's tourism. Non-registration is certainly one characteristic of the informal sector which is labour intensive, and has a higher multiplier effect with a larger per unit of profit margin. 26 The informal sector could have profound spatial and economic implications if it was incorporated into a planning strategy. In fact, its characteristics are incongruent with the notion of 'alternative', 'integrated' and 'soft' or appropriate tourism. The government's role has also remained passive in terms of the public/private sector relationship in the tourism sector. Such passivity can have undermining implications where the private-public sector tourism planning domain includes all activities undertaken in these sectors, which together may determine (a) the quality and quantity of tourism flows into the community, (b) the quality of the tourist experience, and hence (c) the quality of life of tourists and the community. It is suggested that there is a link between the quality of life effects and
Tourism development within planning paradigms: H Alipour
t h e i m a g e o f t h e o v e r a l l t o u r i s m p r o d u c t . 24 T h i s p a p e r d o e s n o t e x h a u s t all t h e p o s s i b i l i t i e s f o r t o u r i s m d e v e l o p m e n t ; f u r t h e r r e s e a r c h is n e e d e d to reconcile the 'local level' oriented planning synthesis which contains rural-oriented dilemmas. Both Gunn's and lnskeep's planning guidelines - despite t h e i r u s e f u l n e s s - h a v e f a i l e d to a d d r e s s l o c a l issues in T h i r d W o r l d s i t u a t i o n s . T h e y h a v e also n o t addressed those unique cases which require distinct r e l e v a n c e to s p e c i f i c s o c i o p o l i t i c a l e n v i r o n m e n t s .
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