- Email: [email protected]
Tourism occupations, career profiles and knowledge
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TOURISM OCCUPATIONS, CAREER IrKOFIL] AND KNOWLEDGE David AlreT
ladm.1 s ~ t a w a e Dept. of Hotel, Catering and Tourism Management University of Surrey. England n
ABSTRACT Airey, Dav/d and Michael Nightingale, Tourism Occupation, Career Profiles a nd Knowledge. Annals of Tourism Research 1981, VIII(1):52-68. This paper summarizes the approach and maln findings of a research study undertaken by the Tourism Society into occupations, career profiles and knowledge requirements of professionals engaged in tourism. It outlines the main stages in the research program, including the identification of a body of knowledge about tourism, the development of an occupational classification, and a survey of professionals employed In tourism. It then presents and comments on findings covering occupational classifications, career profiles and knowledge requirements, making particular reference to the Impllcatlo~s for tourism education. The study is very m u c h a pioneering work in this field and it is confined to the experiences of the United Kingdom. K e y 1 ~ c d s : professional level, body of knowledge, career profiles, occupational classification, employment sector, employment function, employment level, qualifications, professional affiliations, salaries.
D a v i d A i r e y is a lecturer in tourism at the University of Surrey and General Secretary of the Association of Teachers of Tourism. He has written and lectured about tourism in Great Britain and overseas. N ~ is an independent consultant specializing In hotel. catering and tourism. He has a background In the hotel and catering industry and for I0 years was Secretary of the HCIMA (formally the Hotel and Catering Instltute}. Recent work includes projects for the Tourism Society. 52
1981 ANNALS OF TOURISM RESEAI~CI I
(X,t,UI'ATIONS. CAREER PROFILES. KNOWI.EIX;E
RESUME Airey, David a n d Michael Nightingale, O c c u p a t i o n s en T o u r i s m e , Proflis de Carri~re et Connalssa,nces. A n n a l s of T o u r i s m R e s e a r c h 1981, VIII(I}:52-68. L'objet de cet expos~ est d ' e x p l i q u e r , d a n s ses g r a n d e s lignes, la f a r m d o n t la Societ~ de T o u r i s m e a abord~ s o n travail de r e c h e r c h e s u r les emplois, les carri~res et les conn a i s s a n c e s r ~ c e s s a / r e s a u x professionnels e m p l o y ~ s d a n s le T o u r l s m e . Cet expos~ se p r o p o s e a u s s l d'Indlq u e r les prlncipales c o n c l u s i o n s ~ de cette etude. On y t r o u v e r a l'esquisse d e s prlnclpales ~tapes d u prog r a m m e de r e c h e r c h e et, n o t a r n m e n t , l'Identiflcatlon d ' u n agr~gat de c o n n a i s s a n c e s relatives a u t o u r l s m e , l'~laboration d ' u n e classification de ses e m p l o i s et u n t o u r d ' h o r i z o n de ses professionels. On y t r o u v e r a ensuite u n e p r e s e n t a t i o n et u n e d i s c u s s i o n des c o n c l u s i o n s c o n c e r n a n t les class/flcations, les proflls de c a r r i ~ - s et les c o n n a i s s a n c e s n ~ e u a l r e s , avec u n a c c e n t t o u t part/cul/er s u r l e s / m p l / c a U o n s p o u r la l ~ h ~ o g l e relative a u t o u r i s m e , Cette Etude est tr~s ~ v l d e m m e n t u n e o e u v r e de p l o n n l e r s clans ce domaLne et elle se b o r n e a u p h ~ n o m ~ n e t o u r / s t i q u e tel qu'fl se p r e s e n t e a u R o y a u m e - U n l . M o t s C l e f " n l v e a u profess/onnel, s~-~gat d e s con~ces, proflls de carr/~res, classification d e s emplois, n / v e a u de l'emplol, d l p l 6 m e s et c o m l ~ t e n c e s , affiliations professlonnelles, sala/res.
INTRODUCTION T h e g r o w t h in tourist m o v e m e n t s d u r i n g t h e post-war period h a s b e e n m a t c h e d by c o r r e s p o n d i n g i n c r e a s e s in t h e size of t h e t o u r i s m sector, t h e n u m b e r of e m p l o y e e s in t o u r i s m , a n d latterly by t h e r a n g e a n d n u m b e r of c o u r s e s available in t o u r i s m subjects. T h e first t o u r i s m c o u r s e s in t h e United K i n g d o m b e g a n in t h e m i d 1960's. By t h e e n d of t h e 1970's t h e r e were at least 50 e d u c a t i o n a l e s t a b l i s h m e n t s offering c o u r s e s w h i c h i n c l u d e d s o m e a s p e c t s of t h e s t u d y of t o u r i s m . By a n d large, t h e d e v e l o p m e n t of t o u r i s m o c c u p a t i o n s a n d c o u r s e s in t h e United K i n g d o m h a s t e n d e d to o c c u r o n a relatively a d hoc basis. T h e r e h a s b e e n no overall m a s t e r p l a n to guide t h e d e v e l o p m e n t s . As d e m a n d h a s increased, so t h e c o m m e r c i a l a n d public t o u r i s m o r g a n i z a t i o n s h a v e e x p a n d e d their w o r k force a n d 1981 ANNALS OF TOURISM RESEARCH
53
AIREY AND NIGHTINGALE
career p a t t e r n s h a v e b e g u n to emerge. At the s a m e time, or slightly later, colleges a n d universities have d e v e l o p e d vocational e d u c a t i o n to go s o m e w a y t o w a r d s m e e t i n g t h e n e e d s o f this growing sector of t h e e c o n o m y a n d to develop a b o d y of k n o w l e d g e a b o u t t o u r i s m . C o o r d i n a t i o n in e d u c a t i o n h a s b e e n p r o v i d e d forreally t h r o u g h t h e v a r i o u s c o u r s e validating a n d e x a m i n i n g bodies, a n d informally t h r o u g h c o n t a c t s b e t w e e n a c a d e m i c s , b u t even here t h e r e h a s b e e n p l e n t y of scope for d e v e l o p m e n t s to lead in different directions. It is a g a i n s t tli/s b a c k g r o u n d t h a t t h e T o u r i s m Society undertook t h e first s y ~ e m a t i c s t u d y of t o u r i s m o c c u p a t i o n s , career proflies a n d k n o w l e d g e (Nightingale 1980}. T h e i m m e d l a t e p u r p o s e of t h e s t u d y w a s to establish a n u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f k n o w l e d g e req u / r e m e n t s a n d o c c u p a t i o n a l a n d career p a t t e r n s of m e m b e r s a n d potential m e m b e r s of t h e Society. Clearly. thls k l n d of i n f o r m a t i o n is e s s e n t i ~ for t h e d e v e l o p m e n t of a pro fesslonal body. if only as a basis o n w h ! c h to establish m e m b e r s h i p criteria. Over a n d above this. however, t h e Society's s t u d y h a s a m u c h wider s/gnificance. After two or m o r e d e c a d e s of relatively free d e v e l o p m e n t , it is t h e first real a t t e m p t to Io0k s y s t e m a t i c a l y at w h a t h a s h a p p e n e d . It sets o u t the k i n d of o c c u p a t i o n s w h i c h are available at a professlonal level in t o u r i s m , t h e profiles of t h e car~ers w h i c h h a v e b e e n developed, as well a s t h e k n o w l e d g e r e q u i r e d by t h e individuals e n g a g e d in these careers. S u c h i n f o r m a t i o n Is of interest n o t only to t h e T o u r i s m Society b u t also to a n y o r g a n i z a t i o n c o n c e r n e d with education, training, a n d career ' d e v e l o p m e n t in t o u r i s m . T h e a i m of this p a p e r is to briefly outline t h e objectives, m e t h o d s , a n d a p p r o a c h of the s t u d y a n d to h i g h l i g h t s o m e of the key findings. To the e x t e n t t h a t it is a p i o n e e r i n g s t u d y in t h e field of t o u r i s m , u n d e r t a k e n on a very limited b u d g e t , it inevitably contains w e a k n e s s e s , Also, for a ~ i n t e r n a t i o n a l a u d i e n c e , it m u s t be e m p h a s i z e d t h a t it is based solely o n t h e e x p e r i e n c e of t h e United Kin~dom. T h e s e I / m l t a i ~ n s apart, t h e a p p r o a c h a n d findings of the s t u d y provide w h a t is believed to be a useful a n d internat/onall y relevant s t a r t i n g p o i n t for a n u n d e r s t a n d i n g of t h e Jobs a n d k n o w l e d g e n e e d s of people in tourism. T h e s/gnJflcance of this k i n d of i n f o r m a t i o n for t o u r i s m e d u c a t i o n h a r d l y n e e d s to be stated. OBJECTIVES, METHODS AND APPROACH T h e p u r p o s e of t h e s t u d y w a s to establish a n o c c u p a t i o n a l classification for t h o s e in t o u r i s m at a professional level, toJdentify the career profiles of individuals holding s u c h o c c u p a t i o n s a n d to 54
1518 1 A N N A I . S O F T O U R I S M RESEAR(.'I 1
OCCUI'AT]ONS. CAREER PROFILES. KNOWLEDGE
define the b o d y of k n o w l e d g e a b o u t tourism relevant to these occupations. As u s e d here, "professional level" m e a n s those occupations followed by individuals, n o r m a l l y after a long period of formal e d u c a t i o n or training, which are based on a well defined area of knowledge. In o r d e r to achieve this purpose, four fairly distinct tasks were u n d e r t a k e n . First, a n occupational classification of relevance to professional level e m p l o y m e n t in t o u r i s m w a s developed. Secondly, a b o d y of knowledge a b o u t t o u r i s m w a s identified. Thirdly, a series of interviews were held with a limited n u m b e r of key inform a n t s e n g a g e d in tourism. Finally, a postal q u e s t i o n n a i r e s u r v e y of individuals w a s u n d e r t a k e n . In addition, total e m p l o y m e n t at a professional level in t o u r i s m was quantified. At the s a m e time, information was also a c c u m u l a t e d from desk research. At each stage, the w o r k w a s m o n i t o r e d by a panel r e p r e s e n t i n g the m a i n c o m p o n e n t sectors of tourism. This section of the paper seeks to outline these four t a s k s a n d the w a y s in w h i c h t h e y were handled, before going on in the n e x t section to consider s o m e of the m a i n findings. As far as the occupational classification is c o n c e r n e d , it was decided t h a t it would be helpful to a n u n d e r s t a n d i n g of c a r e e r profiles a n d related k n o w l e d g e r e q u i r e m e n t s to do this in t h r e e different ways, reflecting the different sectors, functions a n d levels of "those e n g a g e d a t a professional level in tourism. T h e t h r e e resulting classifications are set out in Table 1. T h e first c l a r i f i c a t i o n by sector of employment consists of ten separate sectors w h i c h are g r o u p e d u n d e r four broad headings, n a m e l y : tourist destination organizations: suppliers of tourist attractions, facilities a n d services; travel organizations a n d intermediaries; a n d o t h e r sectors. Since a n y single e m p l o y i n g organization m i g h t be e n g a g e d in activities w h i c h fall within a n u m b e r of t h e s e groups a n d sectors, it m u s t be e m p h a s i z e d t h a t the classification is by the activity of the individual not by the organization in w h i c h h e works. The second classification is by function a n d has two broad headings: general a n d specialist. Within t h e s e a n u m b e r of sub-divisions were m a d e . As far as the general functions are c o n c e r n e d , for example, it was found d u r i n g the s t u d y t h a t t h e r e was a significant difference b e t w e e n those e n g a g e d in general functions in a tourist organization, s u c h as a national tourist board, a n d those in general functions in o t h e r tourist enterprises, s u c h as hotels or t r a n s p o r t companies. Similarly, the level within the organization, w h e t h e r it is at h e a d 1981 ANNALS OF TOURISM RESEARCH
55
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sales: visitor tnformaUon Physical planning and development Research Other
promotion:
where immilMe further claas/fy under: product formulation:
UarheUndoporattom
Slmdaiklt I~metlis
General OlPem¢lo~ in compmLmt ~ ocher than tmmm oqlantutttona where pemlble further classify under general operatimm: at head orate: m reipou or area; at local unit: In m d e p e m k m unit
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Classification by Function Job
Classifications
( 11including visitor information centres (2) including local government facilities {3} including offices in passenger transport, care hire and motoring organization and local government ofrices
Travol o t g a n / s a t J o ~ a n d J n t o r m o d l a s l o s Tour operations and travel organizations (3} Retail travel agencies Guides and relatedservices OCher
Tma'tnt attracttorm and entertainment (2) Passenger transport, ear hire and motoring organlsaUons
Conferenceflcllltles (2)
S ~ s p U w s d tmsrist s t ~ . Md sm~tms Accommodation
TmaurIN 41kmtllmti~ orlllmlsatlo~s Statutory tourist boards ( 1} Regional tourist orllamzaUom i l | Local tourlM m-ganl~utmm ( 1}
Classificationby Sector oi"Employrnenl
Occupational
Table I
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Geaer~ m M s g e r
Classification by Level Role Grade
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OCCUI'ATIONS. CAREER PROFILES. K N O W L E I X I E
office or at local unit was found to have a significant bearing on the functions of the individuals concerned. T h e specialist functions were divided into m a r k e t i n g operations, physical p l a n n i n g and development, r e s e a r c h a n d o t h e r functions. T h e final classification is by level o r r o l e of the individual a n d here six groups are identified. T h i s particular classification presented few p r o b l e m s as it h a d a l r e a d y been well tested in o t h e r fields. Having m a d e the classification, it was t h e n used as a basis for outlining the n a t u r e of the o c c u p a t i o n s a n d the e m p l o y i n g organizations a n d for considering the career profiles a n d k n o w l e d g e r e q u i r e m e n t s of the individuals employed. T u r n i n g to the second task, this involved identifying the body of knowledge a b o u t t o u r i s m w h i c h could be used to e x a m i n e the k n o w l e d g e r e q u i r e m e n t s of those e n g a g e d in tourism. For this purpose, the body of knowledge defined by the E d u c a t i o n a n d T r a i n i n g c o m m i t t e e of the T o u r i s m SocietY was used as summ a r i z e d in Table 2. T h e third task b r o u g h t the s t u d y into direct c o n t a c t with in. dividuals e n g a g e d in tourism, This consisted of a series of interviews with key i n f o r m a n t s from a cross section of the sectors of tourism. T h e m a i n r e a s o n for u s i n g k e y i n f o r m a n t s w a s purely pragmatic, in t h a t the h e t e r o g e n e o u s a n d i n d e t e r m i n a t e n a t u r e of t o u r i s m militated against the adoption of r a n d o m sample s u r v e y t e c h n i q u e s . Further, t h e experience of previous similar r e s e a r c h highlighted t h e p r o b l e m s of low r e s p o n s e rates from e m p l o y e r s a n d pointed to the a d v a n t a g e of small-scale s u r v e y s based on personal interviews. In the light of this, k e y i n f o r m a n t s were simply selected for their broad k n o w l e d g e a n d e x p e r i e n c e of the particular sector, as well as being as far as possible typical of the organizations e n g a g e d in the sector. In total, 50 people were interviewed from 33 organizations. F r o m these, it began to be possible to build u p a n initial picture of the c a r e e r profiles a n d occupations of t o u r i s m professionals a n d the kind of k n o w l e d g e t h e y could be e x p e c t e d to n e e d in order to be effective in their work. T h e final task was based on a postal q u e s t i o n n a i r e w h i c h was s e n t to over 1,000 individuals below the age of 35 who had b e e n e n g a g e d in t o u r i s m at a professional level for at least two years. T h e rationale for excluding those over 35 was simply t h a t their c a r e e r progress in a new i n d u s t r y like t o u r i s m could n o t b e t h o u g h t to be indicative of c u r r e n t or future patterns. Once again, the s a m p l e was not strictly r a n d o m . It was based on the T o u r i s m Society m e m b e r s h i p list a n d various college lists. In addition, w h e r e it was n e c e s s a r y to provide a d e q u a t e r e p r e s e n t a t i o n of 1981 ANNALS OF TOURISM RESEARCH
57
AIREY AND NIGHTINGALE
Table 2
T h e Main C o m p o n e n t s
of t h e B o d y of K n o w l e d g e
about Tourism (I} Major Comportent
Brief description of c o n t e n t s C o n c e p t s of leisure, recreation, t o u r i s m T y p e s of t o u r i s m a c c o r d i n g to p u r p o s e C o n c e p t s of touriat destination, aervice~ I n d u s t r y
W h a t is T o u r i s m ?
Historical tourism
development
of Past - to 2 n d World W a r Recent a n d c u r r e n t 1945-1980 F u t u r e from 1 0 8 0 o n w a r d s
Determinants and motivations in tourism
Statistical m e a s u r e m e n t a n d dimensions
F a c t o r s s t i m u l a t i n g g r o w t h of t o u r i s m {determinants} W h y people .,v~h t o travel (motivatlonsl I n f l u e n c e s of s u p p l y T y p e s of t o u r i s m s t a t i s t i c s a n d their l i m i t a t i o n s D o m e s t i c tourisra - s o u r c e s , m e t h o d s , d i m e n ~ o n s International t o u r i s m - sources, m e t h o d s , d i m e n s i o n s
Significance of t o u r i s m
C o n t r i b u t i o n s of tourlmm to t h e e c o n o m y Social significance a n d Impact of t o u r i s m Physical significance - land use. e n v i r o n m e n t
Component sectors
Tourist industry and component sectors E c o n o m i c a n d o p e r a t i n g c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of s e c t o r s C u r r e n t t r e n d s a n d d e v e l o p m e n t s in m a i n s e c t o r s
Marketing
Role of m a r k e t i n g in t o u r i s m . P l a n n i n g a n d r e s e a r c h Markets a n d products, p r o d u c t forrnulatior. ; P r o m o t i o n a n d redes
Physical planning development
and
Organization
Finance
Planning concepts and planning machinery Infrastructure planning and development S u p e r s t r u c t u r e project p l a n n i n g a n d d e v e l o p m e n t S t r u c t u r e a n d roles of g o v e r n m e n t a n d tourist b o a r d s T r a d e ae~ociations a n d u n i o n s , professional bodies Related public bodies I O p e r a t i n g financial a c c o u n t s of t o u r i s m f i r m s R e q u i r e m e n t s . sources, m e t h o d s - tourist board finance R e q u i r e m e n t s . sources, m e t h o d s - d e v e l o p m e n t f i n a n c e ii
i
~,C) The Tourism ~ ' l e t y , London ( I } In its attempts to establish the knowledge requirements of individuals w o r k i n g at a proIe~slonal level In tourism, the Education and T r a i n i n g Committee of the Tourimlrt Society identified the body of knowledge about tourism as consisting of the above major comix)nenis.
5H
1981 A N N A I . S O F T O U R I S M I~ESEAR('I I
O('('UI~ATIONS. CAREEI¢ PROFILES. KNOWLEIX~E
specific sectors, t h e s e were s u p p l e m e n t e d from particular lists relating to the sectors. In total, nearly 300 c o m p l e t e d questionnaires were received. T h e questionnaire was in t h r e e parts, focusing in t u r n on essential personal data, information on c u r r e n t a n d previous e m p l o y m e n t , a n d r e s p o n d e n t s ' views on the knowledge a b o u t t o u r i s m t h e y required to be effective in their work. F r o m this a n d from the earlier interviews, the findings of the report were t h e n developed. Clearly, t h e r e are w e a k n e s s e s in the data collection techniques adopted. In s o m e cases, for example, the n u m b e r of r e s p o n d e n t s relating to a n individual sector, function or level was e x t r e m e l y low. Also, not being r a n d o m , there was inevitably a bias in the response. P e r h a p s the m o s t significant area of bias is that in using the T o u r i s m Society m e m b e r s h i p list, r e s p o n d e n t s were likely to be those w h o a l r e a d y identified t h e m s e l v e s as professionals working in tourism. This m e a n s t h a t t h e y would be likely to view t o u r i s m as a n identifiable a n d discrete field of activity. This. in turn, would probably influence their a t t i t u d e toward, for example, knowledge r e q u i r e m e n t s a b o u t tourism. Whilst t h e r e are a d m i t t e d weaknesses, t h e s e should not be allowed to d e t r a c t too seriously from the overall value of the findings in w h a t is essentially a pioneering study. On the contrary, since in m o s t cases the findings are based on a n u m b e r of sources from both desk a n d field research, m a n y , if not all, can be considered with a degree of confidence. FINDINGS In llne with the objectives of the study, the findings are g r o u p e d u n d e r t h r e e headings: the occupational classification, c a r e e r profiles of professionals in tourism, a n d the knowledge req u i r e m e n t s . This section a i m s to highlight s o m e of the key fin. dings, particularly those with a significance for t o u r i s m education. T h e occupational classification w h i c h e m e r g e d from the r e s e a r c h has a l r e a d y b e e n set out in Table 1. Within this, one of the findings w a s t h a t t h e r e were a limited n u m b e r of significant groupings across the t h r e e d i m e n s i o n s of the classification. In o t h e r words, t h e r e a p p e a r e d to be a few cases w h e r e there was a significant likelihood of e m p l o y m e n t in a particular sector being associated with a particular function or functions a n d with a particular level or levels of e m p l o y m e n t . T h e s e groups are s u m m a r i z ed in Table 3, w h i c h points, for example, to a link b e t w e e n 198I ANNALSOF TOURISMRESEARCH
59
,.,,;
m >
N
0
0
> z z > m
Accommodation P a s s e n g e r transport, car hire. & m o t o r i n g o r g a n i z a t i o n s T o u r o p e r a t i o n s a n d travel o r g a n i z a t i o n s Retail travel agencies
Tourist destination o r g a n i z a t i o n s
COMPONENT S E C T O R S OF EMPLOYMENT Marketing Physical p l a n n i n g
General Manager Departmental/divisional manager M e m b e r of staff
Departmental/divisional manager M e m b e r of Staff
General o p e r a t i o n s Marketing
ROLE/LEVEL/GRADE
of the Classification
FUNCTION/JOB
Significant Groupings Across Three Dimensions
Table 3
0> r"
,.-1
z
..< > z
OC('UPATIONS. ('ANEEIt i*ROFILES. KNOWI.EI)GE
e m p l o y m e n t in tourist destination organizations with an involvem e n t in m a r k e t i n g or p l a n n i n g a n d a position at the level of d e p a r t m e n t a l m a n a g e r or m e m b e r of staff. It is difficult to d r a w a n y i m m e d i a t e implications from these links o t h e r t h a n to the n e e d to e x a m i n e the relationship b e t w e e n the t h r e e d i m e n s i o n s in g r e a t e r detail. But clearly, as far as t e a c h e r s are c o n c e r n e d , it could be of considerable significance for c o u r ~ p l a n n i n g a n d c a r e e r s advice to be aware, for example, of a link b e t w e e n type of sector a n d t y p e of function in which e m p l o y m e n t is s u b s e q u e n t l y found. As far as the c a r e e r profiles are c o n c e r n e d , professional e m p l o y m e n t in the various sectors, functions, a n d levels was a n a l y z e d by age. qualifications, professional affiliations, relative salaries, a n d the n a t u r e a n d size of organization, as well a s by the p a t t e r n a n d flow of m o v e m e n t to a n d b e t w e e n sectors a n d functions. S o m e of the k e y findings a b o u t the c a r e e r profile are set out in s u m m a r y form in Table 4. It would be impractical to c o m m e n t on all these here. However, one general observation w h i c h will be of particular interest for t o u r i s m e d u c a t i o n c o n c e r n s the qualifications of professionals in tourism. It would a p p e a r that whflmt a significant n u m b e r h a v e received f u r t h e r a n d h i g h e r education, t h o s e with a n actual qualification in t o u r i s m itself s e e m to be fairly small in m a n y sectors, especially as t h e s a m p l e design w a s w e i g h t e d t o w a r d s those with qualifications. Clearly, this to a certain e x t e n t is a reflection of the British educational s y s t e m , but it also c o n t a i n s a meeumge for the provision of t o u r i s m c o u r s e , particularly at a level below h i g h e r degree. It is the last group of findings w h i c h are of m o s t interest for t o u r i s m teachers. T h e s e a r e , c o n c e r n e d with the knowledge req u i r e m e n t s of professionals in tourism. An interesting point to note at the outset is t h a t in m o s t cases the e m p l o y e e s perceived a g r e a t e r r e q u i r e m e n t for a k n o w l e d g e of t o u r i s m t h a n the employers. A b r e a k d o w n of knowledge r e q u i r e m e n t s b y sector. function, a n d role/level is p r e s e n t e d in Tables 5, 6, a n d 7. As far as the sectoral analysis is concerned, the i m p o r t a n t point to note is the high proportion (i.e. over three quarters} of the r e s p o n d e n t s across the sectors w h o expressed a r e q u i r e m e n t for s o m e k n o w l e d g e of w h a t t o u r i s m is, d e t e r m i n a n t s a n d motivations of tourism, c o m p o n e n t sectors, a n d m a r k e t i n g . Knowledge of the last two was required at a detailed level in m o s t sectors. It is also interesting to note t h a t the majority (i.e. over half) in m o s t sectors had a r e q u i r e m e n t of s o m e k n o w l e d g e in a l m o s t all aspects. 1981 ANNALS OF TOURISM RESEARCH
61
AIREY AND NIGHTINGALE
Table 4 O u t J l n e o f Msdm 1 3 n d l n p
about Career Profiles in Tourism
~u,~er ~ and ~e "l'Ou~st dmRinaUon organ/zaflons a n d tour/st attracUons have less than average
ofpeo0/e under ~
• Tour operators and travel organ/zat/ons and retail travel agents have above average of people over 25 • Mote in general unlt operaUons tend to be youngei- than those in speclal/st functlons • T h e first general m a n a g e r posts seem to be attained at about 30
• Many of those at a pt~ofi~donal level concerned w/ill tour/sin have received fur. ther a n d hlgher educst/on t o a t least first degree or h/gher national d/ploma start. dard. A s//In/flcant m / n o r / t / h a v e higher degrees and dtpiomss • At first d q g e e / H N D level the w.q~r/ty has a qua/iflcat/on In a discipline other
•~
t o ~ O ~ , but at a ~
m tile t~arlst ~
~her ~'es
level a m n b ~ have a qu.ancat~n ,,, o r g s n / z ~ o M there appears to be a h/gher ~ o n
of
ttum in the oo~.r . ~ m
• in ~ trammport, tour/st attract/ores a n d entertm/nment, a n d tour operators a n d travel o r l a m z e ~ there is a s/gnlflcant n u m b e r w/th a qual/flcauon in tour/un • In the ~ o n sector, few hold a quallflcatton above first degree level
• In the ~
funct/om there ~, a ~0reaterproportam of emp~yees w/th h / ~ e r
d e g r e R than in ~
operation
~ m d Amllatlons •Those involved at a Im~ess/onal level In tour/ran belong to a w/de range of profesa m e e m U e a ~ although the survey ~ t h a t fewer m a y belong to pmfemlonal hodhm than ts generally mmumed • Those In the public sector appear to value p m f e u i o n a l affiliation more than t h m e m the ptqvate ~ t o r ,_galaqes • Salaries in local tourist organizations, accommodation and tourist attractions and e n t e r t a i n m e n t alaqpear to be below average for sll e~etore •6alarles in Immenger transport a n d tour opemtimm and tourist organizations ap. peru" to be strove avemg~ ¢ ~ d m l e s In the Vhtitor information funeUons a p p e a r to be below average • Only a small pmporUon, mainly In the commercial sectors seem to receive add|. tiomd emoluments. ,the most a~lnflkant being the bonus, car a n d accommodatim Movement to a n d between sectors a n d functions • Those c i t e d in the following a p p e a r to stay in their Johe longer than average: ~ eqlanizattmm: geaeral operations at head office and regtoM: vtelm~ Infermattoa: phyalcal phmuing a n d development: research crlmse employed In the following appear to stay In their Jobs shorter than average: tourtst attracttmm axtd e n ~ m e n t : retail travel agencies; general
ow..ons at.~t , ~ : ~-,.,. and pum:~ty: ~,d.~t ~'ve~p,~e,,t
62
198 | ANNAI.S OF TOURISM RESEARCH
0'~ r,.o
O0
G0
0 C
Z Z t-" 00 0 ,q
y
m
r of
ent
For key seeTable 7
Finance
XX
Organization XX
XX
XX
XX
XX
XX
X
X
X
X
XX*
X X
XX X
X
X
XX* XX
X X
XX*
XX*
XX
XX*
Z 0
P';,
Physical planning and development
XX*
XX
X
X
XX*
XX
X
X
XX*
XX*
XX
X
Marketing
XX
X
X
XX*
X
XX
XX*
XX
XX
C o m p o n e n t sectors
Z
XX*
XX
:> .-]
XX
XX*
X
XX
Retail travel agencies
Significance of tourism
XX*
X
XX
orgs.
Tour ops & tr.
:Z 0
XX
X
XX*
tourist attracs. & ent.
XX
XX
X
XX
Pass transport etc.
XX
XX
X
XX*
Accommodatlon
Statistical measu r e m e n t & dimensions
XX*
XX*
XX*
Local tourist orgs.
;> ;C P~
XX
XX*
XX*
XX* XX*
Reg. tourist orgs.
Stat. tourist boards
Determinants & motivations in tourism
Historical developm e n t of tourism
What is tourism?
knowledge heading,~
~
Table 5 R e q a l r e m a n t f o r I U m w l ~ l l ~ elf Tomqmm - S e c t o r a l A a m l y s l s
m
O ,.J
2 Z :>
2>
0c
X
XX
X
X
XX
X
Historical developm e n t of tourism
Determinants & motivations in tourism
Statistical measurement & dimensions
For key see Table 7
X
X
X
Organization X
X
X
Physical planning & development
Finance
XX
XX*
X
XX
X
XX*
XX*
XX
C o m p o n e n t sectors
Marketing
X
X
XX
XX*
X
XX*
Marketing operations
Significance of tourism XX
XX
XX*
General Operations Head Office Unit
What is tourism?
Knowledge heading
n/Job
X*
XX
X*
XX*
XX*
X
XX*
XX
X
XX*
Product . development
X
XX
X
XX*
XX
XX
XX
XX*
X
XX
Press & publlcity
X
X
X
XX
X
XX
X
XX
Visitor informatron
Table 6 R e q u i r e m e n t for K n o w l e d f l e o f T o u r i s m - F u n c t i o n a l A a s l y s i s
XX
XX*
XX*
XX
XX
XX*
XX
XX*
XX*
XX*
Physical planning & devt.
XX
XX
XX*
XX
XX
XX*
XX*
XX
XX*
Research
t"
0
-]
Z
~0 -¢
>_
Gn
-r
0
Z Z
bd
level Dept./div. Mngr.
XX* XX
XX*
XX X XX* XX* X
XX X
General Mngr. XX* X
XX
XX X XX XX* X
XX X
X
X
XX
X
X
X
XX
Supervisor
Key X Requlrememo(knowledgebymaJorltyo(respondentsiLe.overhalO XX I R l e q ~ d ~ of hllth proporUono( ~ n ~ II'e- °ver three quartersj • Reqoirmt~ d detailed imowledte by s majority m rmpuumm
Finance
Organization
Physical planning and development
Marketing
C o m p o n e n t sectors
Significance of tourism
Statistical m e a s u r e m e n t & dimensions
D e t e r m i n a n t s and motivations In tourism
Historical d e v e l o p m e n t of tourism
What Is tourism?
knowledge heading
~
X
X
X*
X
X
X
X
X
Member of Staff
Requirement for Knowledge of Tourism - Role/Level Analysis
Table 7
X
X
X
XX*
XX
XX
X*
X*
XX
XX*
Advisor etc.
z ©
m
O {-
~c
z
N
AIREY AND NIGHTINGALE
By function, the e m p h a s i s is on similar k n o w l e d g e comp o n e n t s a l t h o u g h one difference is in the specialist f u n c t i o n s o t h e r t h a n visitor information. Here. an e m p h a s i s is also on statistical measurement and dimensions, and organizations. The r e s p o n d e n t s in t h e f u n c t i o n s of m a r k e t i n g operations, physical p l a n n i n g a n d d e v e l o p m e n t , a n d r e s e a r c h s e e m e d to require a detailed k n o w l e d g e of a n u m b e r of aspects. T h e analysis by role/level reveals t h a t t h e r e q u i r e m e n t s of t h e r e s p o n d e n t s h o l d i n g m a n a g e m e n t a n d advisory posts were m u c h wider a n d g r e a t e r t h a n t h o s e at s u p e r v i s o r or m e m b e r of staff level. As in t h e functional analysis, it a p p e a r s t h a t a h i g h proportion of s e n i o r staff require k n o w l e d g e of statistical m e a s u r e m e n t s a n d d i m e n s i o n s a n d organization. Apart from the k n o w l e d g e r e q u i r e m e n t s b a s e d o n t h e b o d y of knowledge, a n u m b e r of the r e s p o n d e n t s indentified o t h e r subJects or topics. T h e m o s t significant of these a p p e a r e d to be foreign languages, legal aspects, print material p r e p a r a t i o n , a n d t r a i n i n g a n d e d u c a t i o n . T h e n e e d for t h e first t h r e e w a s also m e n t i o n e d by a n u m b e r of e m p l o y e r s . It s e e m s clear t h a t foreign l a n g u a g e s s h o u l d n o r m a l l y be i n c l u d e d in longer c o u r s e s with a significant t o u r i s m e l e m e n t a n d t h a t a d e q u a t e a t t e n t i o n s h o u l d be paid to t h e legal a s p e c t s of tourism. T h e p r e p a r a t i o n of print m a t e r i a l a n d t r a i n i n g a n d education, o n t h e o t h e r h a n d . s e e m to be far too specific to w a r r a n t general inclusion o n courses. Clearly. it is this latter part of t h e s t u d y , c o n c e r n e d w i t h k n o w l e d g e r e q u i r e m e n t s , w h i c h h a s m o s t central relevance for t o u r i s m e d u c a t i o n . However. it is difficult to isolate general conclusions from the findings. P e r h a p s t h e only real generalization w h i c h c a n be m a d e is t h a t the c u r r e n t b o d y of k n o w l e d g e , as identiffed by t h e T o u r i s m Society. set o u t here in Table 2. a p p e a r s to cover m o s t of the a s p e c t s of t o u r i s m required by professional pers o n n e l w o r k i n g in t o u r i s m , a n d t h a t within this. m o s t c o m p o n e n t s of t h e b o d y of k n o w l e d g e are in fact required. T h e r e are obviously variations in detailed r e q u i r e m e n t s in different sectors, f u n c t i o n s a n d levels, b u t overall t h e b o d y of k n o w l e d g e (Table 2) certainly s e e m s to be a n a p p r o p r i a t e starting point for p l a n n i n g professional education requirements. Therefore. t h e initial m e s s a g e for t o u r i s m e d u c a t i o n is t h a t the t o u r i s m c o m p o n e n t of c o u r s e s w h i c h are non-specific as regards sector, function, or level s h o u l d aim to include all or m o s t comp o n e n t s of the b o d y of k n o w l e d g e as set o u t here. Within this, a k n o w l e d g e of w h a t t o u r i s m is. d e t e r m i n a n t s a n d motivations. 66
1981 ANNALS OF TOUHISM HESEARClt
O('CUPATIONS. CAREER PROFILES, KNOWI.EIX~E
c o m p o n e n t sectors a n d m a r k e t i n g would s e e m to be the m o s t imp o r t a n t ingredients of knowledge a b o u t t o u r i s m a n d a p p e a r to be r e q u i r e d across a l m o s t every sector, function, a n d level in w h i c h the individual m i g h t find e m p l o y m e n t . For c o u r s e s w h i c h are m o r e specific in focus a s r e g a r d s sector or function, the course coverage could be m u c h m o r e narrow. But h a v i n g said this, t h e s e k n o w l e d g e r e q u i r e m e n t findings suggest t h a t the above four ingredients should still have an i m p o r t a n t part to play in all s u c h c o u r s e s a n d since individuals do c h a n g e sector, function, a n d level d u r i n g their careers, it would a p p e a r to m a k e little sense for a n y tourism course to d r a w its b o u n d a r i e s too narrowly. More specifically, if o n e a s s u m e s that the aim of m o s t t o u r i s m professionals is to achieve the equivalent position of d e p a r t m e n t a l m a n a g e r or more, t h e n the c u r r e n t knowledge req u i r e m e n t s of individuals in t h e s e positions would suggest that the m o r e broadly based t o u r i s m courses m a y be m o r e useful later in a career. T h e y m a y also be of m o r e help t h a n n a r r o w c o u r s e s in assisting individuals to achieve their c a r e e r aims. CONCLUSION This p a p e r h a s a t t e m p t e d to set out the b a c k g r o u n d , approach, a n d findings of w h a t is essentially the first a t t e m p t at a s y s t e m a t i c e x a m i n a t i o n of c a r e e r s in t o u r i s m a n d the relationship with t o u r i s m education. T h e s t u d y is very m u c h a pioneering effort a n d a great deal m o r e work could usefully be u n d e r t a k e n in this area. Indeed, it would s e e m to be i m p o r t a n t t h a t with the continuing d e v e l o p m e n t of t o u r i s m c a r e e r s a n d c o u r s e s s u c h w o r k is not only desirable b u t n e c e s s a r y for effective course planning. F r o m the point of view of t o u r i s m education, t h e r e are three a r e a s of the s t u d y w h i c h are of particular interest a n d are w o r t h highlighting here. T h e first is the outline of a complete body of k n o w l e d g e a b o u t t o u r i s m w h i c h a p p e a r s to be required b y professionals e n g a g e d in tourism. T h e second is the n a t u r e of the eventual careers available in t o u r i s m a n a l y z e d by sector, function a n d level. T h e third is the testing of t h e value of the ingredients of the b o d y of k n o w l e d g e for those actually w o r k i n g in t h e s e careers at a professional level in tourism. T h e i m m e d i a t e conclusions w h i c h e m e r g e from this are first t h a t a l m o s t all c o m p o n e n t s of the body of knowledge a p p e a r to h a v e at least s o m e relevance no m a t t e r w h i c h sector, function, or level the individual is working in. Secondly, it s e e m s as if certain c o m p o n e n t s , n a m e l y a k n o w l e d g e of the c o m p o n e n t sectors of 1981 ANNALS OF TOURISM R E S E A R C H
67
AIREY AND NIGHTINGALE
tourism, marketing, w h a t tourism is, a n d d e t e r m i n a n t s a n d motivations have a special i m p o r t a n c e aeross almost all career positions. Finally, the most useful tourism courses, at least in terms of eventual careers a n d career development, are the m o r e broadly based courses. T h e s e are, of course, very tentative conclusions a n d they are certa/nly capable of further refinement a n d analysis. Indeed, the basis on w h i c h t h e y are m a d e could be considerably strerlgthened. Nevertheless, it is hoped they shed s o m e light on the relationship between tourism education, a n d tourism careers a n d that the s t u d y h a s gone s o m e w a y towards illustrating the scope of research in this area a n d the various a p p r o a c h e s to t h e research task. T h e T o u r i s m Society itself is currently developing further the work on the body of knowledge for publication early in 1981. In the m e a n t i m e , it is hoped that'this s t u d y will e n c o u r a g e others to contribute to a further u n d e r s t a n d i n g of the r e q u i r e m e n t s of pro. fessional education in tourism.Q[:] Acknowledgements The a u t h o r s gratefully acknowledge the T o u r i s m Society for their permission to d r a w u p o n s o m e of the findings of the research study a n d V.T.C. Middleton, Senior Lecturer in T o u r i s m at the University of Surrey, for c o m m e n t i n g on the draft of this paper. T h e research work of this arUcle is based on a 150 page report prepared by Michael NighUngale a n d published by the T o u r i s m Society in April 1980. BIBLIOGRAPHY Airey, David 1979 T o u r i s m Education in the United Kingdom. The Tourist Review 34(2): 13-15. Nightingale, Michael 1980 Tourism Occupations. Career Profiles a n d Knowledge. London, England: T o u r i s m Society. Submitted 1 8 J u l y 1980 Revised version submitted 18 November 1980 Accepted 12 J a n u a r y 1981 Refereed a n o n y m o u s l y 68
1981 ANNALS OF TOURISM RESEAI~tCH
i
IL
i
i[
i
I
TOURISM OCCUPATIONS, CAREER IrKOFIL] AND KNOWLEDGE David AlreT
ladm.1 s ~ t a w a e Dept. of Hotel, Catering and Tourism Management University of Surrey. England n
ABSTRACT Airey, Dav/d and Michael Nightingale, Tourism Occupation, Career Profiles a nd Knowledge. Annals of Tourism Research 1981, VIII(1):52-68. This paper summarizes the approach and maln findings of a research study undertaken by the Tourism Society into occupations, career profiles and knowledge requirements of professionals engaged in tourism. It outlines the main stages in the research program, including the identification of a body of knowledge about tourism, the development of an occupational classification, and a survey of professionals employed In tourism. It then presents and comments on findings covering occupational classifications, career profiles and knowledge requirements, making particular reference to the Impllcatlo~s for tourism education. The study is very m u c h a pioneering work in this field and it is confined to the experiences of the United Kingdom. K e y 1 ~ c d s : professional level, body of knowledge, career profiles, occupational classification, employment sector, employment function, employment level, qualifications, professional affiliations, salaries.
D a v i d A i r e y is a lecturer in tourism at the University of Surrey and General Secretary of the Association of Teachers of Tourism. He has written and lectured about tourism in Great Britain and overseas. N ~ is an independent consultant specializing In hotel. catering and tourism. He has a background In the hotel and catering industry and for I0 years was Secretary of the HCIMA (formally the Hotel and Catering Instltute}. Recent work includes projects for the Tourism Society. 52
1981 ANNALS OF TOURISM RESEAI~CI I
(X,t,UI'ATIONS. CAREER PROFILES. KNOWI.EIX;E
RESUME Airey, David a n d Michael Nightingale, O c c u p a t i o n s en T o u r i s m e , Proflis de Carri~re et Connalssa,nces. A n n a l s of T o u r i s m R e s e a r c h 1981, VIII(I}:52-68. L'objet de cet expos~ est d ' e x p l i q u e r , d a n s ses g r a n d e s lignes, la f a r m d o n t la Societ~ de T o u r i s m e a abord~ s o n travail de r e c h e r c h e s u r les emplois, les carri~res et les conn a i s s a n c e s r ~ c e s s a / r e s a u x professionnels e m p l o y ~ s d a n s le T o u r l s m e . Cet expos~ se p r o p o s e a u s s l d'Indlq u e r les prlncipales c o n c l u s i o n s ~ de cette etude. On y t r o u v e r a l'esquisse d e s prlnclpales ~tapes d u prog r a m m e de r e c h e r c h e et, n o t a r n m e n t , l'Identiflcatlon d ' u n agr~gat de c o n n a i s s a n c e s relatives a u t o u r l s m e , l'~laboration d ' u n e classification de ses e m p l o i s et u n t o u r d ' h o r i z o n de ses professionels. On y t r o u v e r a ensuite u n e p r e s e n t a t i o n et u n e d i s c u s s i o n des c o n c l u s i o n s c o n c e r n a n t les class/flcations, les proflls de c a r r i ~ - s et les c o n n a i s s a n c e s n ~ e u a l r e s , avec u n a c c e n t t o u t part/cul/er s u r l e s / m p l / c a U o n s p o u r la l ~ h ~ o g l e relative a u t o u r i s m e , Cette Etude est tr~s ~ v l d e m m e n t u n e o e u v r e de p l o n n l e r s clans ce domaLne et elle se b o r n e a u p h ~ n o m ~ n e t o u r / s t i q u e tel qu'fl se p r e s e n t e a u R o y a u m e - U n l . M o t s C l e f " n l v e a u profess/onnel, s~-~gat d e s con~ces, proflls de carr/~res, classification d e s emplois, n / v e a u de l'emplol, d l p l 6 m e s et c o m l ~ t e n c e s , affiliations professlonnelles, sala/res.
INTRODUCTION T h e g r o w t h in tourist m o v e m e n t s d u r i n g t h e post-war period h a s b e e n m a t c h e d by c o r r e s p o n d i n g i n c r e a s e s in t h e size of t h e t o u r i s m sector, t h e n u m b e r of e m p l o y e e s in t o u r i s m , a n d latterly by t h e r a n g e a n d n u m b e r of c o u r s e s available in t o u r i s m subjects. T h e first t o u r i s m c o u r s e s in t h e United K i n g d o m b e g a n in t h e m i d 1960's. By t h e e n d of t h e 1970's t h e r e were at least 50 e d u c a t i o n a l e s t a b l i s h m e n t s offering c o u r s e s w h i c h i n c l u d e d s o m e a s p e c t s of t h e s t u d y of t o u r i s m . By a n d large, t h e d e v e l o p m e n t of t o u r i s m o c c u p a t i o n s a n d c o u r s e s in t h e United K i n g d o m h a s t e n d e d to o c c u r o n a relatively a d hoc basis. T h e r e h a s b e e n no overall m a s t e r p l a n to guide t h e d e v e l o p m e n t s . As d e m a n d h a s increased, so t h e c o m m e r c i a l a n d public t o u r i s m o r g a n i z a t i o n s h a v e e x p a n d e d their w o r k force a n d 1981 ANNALS OF TOURISM RESEARCH
53
AIREY AND NIGHTINGALE
career p a t t e r n s h a v e b e g u n to emerge. At the s a m e time, or slightly later, colleges a n d universities have d e v e l o p e d vocational e d u c a t i o n to go s o m e w a y t o w a r d s m e e t i n g t h e n e e d s o f this growing sector of t h e e c o n o m y a n d to develop a b o d y of k n o w l e d g e a b o u t t o u r i s m . C o o r d i n a t i o n in e d u c a t i o n h a s b e e n p r o v i d e d forreally t h r o u g h t h e v a r i o u s c o u r s e validating a n d e x a m i n i n g bodies, a n d informally t h r o u g h c o n t a c t s b e t w e e n a c a d e m i c s , b u t even here t h e r e h a s b e e n p l e n t y of scope for d e v e l o p m e n t s to lead in different directions. It is a g a i n s t tli/s b a c k g r o u n d t h a t t h e T o u r i s m Society undertook t h e first s y ~ e m a t i c s t u d y of t o u r i s m o c c u p a t i o n s , career proflies a n d k n o w l e d g e (Nightingale 1980}. T h e i m m e d l a t e p u r p o s e of t h e s t u d y w a s to establish a n u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f k n o w l e d g e req u / r e m e n t s a n d o c c u p a t i o n a l a n d career p a t t e r n s of m e m b e r s a n d potential m e m b e r s of t h e Society. Clearly. thls k l n d of i n f o r m a t i o n is e s s e n t i ~ for t h e d e v e l o p m e n t of a pro fesslonal body. if only as a basis o n w h ! c h to establish m e m b e r s h i p criteria. Over a n d above this. however, t h e Society's s t u d y h a s a m u c h wider s/gnificance. After two or m o r e d e c a d e s of relatively free d e v e l o p m e n t , it is t h e first real a t t e m p t to Io0k s y s t e m a t i c a l y at w h a t h a s h a p p e n e d . It sets o u t the k i n d of o c c u p a t i o n s w h i c h are available at a professlonal level in t o u r i s m , t h e profiles of t h e car~ers w h i c h h a v e b e e n developed, as well a s t h e k n o w l e d g e r e q u i r e d by t h e individuals e n g a g e d in these careers. S u c h i n f o r m a t i o n Is of interest n o t only to t h e T o u r i s m Society b u t also to a n y o r g a n i z a t i o n c o n c e r n e d with education, training, a n d career ' d e v e l o p m e n t in t o u r i s m . T h e a i m of this p a p e r is to briefly outline t h e objectives, m e t h o d s , a n d a p p r o a c h of the s t u d y a n d to h i g h l i g h t s o m e of the key findings. To the e x t e n t t h a t it is a p i o n e e r i n g s t u d y in t h e field of t o u r i s m , u n d e r t a k e n on a very limited b u d g e t , it inevitably contains w e a k n e s s e s , Also, for a ~ i n t e r n a t i o n a l a u d i e n c e , it m u s t be e m p h a s i z e d t h a t it is based solely o n t h e e x p e r i e n c e of t h e United Kin~dom. T h e s e I / m l t a i ~ n s apart, t h e a p p r o a c h a n d findings of the s t u d y provide w h a t is believed to be a useful a n d internat/onall y relevant s t a r t i n g p o i n t for a n u n d e r s t a n d i n g of t h e Jobs a n d k n o w l e d g e n e e d s of people in tourism. T h e s/gnJflcance of this k i n d of i n f o r m a t i o n for t o u r i s m e d u c a t i o n h a r d l y n e e d s to be stated. OBJECTIVES, METHODS AND APPROACH T h e p u r p o s e of t h e s t u d y w a s to establish a n o c c u p a t i o n a l classification for t h o s e in t o u r i s m at a professional level, toJdentify the career profiles of individuals holding s u c h o c c u p a t i o n s a n d to 54
1518 1 A N N A I . S O F T O U R I S M RESEAR(.'I 1
OCCUI'AT]ONS. CAREER PROFILES. KNOWLEDGE
define the b o d y of k n o w l e d g e a b o u t tourism relevant to these occupations. As u s e d here, "professional level" m e a n s those occupations followed by individuals, n o r m a l l y after a long period of formal e d u c a t i o n or training, which are based on a well defined area of knowledge. In o r d e r to achieve this purpose, four fairly distinct tasks were u n d e r t a k e n . First, a n occupational classification of relevance to professional level e m p l o y m e n t in t o u r i s m w a s developed. Secondly, a b o d y of knowledge a b o u t t o u r i s m w a s identified. Thirdly, a series of interviews were held with a limited n u m b e r of key inform a n t s e n g a g e d in tourism. Finally, a postal q u e s t i o n n a i r e s u r v e y of individuals w a s u n d e r t a k e n . In addition, total e m p l o y m e n t at a professional level in t o u r i s m was quantified. At the s a m e time, information was also a c c u m u l a t e d from desk research. At each stage, the w o r k w a s m o n i t o r e d by a panel r e p r e s e n t i n g the m a i n c o m p o n e n t sectors of tourism. This section of the paper seeks to outline these four t a s k s a n d the w a y s in w h i c h t h e y were handled, before going on in the n e x t section to consider s o m e of the m a i n findings. As far as the occupational classification is c o n c e r n e d , it was decided t h a t it would be helpful to a n u n d e r s t a n d i n g of c a r e e r profiles a n d related k n o w l e d g e r e q u i r e m e n t s to do this in t h r e e different ways, reflecting the different sectors, functions a n d levels of "those e n g a g e d a t a professional level in tourism. T h e t h r e e resulting classifications are set out in Table 1. T h e first c l a r i f i c a t i o n by sector of employment consists of ten separate sectors w h i c h are g r o u p e d u n d e r four broad headings, n a m e l y : tourist destination organizations: suppliers of tourist attractions, facilities a n d services; travel organizations a n d intermediaries; a n d o t h e r sectors. Since a n y single e m p l o y i n g organization m i g h t be e n g a g e d in activities w h i c h fall within a n u m b e r of t h e s e groups a n d sectors, it m u s t be e m p h a s i z e d t h a t the classification is by the activity of the individual not by the organization in w h i c h h e works. The second classification is by function a n d has two broad headings: general a n d specialist. Within t h e s e a n u m b e r of sub-divisions were m a d e . As far as the general functions are c o n c e r n e d , for example, it was found d u r i n g the s t u d y t h a t t h e r e was a significant difference b e t w e e n those e n g a g e d in general functions in a tourist organization, s u c h as a national tourist board, a n d those in general functions in o t h e r tourist enterprises, s u c h as hotels or t r a n s p o r t companies. Similarly, the level within the organization, w h e t h e r it is at h e a d 1981 ANNALS OF TOURISM RESEARCH
55
+.-
C
Z Z
0~
fscmttu
o ~ . n m o ~ or murm¢ ~
sales: visitor tnformaUon Physical planning and development Research Other
promotion:
where immilMe further claas/fy under: product formulation:
UarheUndoporattom
Slmdaiklt I~metlis
General OlPem¢lo~ in compmLmt ~ ocher than tmmm oqlantutttona where pemlble further classify under general operatimm: at head orate: m reipou or area; at local unit: In m d e p e m k m unit
~
for Tourism
Classification by Function Job
Classifications
( 11including visitor information centres (2) including local government facilities {3} including offices in passenger transport, care hire and motoring organization and local government ofrices
Travol o t g a n / s a t J o ~ a n d J n t o r m o d l a s l o s Tour operations and travel organizations (3} Retail travel agencies Guides and relatedservices OCher
Tma'tnt attracttorm and entertainment (2) Passenger transport, ear hire and motoring organlsaUons
Conferenceflcllltles (2)
S ~ s p U w s d tmsrist s t ~ . Md sm~tms Accommodation
TmaurIN 41kmtllmti~ orlllmlsatlo~s Statutory tourist boards ( 1} Regional tourist orllamzaUom i l | Local tourlM m-ganl~utmm ( 1}
Classificationby Sector oi"Employrnenl
Occupational
Table I
~ d l v t ~ n ~ manqer Supervtmr Memberof Advlm~. consultant, researcher Other
Geaer~ m M s g e r
Classification by Level Role Grade
O trll
Z
7
t~
OCCUI'ATIONS. CAREER PROFILES. K N O W L E I X I E
office or at local unit was found to have a significant bearing on the functions of the individuals concerned. T h e specialist functions were divided into m a r k e t i n g operations, physical p l a n n i n g and development, r e s e a r c h a n d o t h e r functions. T h e final classification is by level o r r o l e of the individual a n d here six groups are identified. T h i s particular classification presented few p r o b l e m s as it h a d a l r e a d y been well tested in o t h e r fields. Having m a d e the classification, it was t h e n used as a basis for outlining the n a t u r e of the o c c u p a t i o n s a n d the e m p l o y i n g organizations a n d for considering the career profiles a n d k n o w l e d g e r e q u i r e m e n t s of the individuals employed. T u r n i n g to the second task, this involved identifying the body of knowledge a b o u t t o u r i s m w h i c h could be used to e x a m i n e the k n o w l e d g e r e q u i r e m e n t s of those e n g a g e d in tourism. For this purpose, the body of knowledge defined by the E d u c a t i o n a n d T r a i n i n g c o m m i t t e e of the T o u r i s m SocietY was used as summ a r i z e d in Table 2. T h e third task b r o u g h t the s t u d y into direct c o n t a c t with in. dividuals e n g a g e d in tourism, This consisted of a series of interviews with key i n f o r m a n t s from a cross section of the sectors of tourism. T h e m a i n r e a s o n for u s i n g k e y i n f o r m a n t s w a s purely pragmatic, in t h a t the h e t e r o g e n e o u s a n d i n d e t e r m i n a t e n a t u r e of t o u r i s m militated against the adoption of r a n d o m sample s u r v e y t e c h n i q u e s . Further, t h e experience of previous similar r e s e a r c h highlighted t h e p r o b l e m s of low r e s p o n s e rates from e m p l o y e r s a n d pointed to the a d v a n t a g e of small-scale s u r v e y s based on personal interviews. In the light of this, k e y i n f o r m a n t s were simply selected for their broad k n o w l e d g e a n d e x p e r i e n c e of the particular sector, as well as being as far as possible typical of the organizations e n g a g e d in the sector. In total, 50 people were interviewed from 33 organizations. F r o m these, it began to be possible to build u p a n initial picture of the c a r e e r profiles a n d occupations of t o u r i s m professionals a n d the kind of k n o w l e d g e t h e y could be e x p e c t e d to n e e d in order to be effective in their work. T h e final task was based on a postal q u e s t i o n n a i r e w h i c h was s e n t to over 1,000 individuals below the age of 35 who had b e e n e n g a g e d in t o u r i s m at a professional level for at least two years. T h e rationale for excluding those over 35 was simply t h a t their c a r e e r progress in a new i n d u s t r y like t o u r i s m could n o t b e t h o u g h t to be indicative of c u r r e n t or future patterns. Once again, the s a m p l e was not strictly r a n d o m . It was based on the T o u r i s m Society m e m b e r s h i p list a n d various college lists. In addition, w h e r e it was n e c e s s a r y to provide a d e q u a t e r e p r e s e n t a t i o n of 1981 ANNALS OF TOURISM RESEARCH
57
AIREY AND NIGHTINGALE
Table 2
T h e Main C o m p o n e n t s
of t h e B o d y of K n o w l e d g e
about Tourism (I} Major Comportent
Brief description of c o n t e n t s C o n c e p t s of leisure, recreation, t o u r i s m T y p e s of t o u r i s m a c c o r d i n g to p u r p o s e C o n c e p t s of touriat destination, aervice~ I n d u s t r y
W h a t is T o u r i s m ?
Historical tourism
development
of Past - to 2 n d World W a r Recent a n d c u r r e n t 1945-1980 F u t u r e from 1 0 8 0 o n w a r d s
Determinants and motivations in tourism
Statistical m e a s u r e m e n t a n d dimensions
F a c t o r s s t i m u l a t i n g g r o w t h of t o u r i s m {determinants} W h y people .,v~h t o travel (motivatlonsl I n f l u e n c e s of s u p p l y T y p e s of t o u r i s m s t a t i s t i c s a n d their l i m i t a t i o n s D o m e s t i c tourisra - s o u r c e s , m e t h o d s , d i m e n ~ o n s International t o u r i s m - sources, m e t h o d s , d i m e n s i o n s
Significance of t o u r i s m
C o n t r i b u t i o n s of tourlmm to t h e e c o n o m y Social significance a n d Impact of t o u r i s m Physical significance - land use. e n v i r o n m e n t
Component sectors
Tourist industry and component sectors E c o n o m i c a n d o p e r a t i n g c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of s e c t o r s C u r r e n t t r e n d s a n d d e v e l o p m e n t s in m a i n s e c t o r s
Marketing
Role of m a r k e t i n g in t o u r i s m . P l a n n i n g a n d r e s e a r c h Markets a n d products, p r o d u c t forrnulatior. ; P r o m o t i o n a n d redes
Physical planning development
and
Organization
Finance
Planning concepts and planning machinery Infrastructure planning and development S u p e r s t r u c t u r e project p l a n n i n g a n d d e v e l o p m e n t S t r u c t u r e a n d roles of g o v e r n m e n t a n d tourist b o a r d s T r a d e ae~ociations a n d u n i o n s , professional bodies Related public bodies I O p e r a t i n g financial a c c o u n t s of t o u r i s m f i r m s R e q u i r e m e n t s . sources, m e t h o d s - tourist board finance R e q u i r e m e n t s . sources, m e t h o d s - d e v e l o p m e n t f i n a n c e ii
i
~,C) The Tourism ~ ' l e t y , London ( I } In its attempts to establish the knowledge requirements of individuals w o r k i n g at a proIe~slonal level In tourism, the Education and T r a i n i n g Committee of the Tourimlrt Society identified the body of knowledge about tourism as consisting of the above major comix)nenis.
5H
1981 A N N A I . S O F T O U R I S M I~ESEAR('I I
O('('UI~ATIONS. CAREEI¢ PROFILES. KNOWLEIX~E
specific sectors, t h e s e were s u p p l e m e n t e d from particular lists relating to the sectors. In total, nearly 300 c o m p l e t e d questionnaires were received. T h e questionnaire was in t h r e e parts, focusing in t u r n on essential personal data, information on c u r r e n t a n d previous e m p l o y m e n t , a n d r e s p o n d e n t s ' views on the knowledge a b o u t t o u r i s m t h e y required to be effective in their work. F r o m this a n d from the earlier interviews, the findings of the report were t h e n developed. Clearly, t h e r e are w e a k n e s s e s in the data collection techniques adopted. In s o m e cases, for example, the n u m b e r of r e s p o n d e n t s relating to a n individual sector, function or level was e x t r e m e l y low. Also, not being r a n d o m , there was inevitably a bias in the response. P e r h a p s the m o s t significant area of bias is that in using the T o u r i s m Society m e m b e r s h i p list, r e s p o n d e n t s were likely to be those w h o a l r e a d y identified t h e m s e l v e s as professionals working in tourism. This m e a n s t h a t t h e y would be likely to view t o u r i s m as a n identifiable a n d discrete field of activity. This. in turn, would probably influence their a t t i t u d e toward, for example, knowledge r e q u i r e m e n t s a b o u t tourism. Whilst t h e r e are a d m i t t e d weaknesses, t h e s e should not be allowed to d e t r a c t too seriously from the overall value of the findings in w h a t is essentially a pioneering study. On the contrary, since in m o s t cases the findings are based on a n u m b e r of sources from both desk a n d field research, m a n y , if not all, can be considered with a degree of confidence. FINDINGS In llne with the objectives of the study, the findings are g r o u p e d u n d e r t h r e e headings: the occupational classification, c a r e e r profiles of professionals in tourism, a n d the knowledge req u i r e m e n t s . This section a i m s to highlight s o m e of the key fin. dings, particularly those with a significance for t o u r i s m education. T h e occupational classification w h i c h e m e r g e d from the r e s e a r c h has a l r e a d y b e e n set out in Table 1. Within this, one of the findings w a s t h a t t h e r e were a limited n u m b e r of significant groupings across the t h r e e d i m e n s i o n s of the classification. In o t h e r words, t h e r e a p p e a r e d to be a few cases w h e r e there was a significant likelihood of e m p l o y m e n t in a particular sector being associated with a particular function or functions a n d with a particular level or levels of e m p l o y m e n t . T h e s e groups are s u m m a r i z ed in Table 3, w h i c h points, for example, to a link b e t w e e n 198I ANNALSOF TOURISMRESEARCH
59
,.,,;
m >
N
0
0
> z z > m
Accommodation P a s s e n g e r transport, car hire. & m o t o r i n g o r g a n i z a t i o n s T o u r o p e r a t i o n s a n d travel o r g a n i z a t i o n s Retail travel agencies
Tourist destination o r g a n i z a t i o n s
COMPONENT S E C T O R S OF EMPLOYMENT Marketing Physical p l a n n i n g
General Manager Departmental/divisional manager M e m b e r of staff
Departmental/divisional manager M e m b e r of Staff
General o p e r a t i o n s Marketing
ROLE/LEVEL/GRADE
of the Classification
FUNCTION/JOB
Significant Groupings Across Three Dimensions
Table 3
0> r"
,.-1
z
..< > z
OC('UPATIONS. ('ANEEIt i*ROFILES. KNOWI.EI)GE
e m p l o y m e n t in tourist destination organizations with an involvem e n t in m a r k e t i n g or p l a n n i n g a n d a position at the level of d e p a r t m e n t a l m a n a g e r or m e m b e r of staff. It is difficult to d r a w a n y i m m e d i a t e implications from these links o t h e r t h a n to the n e e d to e x a m i n e the relationship b e t w e e n the t h r e e d i m e n s i o n s in g r e a t e r detail. But clearly, as far as t e a c h e r s are c o n c e r n e d , it could be of considerable significance for c o u r ~ p l a n n i n g a n d c a r e e r s advice to be aware, for example, of a link b e t w e e n type of sector a n d t y p e of function in which e m p l o y m e n t is s u b s e q u e n t l y found. As far as the c a r e e r profiles are c o n c e r n e d , professional e m p l o y m e n t in the various sectors, functions, a n d levels was a n a l y z e d by age. qualifications, professional affiliations, relative salaries, a n d the n a t u r e a n d size of organization, as well a s by the p a t t e r n a n d flow of m o v e m e n t to a n d b e t w e e n sectors a n d functions. S o m e of the k e y findings a b o u t the c a r e e r profile are set out in s u m m a r y form in Table 4. It would be impractical to c o m m e n t on all these here. However, one general observation w h i c h will be of particular interest for t o u r i s m e d u c a t i o n c o n c e r n s the qualifications of professionals in tourism. It would a p p e a r that whflmt a significant n u m b e r h a v e received f u r t h e r a n d h i g h e r education, t h o s e with a n actual qualification in t o u r i s m itself s e e m to be fairly small in m a n y sectors, especially as t h e s a m p l e design w a s w e i g h t e d t o w a r d s those with qualifications. Clearly, this to a certain e x t e n t is a reflection of the British educational s y s t e m , but it also c o n t a i n s a meeumge for the provision of t o u r i s m c o u r s e , particularly at a level below h i g h e r degree. It is the last group of findings w h i c h are of m o s t interest for t o u r i s m teachers. T h e s e a r e , c o n c e r n e d with the knowledge req u i r e m e n t s of professionals in tourism. An interesting point to note at the outset is t h a t in m o s t cases the e m p l o y e e s perceived a g r e a t e r r e q u i r e m e n t for a k n o w l e d g e of t o u r i s m t h a n the employers. A b r e a k d o w n of knowledge r e q u i r e m e n t s b y sector. function, a n d role/level is p r e s e n t e d in Tables 5, 6, a n d 7. As far as the sectoral analysis is concerned, the i m p o r t a n t point to note is the high proportion (i.e. over three quarters} of the r e s p o n d e n t s across the sectors w h o expressed a r e q u i r e m e n t for s o m e k n o w l e d g e of w h a t t o u r i s m is, d e t e r m i n a n t s a n d motivations of tourism, c o m p o n e n t sectors, a n d m a r k e t i n g . Knowledge of the last two was required at a detailed level in m o s t sectors. It is also interesting to note t h a t the majority (i.e. over half) in m o s t sectors had a r e q u i r e m e n t of s o m e k n o w l e d g e in a l m o s t all aspects. 1981 ANNALS OF TOURISM RESEARCH
61
AIREY AND NIGHTINGALE
Table 4 O u t J l n e o f Msdm 1 3 n d l n p
about Career Profiles in Tourism
~u,~er ~ and ~e "l'Ou~st dmRinaUon organ/zaflons a n d tour/st attracUons have less than average
ofpeo0/e under ~
• Tour operators and travel organ/zat/ons and retail travel agents have above average of people over 25 • Mote in general unlt operaUons tend to be youngei- than those in speclal/st functlons • T h e first general m a n a g e r posts seem to be attained at about 30
• Many of those at a pt~ofi~donal level concerned w/ill tour/sin have received fur. ther a n d hlgher educst/on t o a t least first degree or h/gher national d/ploma start. dard. A s//In/flcant m / n o r / t / h a v e higher degrees and dtpiomss • At first d q g e e / H N D level the w.q~r/ty has a qua/iflcat/on In a discipline other
•~
t o ~ O ~ , but at a ~
m tile t~arlst ~
~her ~'es
level a m n b ~ have a qu.ancat~n ,,, o r g s n / z ~ o M there appears to be a h/gher ~ o n
of
ttum in the oo~.r . ~ m
• in ~ trammport, tour/st attract/ores a n d entertm/nment, a n d tour operators a n d travel o r l a m z e ~ there is a s/gnlflcant n u m b e r w/th a qual/flcauon in tour/un • In the ~ o n sector, few hold a quallflcatton above first degree level
• In the ~
funct/om there ~, a ~0reaterproportam of emp~yees w/th h / ~ e r
d e g r e R than in ~
operation
~ m d Amllatlons •Those involved at a Im~ess/onal level In tour/ran belong to a w/de range of profesa m e e m U e a ~ although the survey ~ t h a t fewer m a y belong to pmfemlonal hodhm than ts generally mmumed • Those In the public sector appear to value p m f e u i o n a l affiliation more than t h m e m the ptqvate ~ t o r ,_galaqes • Salaries in local tourist organizations, accommodation and tourist attractions and e n t e r t a i n m e n t alaqpear to be below average for sll e~etore •6alarles in Immenger transport a n d tour opemtimm and tourist organizations ap. peru" to be strove avemg~ ¢ ~ d m l e s In the Vhtitor information funeUons a p p e a r to be below average • Only a small pmporUon, mainly In the commercial sectors seem to receive add|. tiomd emoluments. ,the most a~lnflkant being the bonus, car a n d accommodatim Movement to a n d between sectors a n d functions • Those c i t e d in the following a p p e a r to stay in their Johe longer than average: ~ eqlanizattmm: geaeral operations at head office and regtoM: vtelm~ Infermattoa: phyalcal phmuing a n d development: research crlmse employed In the following appear to stay In their Jobs shorter than average: tourtst attracttmm axtd e n ~ m e n t : retail travel agencies; general
ow..ons at.~t , ~ : ~-,.,. and pum:~ty: ~,d.~t ~'ve~p,~e,,t
62
198 | ANNAI.S OF TOURISM RESEARCH
0'~ r,.o
O0
G0
0 C
Z Z t-" 00 0 ,q
y
m
r of
ent
For key seeTable 7
Finance
XX
Organization XX
XX
XX
XX
XX
XX
X
X
X
X
XX*
X X
XX X
X
X
XX* XX
X X
XX*
XX*
XX
XX*
Z 0
P';,
Physical planning and development
XX*
XX
X
X
XX*
XX
X
X
XX*
XX*
XX
X
Marketing
XX
X
X
XX*
X
XX
XX*
XX
XX
C o m p o n e n t sectors
Z
XX*
XX
:> .-]
XX
XX*
X
XX
Retail travel agencies
Significance of tourism
XX*
X
XX
orgs.
Tour ops & tr.
:Z 0
XX
X
XX*
tourist attracs. & ent.
XX
XX
X
XX
Pass transport etc.
XX
XX
X
XX*
Accommodatlon
Statistical measu r e m e n t & dimensions
XX*
XX*
XX*
Local tourist orgs.
;> ;C P~
XX
XX*
XX*
XX* XX*
Reg. tourist orgs.
Stat. tourist boards
Determinants & motivations in tourism
Historical developm e n t of tourism
What is tourism?
knowledge heading,~
~
Table 5 R e q a l r e m a n t f o r I U m w l ~ l l ~ elf Tomqmm - S e c t o r a l A a m l y s l s
m
O ,.J
2 Z :>
2>
0c
X
XX
X
X
XX
X
Historical developm e n t of tourism
Determinants & motivations in tourism
Statistical measurement & dimensions
For key see Table 7
X
X
X
Organization X
X
X
Physical planning & development
Finance
XX
XX*
X
XX
X
XX*
XX*
XX
C o m p o n e n t sectors
Marketing
X
X
XX
XX*
X
XX*
Marketing operations
Significance of tourism XX
XX
XX*
General Operations Head Office Unit
What is tourism?
Knowledge heading
n/Job
X*
XX
X*
XX*
XX*
X
XX*
XX
X
XX*
Product . development
X
XX
X
XX*
XX
XX
XX
XX*
X
XX
Press & publlcity
X
X
X
XX
X
XX
X
XX
Visitor informatron
Table 6 R e q u i r e m e n t for K n o w l e d f l e o f T o u r i s m - F u n c t i o n a l A a s l y s i s
XX
XX*
XX*
XX
XX
XX*
XX
XX*
XX*
XX*
Physical planning & devt.
XX
XX
XX*
XX
XX
XX*
XX*
XX
XX*
Research
t"
0
-]
Z
~0 -¢
>_
Gn
-r
0
Z Z
bd
level Dept./div. Mngr.
XX* XX
XX*
XX X XX* XX* X
XX X
General Mngr. XX* X
XX
XX X XX XX* X
XX X
X
X
XX
X
X
X
XX
Supervisor
Key X Requlrememo(knowledgebymaJorltyo(respondentsiLe.overhalO XX I R l e q ~ d ~ of hllth proporUono( ~ n ~ II'e- °ver three quartersj • Reqoirmt~ d detailed imowledte by s majority m rmpuumm
Finance
Organization
Physical planning and development
Marketing
C o m p o n e n t sectors
Significance of tourism
Statistical m e a s u r e m e n t & dimensions
D e t e r m i n a n t s and motivations In tourism
Historical d e v e l o p m e n t of tourism
What Is tourism?
knowledge heading
~
X
X
X*
X
X
X
X
X
Member of Staff
Requirement for Knowledge of Tourism - Role/Level Analysis
Table 7
X
X
X
XX*
XX
XX
X*
X*
XX
XX*
Advisor etc.
z ©
m
O {-
~c
z
N
AIREY AND NIGHTINGALE
By function, the e m p h a s i s is on similar k n o w l e d g e comp o n e n t s a l t h o u g h one difference is in the specialist f u n c t i o n s o t h e r t h a n visitor information. Here. an e m p h a s i s is also on statistical measurement and dimensions, and organizations. The r e s p o n d e n t s in t h e f u n c t i o n s of m a r k e t i n g operations, physical p l a n n i n g a n d d e v e l o p m e n t , a n d r e s e a r c h s e e m e d to require a detailed k n o w l e d g e of a n u m b e r of aspects. T h e analysis by role/level reveals t h a t t h e r e q u i r e m e n t s of t h e r e s p o n d e n t s h o l d i n g m a n a g e m e n t a n d advisory posts were m u c h wider a n d g r e a t e r t h a n t h o s e at s u p e r v i s o r or m e m b e r of staff level. As in t h e functional analysis, it a p p e a r s t h a t a h i g h proportion of s e n i o r staff require k n o w l e d g e of statistical m e a s u r e m e n t s a n d d i m e n s i o n s a n d organization. Apart from the k n o w l e d g e r e q u i r e m e n t s b a s e d o n t h e b o d y of knowledge, a n u m b e r of the r e s p o n d e n t s indentified o t h e r subJects or topics. T h e m o s t significant of these a p p e a r e d to be foreign languages, legal aspects, print material p r e p a r a t i o n , a n d t r a i n i n g a n d e d u c a t i o n . T h e n e e d for t h e first t h r e e w a s also m e n t i o n e d by a n u m b e r of e m p l o y e r s . It s e e m s clear t h a t foreign l a n g u a g e s s h o u l d n o r m a l l y be i n c l u d e d in longer c o u r s e s with a significant t o u r i s m e l e m e n t a n d t h a t a d e q u a t e a t t e n t i o n s h o u l d be paid to t h e legal a s p e c t s of tourism. T h e p r e p a r a t i o n of print m a t e r i a l a n d t r a i n i n g a n d education, o n t h e o t h e r h a n d . s e e m to be far too specific to w a r r a n t general inclusion o n courses. Clearly. it is this latter part of t h e s t u d y , c o n c e r n e d w i t h k n o w l e d g e r e q u i r e m e n t s , w h i c h h a s m o s t central relevance for t o u r i s m e d u c a t i o n . However. it is difficult to isolate general conclusions from the findings. P e r h a p s t h e only real generalization w h i c h c a n be m a d e is t h a t the c u r r e n t b o d y of k n o w l e d g e , as identiffed by t h e T o u r i s m Society. set o u t here in Table 2. a p p e a r s to cover m o s t of the a s p e c t s of t o u r i s m required by professional pers o n n e l w o r k i n g in t o u r i s m , a n d t h a t within this. m o s t c o m p o n e n t s of t h e b o d y of k n o w l e d g e are in fact required. T h e r e are obviously variations in detailed r e q u i r e m e n t s in different sectors, f u n c t i o n s a n d levels, b u t overall t h e b o d y of k n o w l e d g e (Table 2) certainly s e e m s to be a n a p p r o p r i a t e starting point for p l a n n i n g professional education requirements. Therefore. t h e initial m e s s a g e for t o u r i s m e d u c a t i o n is t h a t the t o u r i s m c o m p o n e n t of c o u r s e s w h i c h are non-specific as regards sector, function, or level s h o u l d aim to include all or m o s t comp o n e n t s of the b o d y of k n o w l e d g e as set o u t here. Within this, a k n o w l e d g e of w h a t t o u r i s m is. d e t e r m i n a n t s a n d motivations. 66
1981 ANNALS OF TOUHISM HESEARClt
O('CUPATIONS. CAREER PROFILES, KNOWI.EIX~E
c o m p o n e n t sectors a n d m a r k e t i n g would s e e m to be the m o s t imp o r t a n t ingredients of knowledge a b o u t t o u r i s m a n d a p p e a r to be r e q u i r e d across a l m o s t every sector, function, a n d level in w h i c h the individual m i g h t find e m p l o y m e n t . For c o u r s e s w h i c h are m o r e specific in focus a s r e g a r d s sector or function, the course coverage could be m u c h m o r e narrow. But h a v i n g said this, t h e s e k n o w l e d g e r e q u i r e m e n t findings suggest t h a t the above four ingredients should still have an i m p o r t a n t part to play in all s u c h c o u r s e s a n d since individuals do c h a n g e sector, function, a n d level d u r i n g their careers, it would a p p e a r to m a k e little sense for a n y tourism course to d r a w its b o u n d a r i e s too narrowly. More specifically, if o n e a s s u m e s that the aim of m o s t t o u r i s m professionals is to achieve the equivalent position of d e p a r t m e n t a l m a n a g e r or more, t h e n the c u r r e n t knowledge req u i r e m e n t s of individuals in t h e s e positions would suggest that the m o r e broadly based t o u r i s m courses m a y be m o r e useful later in a career. T h e y m a y also be of m o r e help t h a n n a r r o w c o u r s e s in assisting individuals to achieve their c a r e e r aims. CONCLUSION This p a p e r h a s a t t e m p t e d to set out the b a c k g r o u n d , approach, a n d findings of w h a t is essentially the first a t t e m p t at a s y s t e m a t i c e x a m i n a t i o n of c a r e e r s in t o u r i s m a n d the relationship with t o u r i s m education. T h e s t u d y is very m u c h a pioneering effort a n d a great deal m o r e work could usefully be u n d e r t a k e n in this area. Indeed, it would s e e m to be i m p o r t a n t t h a t with the continuing d e v e l o p m e n t of t o u r i s m c a r e e r s a n d c o u r s e s s u c h w o r k is not only desirable b u t n e c e s s a r y for effective course planning. F r o m the point of view of t o u r i s m education, t h e r e are three a r e a s of the s t u d y w h i c h are of particular interest a n d are w o r t h highlighting here. T h e first is the outline of a complete body of k n o w l e d g e a b o u t t o u r i s m w h i c h a p p e a r s to be required b y professionals e n g a g e d in tourism. T h e second is the n a t u r e of the eventual careers available in t o u r i s m a n a l y z e d by sector, function a n d level. T h e third is the testing of t h e value of the ingredients of the b o d y of k n o w l e d g e for those actually w o r k i n g in t h e s e careers at a professional level in tourism. T h e i m m e d i a t e conclusions w h i c h e m e r g e from this are first t h a t a l m o s t all c o m p o n e n t s of the body of knowledge a p p e a r to h a v e at least s o m e relevance no m a t t e r w h i c h sector, function, or level the individual is working in. Secondly, it s e e m s as if certain c o m p o n e n t s , n a m e l y a k n o w l e d g e of the c o m p o n e n t sectors of 1981 ANNALS OF TOURISM R E S E A R C H
67
AIREY AND NIGHTINGALE
tourism, marketing, w h a t tourism is, a n d d e t e r m i n a n t s a n d motivations have a special i m p o r t a n c e aeross almost all career positions. Finally, the most useful tourism courses, at least in terms of eventual careers a n d career development, are the m o r e broadly based courses. T h e s e are, of course, very tentative conclusions a n d they are certa/nly capable of further refinement a n d analysis. Indeed, the basis on w h i c h t h e y are m a d e could be considerably strerlgthened. Nevertheless, it is hoped they shed s o m e light on the relationship between tourism education, a n d tourism careers a n d that the s t u d y h a s gone s o m e w a y towards illustrating the scope of research in this area a n d the various a p p r o a c h e s to t h e research task. T h e T o u r i s m Society itself is currently developing further the work on the body of knowledge for publication early in 1981. In the m e a n t i m e , it is hoped that'this s t u d y will e n c o u r a g e others to contribute to a further u n d e r s t a n d i n g of the r e q u i r e m e n t s of pro. fessional education in tourism.Q[:] Acknowledgements The a u t h o r s gratefully acknowledge the T o u r i s m Society for their permission to d r a w u p o n s o m e of the findings of the research study a n d V.T.C. Middleton, Senior Lecturer in T o u r i s m at the University of Surrey, for c o m m e n t i n g on the draft of this paper. T h e research work of this arUcle is based on a 150 page report prepared by Michael NighUngale a n d published by the T o u r i s m Society in April 1980. BIBLIOGRAPHY Airey, David 1979 T o u r i s m Education in the United Kingdom. The Tourist Review 34(2): 13-15. Nightingale, Michael 1980 Tourism Occupations. Career Profiles a n d Knowledge. London, England: T o u r i s m Society. Submitted 1 8 J u l y 1980 Revised version submitted 18 November 1980 Accepted 12 J a n u a r y 1981 Refereed a n o n y m o u s l y 68
1981 ANNALS OF TOURISM RESEAI~tCH