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Toxicity of Vanadium and Chromium for the Growing Chick
ENVIRONMENT AND PERFORMANCE production and quality of fresh and held eggs. Poultry Sci. 38:379-385. Snedecor, G. W. and W. G. Cochran, 1957. Statistical Methods. The Iowa State College Press, Ames, Iowa. Stevenson, A. B., and R. L. Bryant, 1944. The value of a sod range for starting chicks, growing pullets and laying hens. Virginia Agr. Exp. Sta. Bui. 362: 1-18. Taylor, J. N., B. B. Bailey and J. H. Quisenberry,
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1957. Comparison of certain pullet rearing and feeding programs for egg production. Poultry Sci. 36: 1162. Winter, A. R., and K. F. Schlamb, 1948. Influence of range versus confinement rearing on growth, feed consumption, egg production and livability. Poultry Sci. 27:571-578. Winter, A. R., 1957. Several factors favor confinement rearing of pullets. Ohio Ag. Exp. Farm and Home. Res. Bui. 305: 33-34.
G. L. ROMOSER, W. A. DUDLEY, L. J. MACHLIN and L. LOVELESS Monsanto Chemical Company, St. Louis, Missouri (Received for publication September 23, 1960)
D
URING the past several years the essentiality for the chick of several trace elements has been described. Recently, Schwartz and Mertz (1959) showed that trivalent chromium (Cr) is effective in very low concentrations in bringing about glucose removal from the blood of rats on a deficient diet and that chromium appears to be a principal glucose tolerance factor. Little is known, however, about the metabolic or nutritional functions of vanadium (V) in chickens although it is known to play a role in the physiological processes of certain plants. Vanadium occurs in high concentrations in the blood of certain species of Ascidia. It was originally thought to function in the respiratory mechanism of certain of the sea animals in which it was found, but Webb (1939) concluded that the vanadium-containing chromogen had no respiratory function. Beard et al. (1931) in a study of anemia of the rat found that vanadium in addition to iron was necessary for optimum hemoglobin formation but Keil and Nelson (1933) were unable
to associate the element with hematopoiesis. Although the physiological role of vanadium is still unknown, it has been established that the element is toxic to the rat at certain concentrations. Franke and Moxon (1937) found vanadium fed to rats as the sodium salt to be definitely toxic in concentrations as low as 25 ppm. and distinct toxicity accompanied by diarrhea and mortality was observed when 50 ppm. were fed. These workers concluded that the relative toxicity for the rat of the elements studied at the 25 ppm. level in increasing order of toxicity were as follows: arsenic, molybdenum, tellurium, vanadium and selenium. Certain rock phosphates and colloidal clays have been found to contain high levels of vanadium and chromium in comparison with several of the other trace elements. Since these phosphate supplements could be utilized as sources of phosphorus for animal feeds, two experiments were performed to determine the effects of vanadium on the performance of the growing chick.
Downloaded from http://ps.oxfordjournals.org/ at Northern Arizona University on June 9, 2015
Toxicity of Vanadium and Chromium for the Growing Chick
1172
G. L. ROMOSER, W. A. D U D L E Y , L. J. M A C H L I X AND L. L O V E L E S S
T A B L E 1.—Composition of basal rations
experiments
used in
1 and 3 Exp. 1
Exp. 3'
46.02 40.0 2.0 6.0
39.92 37.0 2.0
Total
—
1.4 1.9
..2/
7.0 1.4
— ..2/
.015 .1 .6 .4 .2 .05 .015 .2 .05 .05 .1 100
.015 .1 .6 .4 .2 .05 .015 .2 .05 .05 .1 90
1 Made to 100 with dicalcium phosphate and ground yellow corn meal. 2 Reg. T. M . Monsanto Chemical Company. s Reg. T . M . Monsanto Chemical Company (ethoxyquin, l,2-dihydro-6-ethoxy-2,2,4-trimethylquinoIine). 1 Contains as % of ration: 0.1 B12 (20 mg./lb.); .002 sodium menadione bisulfite; .07 riboflavin (4 gm./lb.); .003 folic acid (3%); .005 niacin; .002 pyridoxine HCl; .0002 thiamine H C l ; .0015 calcium pantothenate.
PROCEDURE
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Experiment 1: The addition of chromium as Na2Cr04 failed to exert any effect on the performance of chicks used in this experiment (Table 2). On the other hand, vanadium added as Ca 3 (V04)2 exerted a marked depression in the rate of gain and efficiency of feed utilization even at the lowest level used (40 ppm.). Although no mortality was observed incremental additions of vanadium further depressed growth rate and feed utilization but no mortality was observed below the level of 200 p p m . At levels above 200 ppm. all chicks were dead a t the end of the experimental period. Experiments Z and 3: Since the first experiment revealed that v a n a d i u m was toxic at the lowest level used, other experiments were designed to determine the minimum level below 40 ppm. which would exert a toxic effect. I t was found (Tables 3 a n d 4) that u p to 20 p p m . vanadium could be tolerated b u t at higher levels progressively poorer results were obtained with each increment of
In experiment 1, 4 replicate groups of 13 Nichols 108 males were used per treatment. Experiment 2 involved 3 replicate groups of 25 male Vantress X Arbor Acre crossbred broilers per treatment. Experimental variables were administered during the following periods: Exp. 1, 11-32 days; E x p . 2, 7-28 days, Exp. 3, 9-30 days. Wire-floored, electrically heated batTABLE 2.—Effect oj vanadium on performance oj tery brooders were used in experiment 1, chicks (11-32 days)1 (Experiment 1) whereas experiments 2 and 3 were conducted using floor pen units with wood Gain Feed/ ppm. Mortality m. V.2 shavings for litter. Cr.3 (gms.) Gain % In all experiments feed and water were — 232 1.56 0 0 190 1.76 40 consumed ad libitum and body weight — 0 1.86 163 60 — gains and feed conversion measurements 2.86 0 91 120 — 30 63 200 were made at the end of each experi— — 100 400 — — — mental period. 100 600 — — — 0 30 235 1.56 The basal ration used in experiment 1 — 0 246 1.52 100 — and 3 is shown on Table 1. In experiment 1 2 a commercial broiler starter ration was 4 replicates 13 male Nichols 108 chicks per used. The vanadium content of these treatment. 2 AsCa 3 (V0 4 ) 2 . 3 basal rations was approximately 3 p p m . As Na.CrO;.
Downloaded from http://ps.oxfordjournals.org/ at Northern Arizona University on June 9, 2015
Ingredients Yellow Corn Meal Soybean Oil Meal (50% Protein) Dehydrated Alfalfa (20% Protein) Vegetable Oil, Stabilized Tallow, Stabilized Calcium Carbonate Dicalcium Phosphate (18.5% P) Sodium Chloride, Iodized MHA2 Santoquin 3 Trace Minerals (Delamix) Choline CI (25%) Terphthalic Acid Vitamin Mixture* Vitamin A (10,000 I.U./gm.) Vitamin D , (7,500 I.C.U./gm.) Aurofac 25 N F 180 Propen 4 Unistat
The specific dietary variables which were used in these experiments and the results obtained are discussed separately for each experiment.
T O X I C I T Y OF VANADIUM AND CHROMIUM
TABLE 3.—Effect of vanadhim on performance oj broiler chicks {7-28 days)1 (Experiment 2) ppm. 0 10 15 20 30 40
Gain (gms.)3
Feed/Gain 3
470" 479" 468" 448 ab 422b° 397"
1.69" 1.68" 1.68" 1.72" 1.75»b 1.81 b
TABLE 4.—Effect of vanadium on performance oj broiler chicks {9-30 days)1 (Experiment 3) V2 (Est.)
V2 (Found)
Gain3 Gms.
f/g 3
0 21 42 42
3 23 48 55
473" 429b 378° 381°
1.52" 1.58»b 1.67b° 1.70°
1 1. ..one 9=; V . n t 1
V
2
As Ca 3 (V0 4 ) 2 . 3 Numbers having a different superscript are significantly different (P=.05) according to Duncan's multiple range test (1955).
SUMMARY
If vanadium is essential for some physiological process in the chick, is limiting in practical type feed ingredients, and if the physiological process for which it is needed results in improved rate of gain, the requirement in a practical ration must be below 3 ppm., as this was the lowest level occurring in any of the feeds in these series of experiments.
These studies show t h a t the addition of approximately 30 ppm. of vanadium as the calcium salt depresses the rate of gain of broiler strain chicks fed practical rations. Furthermore, levels of vanadium over 200 p p m . will result in mortality. Chromium, on the other hand, was fed at 100 ppm. without effect. In processing phosphate ores involving high temperatures (for example, defluorination) the vanadium in the ore is converted to ortho vanadate. Consequently, one could expect similar responses to endogenous vanadium as were obtained from the addition of Ca 3 (V04)2 to the feed. I t is suggested t h a t the endogenous vanadium content of rock phosphate supplements should be below a level which would supply less than 30 ppm. to s a practical diet designed for broiler strain chickens.
Beard, H. H., W. Baker and V. C. Myers, 1931. Studies in the nutritional anemia of the rat. Vanadium. The action of iron and iron supplemented with other elements upon the daily reliculocyte, erythrocyte, and hemoglobin response. J. Biol. Chem. 94: 123-134. Duncan, D. R., 1955. Multiple range and multiple F tests. Biometrics, 11: 1-42. Franke, K. W., and A. L. Moxon, 1937. The toxicity of orally ingested arsenic, selenium, tellurium, vanadium and molybdenum. J. Pharmacol. Exp. Therap. 61:89-102. Keil, H. L., and V. E. Nelson, 1933. Studies on regeneration of hemoglobin. Proc. Iowa Acad. Sci. 40: 103-107. Peeler, H., 1960. Personal communication. Schwartz, K., and W. Mertz, 1959. Chromium III. Glucose tolerance factor. Arch. Biochem. Biophys. 85: 292-294. Webb, D. A., 1939. Observation on the blood of certain ascidians, with special reference to the biochemistry of vanadium. J. Exper. Biol. 16: 499523.
vanadium. Growth was significantly depressed from the addition of 30 ppm. vanadium to the basal ration. Furthermore, in the presence of 40 ppm. of vanadium, feed conversion was also significantly depressed.
REFERENCES
Downloaded from http://ps.oxfordjournals.org/ at Northern Arizona University on June 9, 2015
3 reps. 25 Vant.XAA males/rep. commercial mash. 2 As Ca 3 (V0 4 ) 2 . 3 Numbers having a different superscript are significantly different (P = .05) according to Duncan's multiple range test (1955).
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1171
1957. Comparison of certain pullet rearing and feeding programs for egg production. Poultry Sci. 36: 1162. Winter, A. R., and K. F. Schlamb, 1948. Influence of range versus confinement rearing on growth, feed consumption, egg production and livability. Poultry Sci. 27:571-578. Winter, A. R., 1957. Several factors favor confinement rearing of pullets. Ohio Ag. Exp. Farm and Home. Res. Bui. 305: 33-34.
G. L. ROMOSER, W. A. DUDLEY, L. J. MACHLIN and L. LOVELESS Monsanto Chemical Company, St. Louis, Missouri (Received for publication September 23, 1960)
D
URING the past several years the essentiality for the chick of several trace elements has been described. Recently, Schwartz and Mertz (1959) showed that trivalent chromium (Cr) is effective in very low concentrations in bringing about glucose removal from the blood of rats on a deficient diet and that chromium appears to be a principal glucose tolerance factor. Little is known, however, about the metabolic or nutritional functions of vanadium (V) in chickens although it is known to play a role in the physiological processes of certain plants. Vanadium occurs in high concentrations in the blood of certain species of Ascidia. It was originally thought to function in the respiratory mechanism of certain of the sea animals in which it was found, but Webb (1939) concluded that the vanadium-containing chromogen had no respiratory function. Beard et al. (1931) in a study of anemia of the rat found that vanadium in addition to iron was necessary for optimum hemoglobin formation but Keil and Nelson (1933) were unable
to associate the element with hematopoiesis. Although the physiological role of vanadium is still unknown, it has been established that the element is toxic to the rat at certain concentrations. Franke and Moxon (1937) found vanadium fed to rats as the sodium salt to be definitely toxic in concentrations as low as 25 ppm. and distinct toxicity accompanied by diarrhea and mortality was observed when 50 ppm. were fed. These workers concluded that the relative toxicity for the rat of the elements studied at the 25 ppm. level in increasing order of toxicity were as follows: arsenic, molybdenum, tellurium, vanadium and selenium. Certain rock phosphates and colloidal clays have been found to contain high levels of vanadium and chromium in comparison with several of the other trace elements. Since these phosphate supplements could be utilized as sources of phosphorus for animal feeds, two experiments were performed to determine the effects of vanadium on the performance of the growing chick.
Downloaded from http://ps.oxfordjournals.org/ at Northern Arizona University on June 9, 2015
Toxicity of Vanadium and Chromium for the Growing Chick
1172
G. L. ROMOSER, W. A. D U D L E Y , L. J. M A C H L I X AND L. L O V E L E S S
T A B L E 1.—Composition of basal rations
experiments
used in
1 and 3 Exp. 1
Exp. 3'
46.02 40.0 2.0 6.0
39.92 37.0 2.0
Total
—
1.4 1.9
..2/
7.0 1.4
— ..2/
.015 .1 .6 .4 .2 .05 .015 .2 .05 .05 .1 100
.015 .1 .6 .4 .2 .05 .015 .2 .05 .05 .1 90
1 Made to 100 with dicalcium phosphate and ground yellow corn meal. 2 Reg. T. M . Monsanto Chemical Company. s Reg. T . M . Monsanto Chemical Company (ethoxyquin, l,2-dihydro-6-ethoxy-2,2,4-trimethylquinoIine). 1 Contains as % of ration: 0.1 B12 (20 mg./lb.); .002 sodium menadione bisulfite; .07 riboflavin (4 gm./lb.); .003 folic acid (3%); .005 niacin; .002 pyridoxine HCl; .0002 thiamine H C l ; .0015 calcium pantothenate.
PROCEDURE
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Experiment 1: The addition of chromium as Na2Cr04 failed to exert any effect on the performance of chicks used in this experiment (Table 2). On the other hand, vanadium added as Ca 3 (V04)2 exerted a marked depression in the rate of gain and efficiency of feed utilization even at the lowest level used (40 ppm.). Although no mortality was observed incremental additions of vanadium further depressed growth rate and feed utilization but no mortality was observed below the level of 200 p p m . At levels above 200 ppm. all chicks were dead a t the end of the experimental period. Experiments Z and 3: Since the first experiment revealed that v a n a d i u m was toxic at the lowest level used, other experiments were designed to determine the minimum level below 40 ppm. which would exert a toxic effect. I t was found (Tables 3 a n d 4) that u p to 20 p p m . vanadium could be tolerated b u t at higher levels progressively poorer results were obtained with each increment of
In experiment 1, 4 replicate groups of 13 Nichols 108 males were used per treatment. Experiment 2 involved 3 replicate groups of 25 male Vantress X Arbor Acre crossbred broilers per treatment. Experimental variables were administered during the following periods: Exp. 1, 11-32 days; E x p . 2, 7-28 days, Exp. 3, 9-30 days. Wire-floored, electrically heated batTABLE 2.—Effect oj vanadium on performance oj tery brooders were used in experiment 1, chicks (11-32 days)1 (Experiment 1) whereas experiments 2 and 3 were conducted using floor pen units with wood Gain Feed/ ppm. Mortality m. V.2 shavings for litter. Cr.3 (gms.) Gain % In all experiments feed and water were — 232 1.56 0 0 190 1.76 40 consumed ad libitum and body weight — 0 1.86 163 60 — gains and feed conversion measurements 2.86 0 91 120 — 30 63 200 were made at the end of each experi— — 100 400 — — — mental period. 100 600 — — — 0 30 235 1.56 The basal ration used in experiment 1 — 0 246 1.52 100 — and 3 is shown on Table 1. In experiment 1 2 a commercial broiler starter ration was 4 replicates 13 male Nichols 108 chicks per used. The vanadium content of these treatment. 2 AsCa 3 (V0 4 ) 2 . 3 basal rations was approximately 3 p p m . As Na.CrO;.
Downloaded from http://ps.oxfordjournals.org/ at Northern Arizona University on June 9, 2015
Ingredients Yellow Corn Meal Soybean Oil Meal (50% Protein) Dehydrated Alfalfa (20% Protein) Vegetable Oil, Stabilized Tallow, Stabilized Calcium Carbonate Dicalcium Phosphate (18.5% P) Sodium Chloride, Iodized MHA2 Santoquin 3 Trace Minerals (Delamix) Choline CI (25%) Terphthalic Acid Vitamin Mixture* Vitamin A (10,000 I.U./gm.) Vitamin D , (7,500 I.C.U./gm.) Aurofac 25 N F 180 Propen 4 Unistat
The specific dietary variables which were used in these experiments and the results obtained are discussed separately for each experiment.
T O X I C I T Y OF VANADIUM AND CHROMIUM
TABLE 3.—Effect of vanadhim on performance oj broiler chicks {7-28 days)1 (Experiment 2) ppm. 0 10 15 20 30 40
Gain (gms.)3
Feed/Gain 3
470" 479" 468" 448 ab 422b° 397"
1.69" 1.68" 1.68" 1.72" 1.75»b 1.81 b
TABLE 4.—Effect of vanadium on performance oj broiler chicks {9-30 days)1 (Experiment 3) V2 (Est.)
V2 (Found)
Gain3 Gms.
f/g 3
0 21 42 42
3 23 48 55
473" 429b 378° 381°
1.52" 1.58»b 1.67b° 1.70°
1 1. ..one 9=; V . n t 1
V
2
As Ca 3 (V0 4 ) 2 . 3 Numbers having a different superscript are significantly different (P=.05) according to Duncan's multiple range test (1955).
SUMMARY
If vanadium is essential for some physiological process in the chick, is limiting in practical type feed ingredients, and if the physiological process for which it is needed results in improved rate of gain, the requirement in a practical ration must be below 3 ppm., as this was the lowest level occurring in any of the feeds in these series of experiments.
These studies show t h a t the addition of approximately 30 ppm. of vanadium as the calcium salt depresses the rate of gain of broiler strain chicks fed practical rations. Furthermore, levels of vanadium over 200 p p m . will result in mortality. Chromium, on the other hand, was fed at 100 ppm. without effect. In processing phosphate ores involving high temperatures (for example, defluorination) the vanadium in the ore is converted to ortho vanadate. Consequently, one could expect similar responses to endogenous vanadium as were obtained from the addition of Ca 3 (V04)2 to the feed. I t is suggested t h a t the endogenous vanadium content of rock phosphate supplements should be below a level which would supply less than 30 ppm. to s a practical diet designed for broiler strain chickens.
Beard, H. H., W. Baker and V. C. Myers, 1931. Studies in the nutritional anemia of the rat. Vanadium. The action of iron and iron supplemented with other elements upon the daily reliculocyte, erythrocyte, and hemoglobin response. J. Biol. Chem. 94: 123-134. Duncan, D. R., 1955. Multiple range and multiple F tests. Biometrics, 11: 1-42. Franke, K. W., and A. L. Moxon, 1937. The toxicity of orally ingested arsenic, selenium, tellurium, vanadium and molybdenum. J. Pharmacol. Exp. Therap. 61:89-102. Keil, H. L., and V. E. Nelson, 1933. Studies on regeneration of hemoglobin. Proc. Iowa Acad. Sci. 40: 103-107. Peeler, H., 1960. Personal communication. Schwartz, K., and W. Mertz, 1959. Chromium III. Glucose tolerance factor. Arch. Biochem. Biophys. 85: 292-294. Webb, D. A., 1939. Observation on the blood of certain ascidians, with special reference to the biochemistry of vanadium. J. Exper. Biol. 16: 499523.
vanadium. Growth was significantly depressed from the addition of 30 ppm. vanadium to the basal ration. Furthermore, in the presence of 40 ppm. of vanadium, feed conversion was also significantly depressed.
REFERENCES
Downloaded from http://ps.oxfordjournals.org/ at Northern Arizona University on June 9, 2015
3 reps. 25 Vant.XAA males/rep. commercial mash. 2 As Ca 3 (V0 4 ) 2 . 3 Numbers having a different superscript are significantly different (P = .05) according to Duncan's multiple range test (1955).
1173