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Traditional marine resource management practices used in the Pacific Islands: an agenda for change
PII:
Ocean & Coastal Management. Vol. 37, No. 1, pp. 123-136, 1997 © 1997 Elsevier Science Limited. All rights reserved Printed in Northern Ireland S0964-5691 [96)00069-5 0964-5691/97 $17.00 + 0.00
ELSEVIER
Traditional marine resource management practices used in the Pacific Islands: an agenda for change*
Joeli
Veitayaki
Ocean Resources Management Program, The University of the South Pacific, Silva, Fiji
A B S T R A CT Pacific Islanders should use their traditional marine resource management system to formulate better and more applicable resource management arrangements. With the continued failure of contemporary management methods, the traditional resource users should play a more significant role in the proper utilisation of marine resources in the region. This is because most of the contemporary resource management methods have features that are similar or identical to traditional management systems. This wealth of resource management knowledge should be used to complement and improve contemporary management systems. In fact, if inter-generational equity is emphasised, then the wisdom and knowledge accumulated through time should be the basis of the changes that we make to contemporary management methods. This will enhance the proper management of marine resources. ~) 1998 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.
As the twenty-first century approaches, human beings throughout the world are troubled by the quest to ensure that the natural resources on which they depend are sustainably used. In a world that is seriously threatened by environmental problems such as climate change, sea-level rise, depleted resources and a greatly altered and polluted environment, humans have realised that the environmental resources they currently utilise need to be used without unnecessary degradation or threat to critical habitats, species and the environment. This is a difficult precondition given humankind's present capabilities, improved capacity, and numbers. The global community has agreed to the noble aim of *A version of this paper was presented at the 1994 U.S. Country Studies Climate Change in the Pacific Workshop organised at the East-West Center, University of Hawaii. 123
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sustainable development and is for the moment searching for development and resource management models that work. The sustainable use of marine resources in the future is unlikely because most of the Western-based management models undertaken so far have been inadequate and unsuccessful. ~ Even contemporary systems employing scientifically based methods have not fared much better, as shown by the collapse of important fisheries such as the northern cod of the Grand Banks, Canada in 1992. In rural communities, the changes associated with modernisation are eroding traditional marine management and are marginalising the lore and customary practises associated with them.: Empirical knowledge which has taken centuries to accumulate is being rapidly discarded or made redundant as people adopt contemporary exploitative methods. The value of traditional marine management practices in rural communities has recently become an important area of interest as people throughout the world realise that the traditional system may represent a range of useful alternatives. In addition, traditional management practices provide useful lessons from which contemporary users can learn. As Hviding points out, fisheries management is about people. 3 Pacific Island societies offer appropriate situations for the analysis of the traditional resource management systems because most of these communities were modernised only recently and still contain remnants of traditional management practices. In most of the countries of the region the majority of the population are still residing in rural areas. With the advent of new technology and equipment, the state of equilibrium that allowed the people to survive in these islands before the arrival of Europeans has rapidly changed. 4'5 Nearly all of the marine management systems now being tried in contemporary societies were used in some form in traditional Pacific Island management systems ~ (Table 1). Closed seasons, prohibitions, closed areas, size limitation, equipment control, limit to the number of users and quotas were all used in the traditional Pacific Island societies. 7 "~ With the search in contemporary societies for appropriate systems of resource management, it would be worthwhile to consider the practices that enabled the traditional communities to be sustainable in their environment. Johannes cautioned that understanding a conservation system means understanding not only the nature of what is being conserved, but also the viewpoint of the conserver. ~ The analysis of the management systems should be conducted in a manner that is mindful of the differences between the traditional and contemporary societies. In addition the factors that can hinder the amicable transfer of management practices should be closely studied. The
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TABLE 1.
Intentional marine conservation measures employed traditionally by tropical Pacific Islanders" Method
Locality
Closing of fishing or crabbing areas
Pukapuka; Marquesas; Truk; Tahiti; Satawal; Yap; Niue; Samoa; Tonga; Gilbert Islands; Hawaii; Solomon Islands; Losap
Closed seasons or banning of fishing spawning periods
Hawaii; Tahiti; Palau; Tonga; Tokelaus; Samoa; Mangaia
Allowing a portion of the catch to escape or deliberately not catching all readily available fish or turtles
Tonga; Micronesia; Hawaii; Enewetak
Holding excess catch in enclosures until needed
Pukapuka; Tuamotus; Marshal Islands; Palau; Fiji; Huahine
Ban on taking small individuals
Pukapuka-crabs; Palau-giant clams
Fishing in inland lagoons or for certain easily accessible species restricted to times of poor fishing conditions
Nauru; Palau; Gilbert Islands; Pukapuka; Lau Islands; Fiji; Mokil
Restrictions on taking seabirds and/or their eggs
Tobi; Pukapuka; Enewetak
Restricting the number of fish traps in the area
Woleai
Ban on taking turtle eggs
ToN; New Hebrides
Ban on taking turtles on beach
Gilbert Islands
Ban on frequenting favourite spots on turtle nesting beach
Samoa
Source: Johannes, 1978 " Marine tenure systems or methods of preserving the catch (see text) are not included.
d i f f e r e n t s y s t e m s n e e d to b e c o n s i d e r e d in t h e i r p r o p e r c o n t e x t . M u n r o a n d F a k a h a u r e m i n d e d us t h a t it 'is i m p o r t a n t to n o t e that the social a n d political setting o f a fishing c o m m u n i t y is n o t a p r o b l e m ; b u t r a t h e r it is a situation', j2 T i m e a n d m o n e y will b e s p a r e d if the e x p e r i e n c e s in t r a d i t i o n a l societies are used t o o u r a d v a n t a g e t o d a y . T r a d i t i o n a l r e s o u r c e m a n a g e m e n t p r a c t i c e s can b e the basis t h r o u g h w h i c h m o r e local p e o p l e are i n v o l v e d in the p r o p e r utilisation o f t h e i r m a r i n e r e s o u r c e s . O n e p o i n t is definite: h u m a n i t y n e e d n o t start all o v e r again. ~3 W a t t s e x p l a i n e d that ' O v e r the s h o r t t e r m , t h e ideas o f civilisation A m i g h t a p p e a r vastly s u p e r i o r to t h o s e o f civilisation B. B u t o v e r the
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long term it could turn out that the apparently 'primitive' practices of civilisation B were based on millennia of trial and error and incorporated deep wisdom that was unintelligible to civilisation A. '~4
1. L E A R N I N G F R O M T H E PAST There is a general consciousness amongst contemporary marine resource users that the experiences of traditional communities are essential to the planning and implementation of appropriate resource m a n a g e m e n t systems. Johannes however warned of the dangers of our failing to 'comprehend a system of resource management employed by people whose perception of their environment differs from our own'. 1~ Some contemporary marine m a n a g e m e n t systems are inadequate because they d e m a n d support systems and back-up facilities that are frivolous. For instance, the requirement of the quota and the licensing systems that the catch be recorded accurately and that the n u m b e r of licences be known. Both these are not the case in the Pacific Islands where the total catch is never known and the number of licences have little bearing on the number of people that actually fish. The appropriate state agencies responsible for these facilities are often 'distant, understaffed and underfunded to be effective '16 while the local chiefs and leaders are not involved. In places like Western Samoa and Fiji, the enforcement responsibility is too demanding and unrealistic as the officers are given huge areas. In places such as Palau and Fiji, the contemporary management systems disregard existing systems of authority and allegiance. Community-based marine management systems were suitable for the sustainable utilisation of marine environmental resources in the Pacific Islands because they involved people and incorporated the necessary features of their culture and tradition. The system of authority, land and marine tenure, custom and tradition, enforcement, beliefs, conflict and dispute settlement protocol made the systems better suited in Palau, Solomon Islands, Papua New Guinea and Fiji. W o m e n are an essential part of the community-based marine resource m a n a g e m e n t systems. W o m e n constitute approximately fifty per cent of the population in the communities and are solely responsible for certain fishing methods. Women's persistence, determination and perseverance are notable features of traditional community life. W o m e n are effective educators in the communities and their contribution will be needed as members of their communities are pressed to formulate more suitable systems of marine resource management.
Traditional marine resource management practices
127
Although tradition is associated with a specific location 17 and time, community-based marine management systems if appropriately modified and sanctioned, can be the bases of suitable management arrangements. Costly mistakes have been made continually when people ignore the experiences of their ancestors or fail to learn from them. In many parts of the Pacific, people are using the scientific methods of acquiring information and are not asking the people who have lived and used the resources in these areas. Although history is highly valued because of the lessons it offers, contemporary communities very often disregard the wisdom of their elders and indigenous population and their ancient civilisations. The problem is compounded by the fact that in traditional societies that history is less well documented and formalised than in the West. As Johannes explained, the methods are at times so simple that their virtues went almost unnoticed by Westerners. j~ Traditional marine resource management employs knowledge which the ancestors took centuries to work out and accumulate. 1'2° Contemporary users should not be too judgemental of the traditional system and should carefully evaluate the arrangements and situations they were made under. Early European settlers in the Pacific Islands, for instance, were quick to condemn as barbaric the practice of infanticide. These European settlers did not appreciate that through infanticide, these hunting, gathering and warring communities were ensuring the survival of the fittest of their offspring and those most capable of contributing to society. Furthermore, traditional communities were controlling their population and indirectly the demand on the resources of their environment. These early islanders had perceived the inter-relationship and linkage between their numbers and the capacity of the environment to provide for them. In that heathen state the people had made the painful decision that for the sustainable existence of their population some effective control of their numbers was needed. The sustainable use of marine resources was easier to achieve in the past because people were fewer in numbers, had fewer needs and had more limited capacity for consumption. Although the traditional Pacific Islanders were at particular times very destructive in their activities, their small population and limited capacity reduced their overall impacts. 2~ Today, environmental resource management is being undermined by such factors as the emphasis on production, participation in the cash economy, an increased capacity and demand for resource exploitation, a lack of information on which to base management and the socially destabilising effects of the cash economy. Modernisation in traditional communities has promoted the importance of cash crops which should be produced in as much quantity as possible to
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increase income. People, as in all developing countries, are urged to take up economically worthwhile activities such as commercial agriculture, fishing and mining. In some instances people in Pacific societies have settled outside their villages because they cannot improve on their economic positions if they remain. In most of these places, the villagers are pressured by society to meet their social obligations even if these are detrimental to their economic positions. Traditional societies throughout the Pacific Islands are now being replaced by well-connected and intricately linked communities that are part of the modern economic structure. As Ruddle explained 'contemporary community-based marine resource management systems exist under environmental, social, ecological, political and demographic circumstances that are often very different from those even of the recent past', n Community-based marine management systems should be better than the contemporary methods because they take into consideration the peoples' system of marine resource exploitation. The current serious state of over-harvesting, the extensive areas that require patrolling and surveillance and the heavy use of coastal resources require that communitybased management systems be encouraged. In fisheries, Johannes explained that the best way to know the fisheries and how it has been used and managed is to involve the people who have always used it. 23
2. T R A D I T I O N A L M A N A G E M E N T PRACTICES USED IN T H E PACIFIC ISLANDS The main marine resource management practice in most of the Pacific Islands is the ownership of the fishing ground extending to the outer reef slope and the right to organise fishing activities within that specified area. 24"25 Like the land, fishing areas are defined and owned by a clan, chief or family who regulate its use and exploitation (Fig. 1). Traditional authority reinforces compliance. Non conformists are treated harshly and this serves as an effective deterrent. 26 People seeking to use fishing grounds belonging to others are expected to get permission from the owners. 27 Fishing ground owners would from time to time declare a portion of their property out of bounds to preserve the resources for an intended purpose. The concept of sacred ground is prominent in Pacific Island societies. 2~ In some cases the sanctity of the area was such that people were barred from it. The traditional chiefly burial grounds in Fiji, for instance, were permanently off limits to most people. In the sea, the sacred fishing
Traditional marine resource management practices
129
Meaurem
tribe Komel tribe Zagareb tribe
Pe~bre
tribe
Samsep tribe
Keud Reef •.
i ',
Zer Kep Geuaram
Magarem tribe
tribe
0
IS."
1
l
l
km
W~der Is.
Tiibal divisions Fish
traps
f 144 3 7 ' E
Fig. 1.
(approximate), Murray Island (Modified from Rivers, 1908).
Tribal lands a n d h o m e reef b o u n d a r i e s
grounds were special areas where rules were strictly adhered to. At such sites, fishing was conducted only when the traditional priest (bete) granted permission. 2~ In Tatana village, Papua New Guinea, the people collected dead fish from the sea for burial on land to protect their fishing ground from pollution and from the big and dangerous fish that may be attracted to their fishing areas?" The association with the supernatural ensured that the sacred ground was respected and protected at all times - not only when some enforcement officer was watching. In such cases 'a close association was perceived between the living and the dead, whose spirits inhabited sacred areas, who showed offence when customary taboos and rituals were not adhered to. '3~ Amongst the turtle fishermen of Qoma, Fiji, the belief is that their gods will provide for them a catch that will meet the purpose for which the fishing was asked for and conducted. The fishers know that once a turtle swims through their net that their catch on that occasion is
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enough for whatever purpose the fishing was conducted and that they will not catch any more on that trip? 2 In the Solomon Islands people believe in the guardian shark that protects the fishing ground and punishes those who abuse their fishing rights (Toata Molea, Pers. com. 1994). These strong beliefs make people adhere to the fishing traditions and customs and render superfluous the involvement of full-time enforcement officers. The thought of retribution by the ever-vigilant gods was a continuous reminder to the people of the need to treat their resources properly. The land and its adjoining fishing grounds in most Pacific Island countries were associated with the spirits that protected them. Siwatibau noted that in such societies the environment was not something separate 'but an integral part of one's self, providing the physical manifestation of the vital link between the living and the dead'. 33 Outsiders, therefore, must observe the code of conduct in any area where they are visiting. In Fiji, it is expected that visitors make an offering (sevusevu) to publicise their arrival. This system ensures that the members of the community are aware of the presence of visitors amongst them and also protects the visitors from the wrath of the spirits who show offence when customary protocol relating to arrival is not followed. The arrangement also ensures that the customary owners of fishing grounds and rights are consulted every time outsiders want to fish in their area. Most Pacific Islanders have a plant, a bird and a fish totem. The taboo associated with totems restricts particular clans, families, age groups or sexes from catching and eating certain types of fish. 34"35 Fishing was not free as it is today as the fishers were always on the lookout for their totem. In Qoma, the fishers would abandon their nets and run away if their totem fish was caught?" The practice limits the catching effort and contributes to the maintenance of the stock. The use of simple exploitation methods ensures small catches which means less stress on the resource. Fishing is restricted to the most commonly used coastal and mudflat, in-reef and lagoons and the reef and reef-patches. More efficient fishing methods, such as community fish drives, are practiced only when large quantities of fish are needed. The dependence on traditional technologies made fishing more dependent on the vagaries of weather which frequently made fishing impossible. In addition, most fishers in the Pacific Islands are restricted in the zones they exploited by the perishable nature of the fish, their slow and often non-motorised boats and the methods of fishing and preservation available to them. Geographic isolation, difficulties of transportation, and poor marketing, limit production. People desire less and are more independent and self-sufficient in their subsistence communities. There is little need for
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trade and therefore surplus. The situation is such that the exploitation of marine resources is restricted. Furthermore there is no by-catches such as the 17.9-39.5 million tonnes that are discarded from the world's fisheries yearly. 37
3. T H E F U T U R E OF O U R P A S T Environmental resource m a n a g e m e n t is more critical now because of humanity's increasing numbers, its capacity to deplete resources, and escalating commercial orientation. Traditional resource use methods are being a b a n d o n e d while more efiacient methods are adopted in an attempt to make fishing easier or maximise output. In most of the Development Plans in the region, there are calls for greater exploitation of fisheries resources to earn more foreign exchange. At the community level, while the people are venturing further away from their bases, expanding the areas of depleted and over-exploited resources, most still have not admitted to the depletion of resources in the nearby areas. There is the misconception perhaps related to past experiences, that since the environmental resources have provided for the people's sustenance in the past that it can continue to do so today. Many people have not understood the ecological strain and stress that environmental resources have been subjected to and the fact that many of these natural resources are under threat because of over exploitation. Illegal fishing is becoming a major problem in the customary areas close to the main urban centres. Using contemporary fishing gear such as speed boats and underwater torches, commercial fishers are continually encroaching into fishing areas belonging to others. Disputes are now c o m m o n as people from the same social groups differ over the utilisation of their resources. The experience in Fiji is noteworthy. Fiji's Fisheries Ordinance (Cap 135) (section 13) charged that the Native Fisheries Commission ascertain 'what customary fishing rights in each province of Fiji are the rightful and hereditary property of native owners, whether of mataqali* or in whatsoever manner or way by whatsoever divisions or subdivisions of the people may be held' and (section 14(1)) 'record in writing the boundaries and situations of such rights together with the names of the respective communities claiming to be the owners thereof. '3~ To date the Native Fisheries Commission has * A primary social division in Fiji. It appears to have sprung from the subdivisions of naturally increasing families.
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J. Veitayaki TABLE 2.
Customary Fishing Grounds and Fishing Rights in Fiji Province
Village
No. of customary fishing rights
Ba Bua Cakaudrove Kadavu Lau Lomaiviti Macuata Nadroga Naitasiri Namosi Ra Rewa Serua Tailevu TOTAL
107 54 132 78 72 73 108 122 86 26 93 54 24 141 1170
16 10 38 33 75 31 12 33 14 4 19 15 14 92 406
Source: Waqairatu, 1994. the following information on the ownership of traditional fishing grounds (Table 2). Commercial fishers operating within the customary fishing areas in Fiji are required to have a licence which is renewable every year. The licences are issued by the Fisheries Division upon receipt of the approval of the local chief or head of the extended family unit which owns the fishing rights. Fishers seeking licences within this area are expected to pay goodwill money. This system, though open to abuse, effectively restricts the number of users in any customary fishing area. Fishing licences offered in this way are often not rationally decided upon because the traditional owners offer their consent to nearly everyone that asks and pays for them. There is little scientific basis for such permit allocation and the system can be improved if some scientific formula is used. The global community is encouraging the study, analysis and use of traditional management practices. Chapter 17 of Agenda 21 which maps the future course of action for humanity made important references to traditional management practices. Section 17.81 (c) proposes the development of 'systems for the acquisition and recording of traditional knowledge concerning marine living resources and environment and promote the incorporation of such knowledge into management'. Section 17.92 (c) encourages the promotion of 'study, scientific assessment and use of
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appropriate traditional systems.' Section 17.94 (b) proposes the provision of 'support to local fishing communities, in particular those that rely on fishing for subsistence, indigenous people and women, including as appropriate, the technical and financial assistance to organise, maintain, exchange and improve traditional knowledge of marine living resources and fishing techniques, and upgrade knowledge on marine ecosystems'. 39 Traditional communities now have the capability to deplete their environmental resources. With the economic demands to which the people are subjected and their increased capacity and productivity levels, the sustainable utilisation of marine resources has become a major challenge and a source of conflict. Coastal fisheries development throughout the Pacific Islands continues to be characterised by the periodic boom and bust cycles that are associated with the peak and collapse of the trade in marine commodities. The short lifetimes of fishing operations are also a major issue. Pacific Islanders are better placed to use some of the systems of marine resource management mentioned here because they may still remember certain conservation measures that their ancestors did. An excellent example of the convenient marriage of the old and the new resource management systems is the clam sanctuaries in Vava'u in the Kingdom of Tonga. 4° In an attempt to revive the giant clam population, the men and women of Vava'u in Tonga were asked to make giant clam sanctuaries within their reef areas. The people were told of the need to manage the stock and were asked to look after the sanctuaries because they were theirs. No money was promised but the people were told that the clam sanctuaries were necessary for their well being. After the people were convinced of the importance of the sanctuaries, the whole community took on the task of protecting the resource because it is dear to them. According to Chesher, the sanctuaries are now thriving and the people are now testifying to the recovery of the marine communities in surrounding areas. Community-based marine resource management is suitable in the Pacific Islands because in most of these communities, the right of individuals is related to the group's overall position. Decisions are based on consensus which ensures the cooperation of everyone in the community. This decision-making procedure is appropriate because the marine resources are collectively owned. Hence, once the community decides on a course of action there is little need for any formal enforcement arrangement. The dichotomy in coastal communities should be carefully considered to ensure that the appropriate fisheries management systems are designed. The socio-economic and technological changes that have taken place in
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most communities require modern management input. Most traditional societies have not fully understood the nature of modern environmental issues and the scientific base of the inter-relationships in the ecosystem. The impact of modern fishing technology is an excellent example because fishers now have access to and can spread their sphere of overfishing to more distant areas where they have never gone before. Furthermore, the increase in the number of fishers makes it critical that everyone be familiar with the need to keep production levels well within the stock's capacity to replenish itself. In some areas of the Pacific Islands, the traditional fishing ground owners and fishing right owners have become passive observers to government officials who make all the resource management decisions. In these instances, the traditional owners of fishing grounds and rights are regarded by government officials as ignorant people who needed to be instructed in new ways of managing their resources. In others, traditional fishing grounds and rights owners are suspicious of the government's motives because they emphasise the training of locals in the new ways without considering the virtues of the systems that these traditional societies employed. For the proper exploitation of marine resources in the future, people, including those from traditional and contemporary societies, need to appreciate each other and accept as important the role people in different situations play. No single system will successfully cater for the two different systems that exist in most Pacific Island societies. The owners of customary fishing grounds and rights should be encouraged to properly manage their fishing realm, and to guard them as the prized possession that they are, because to do less is to relinquish the responsibilities associated with ownership. Management and conservation are difficult to promote because they contradict the maximisation of catch aspired to by most operators. Fishers in the region, like their counterparts in the world, are hunters who always leave home with the wish for a big and quick catch. This desire at times drives people to use destructive fishing methods. The increased mobility of people and the decline of traditional authority make total reliance on only traditional management systems inappropriate. Pacific Islanders who are trained in schools and overseas, are losing the knowledge of traditional management practices which were passed down to their parents from their elders. The old system alone cannot be expected to successfully address the issues that relate predominantly to the new system. Yet, given the intricate knowledge that has been accumulated by the traditional societies, it would be ludicrous if contemporary users did not put it to good use. Although it is difficult to scientifically prove the success of traditional
Traditional marine resource management practices
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resource management practices in the conservation of resources, the fact that these arrangements have been tried in Pacific Island societies is enough to make us consider them as we re-evaluate our management strategies. In a number of places in the Pacific such as in the Solomon Islands and Tonga, the traditional management arrangements have been the basis of contemporary changes. Some traditional fishing ground custodians, for instance, the people of Maroro Lagoon, Solomon Islands 4t are now determining to a great extent the exploitation of their marine resources. In some other places they have banned the contemporary development of resources such as forests and fisheries whereas in others they have been instrumental in the declaration of marine reserves and parks and in the decision of what is allowed and what is not. In different parts of Fiji, the customary fish right owners have banned the use of gillnets, have declared periodic moratoria on their fishing grounds and employed fish wardens to patrol their realm. In other places the local people have asked for resource assessment to allow them to decide on their future course of action. In all, some Pacific Islanders are using the dynamic traditional management practices to formulate more effective management methods. These people are showing that the traditional resource management practices can serve them better in the future.
REFERENCES 1. Hviding, E., Customary Marine Tenure and Fisheries Management: Some Challenges, Prospects and Experiences. In Traditional Marine Tenure and Sustainable Management of Marine Resources in Asia and the Pacific, ed. G. R. South, D. Goulet, S. Tuqiri & M. Church, International Ocean Institute - - South Pacific, Suva, 1994. 2. Johannes, R. E., Traditional marine conservation methods in Oceania and their demise. Annual Reviews Ecol. Syst. 9 1978, 349-364. 3. as in 1. 4. as in 2. 5. Ruddle, K., Traditional marine tenure in the 90s. In Traditional Marine Tenure and the Sustainable Management of Marine Resources in Asia and the Pacific, ed. G. R. South, D. Goulet, S. Tuqiri & M. Church, International Ocean Institute, South Pacific, Suva, 1994. 6. as in 2. 7. Johannes, R. E., Words of the Lagoon. Fishing and Marine Lore in the Palau District of Micronesia, University of California Press, Berkeley, 1992. 8. as in 2. 9. as in 1. 10. as in 5. 1 1 . as in 2 .
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12. Munro, J. L. & Fakahau, S. T., Monitoring and Management of Coastal Fishery Resources in the South Pacific Region. Report to the Forum Fisheries Agency, Honiara, 1987. 13. as in 8. 14. Watt, K. E. F., Man's efficient rush towards deadly dullness. Natural History 1972, 81(2), 74-77, 80, 82. 15. as in 2. 16. as in 5. 17. as in 5. 18. as in 7. 19. as in 2. 20. as in 8. 21. Clarke, W. C., Pacific peoples and land: have they ever been in harmony? Environment: a column about the relations of people with their environment. Review, Pacific Aspects of Health 1986, 7(14). 22. as in 5. 23. Johannes, R. E., Fishing tales. Pacific Islands Monthly, January (1994). 24. Johannes, R. E. & MacFarlane, J. W., Traditional Fishing in the Torres Strait Islands, CSIRO, Hobart, 1991. 25. as in 2. 26. as in 2. 27. as in 2. 28. Siwatibau, S., Traditional environmental practices in the South Pacific: a case study of Fiji. Ambio 1984, 135-6, 365-368. 29. Veitayaki, J., Village-level fishing in Fiji: a case study of Qoma Island. Unpublished thesis, USP, Suva, 1990. 30. Gaigo, B., Past and present fishing practices among the people of Tatana village, Port Moresby. In Traditional Conservation in Papua New Guinea: Implications for Today, (Monograph 16) ed. L. Morauta, J. Pernetta & W. Hearney. Institute of Applied Social and Economic Research, Boroko, 1982. 31. as in 28. 32. as in 29. 33. as in 28. 34. as in 2. 35. Kengalu, A. M., Embargo: The Jeanette Diana Affair. Robert Brown and Associates, New South Wales, 1988. 36. as in 29. 37. Anon, Twenty per cent of the world fisheries catch is discarded. NAGA The ICLARM Quarterly 1995, 18(1). 38. Waqairatu, S., The delimitation of the traditional fishing grounds: the Fiji experience. In Traditional Marine Tenure and Sustainable Management of Marine Resources in Asia and the Pacific, ed. G. R. South, D. Goulet, S. Tuqiri & M. Church. International Ocean Institute, South Pacific, Suva, 1994. 39. United Nations, Programme Areas. Report of the UN Conference on Environment and Development, Rio de Janeiro, 3-14 June 1992 (A/Conf.151/26 Vol. II), 1992. 40. Chesher, R., The giant clam sanctuaries of the Kingdom of Tonga, Marine Studies Technical Report 1995, 95(2).
Ocean & Coastal Management. Vol. 37, No. 1, pp. 123-136, 1997 © 1997 Elsevier Science Limited. All rights reserved Printed in Northern Ireland S0964-5691 [96)00069-5 0964-5691/97 $17.00 + 0.00
ELSEVIER
Traditional marine resource management practices used in the Pacific Islands: an agenda for change*
Joeli
Veitayaki
Ocean Resources Management Program, The University of the South Pacific, Silva, Fiji
A B S T R A CT Pacific Islanders should use their traditional marine resource management system to formulate better and more applicable resource management arrangements. With the continued failure of contemporary management methods, the traditional resource users should play a more significant role in the proper utilisation of marine resources in the region. This is because most of the contemporary resource management methods have features that are similar or identical to traditional management systems. This wealth of resource management knowledge should be used to complement and improve contemporary management systems. In fact, if inter-generational equity is emphasised, then the wisdom and knowledge accumulated through time should be the basis of the changes that we make to contemporary management methods. This will enhance the proper management of marine resources. ~) 1998 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.
As the twenty-first century approaches, human beings throughout the world are troubled by the quest to ensure that the natural resources on which they depend are sustainably used. In a world that is seriously threatened by environmental problems such as climate change, sea-level rise, depleted resources and a greatly altered and polluted environment, humans have realised that the environmental resources they currently utilise need to be used without unnecessary degradation or threat to critical habitats, species and the environment. This is a difficult precondition given humankind's present capabilities, improved capacity, and numbers. The global community has agreed to the noble aim of *A version of this paper was presented at the 1994 U.S. Country Studies Climate Change in the Pacific Workshop organised at the East-West Center, University of Hawaii. 123
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Veitayaki
sustainable development and is for the moment searching for development and resource management models that work. The sustainable use of marine resources in the future is unlikely because most of the Western-based management models undertaken so far have been inadequate and unsuccessful. ~ Even contemporary systems employing scientifically based methods have not fared much better, as shown by the collapse of important fisheries such as the northern cod of the Grand Banks, Canada in 1992. In rural communities, the changes associated with modernisation are eroding traditional marine management and are marginalising the lore and customary practises associated with them.: Empirical knowledge which has taken centuries to accumulate is being rapidly discarded or made redundant as people adopt contemporary exploitative methods. The value of traditional marine management practices in rural communities has recently become an important area of interest as people throughout the world realise that the traditional system may represent a range of useful alternatives. In addition, traditional management practices provide useful lessons from which contemporary users can learn. As Hviding points out, fisheries management is about people. 3 Pacific Island societies offer appropriate situations for the analysis of the traditional resource management systems because most of these communities were modernised only recently and still contain remnants of traditional management practices. In most of the countries of the region the majority of the population are still residing in rural areas. With the advent of new technology and equipment, the state of equilibrium that allowed the people to survive in these islands before the arrival of Europeans has rapidly changed. 4'5 Nearly all of the marine management systems now being tried in contemporary societies were used in some form in traditional Pacific Island management systems ~ (Table 1). Closed seasons, prohibitions, closed areas, size limitation, equipment control, limit to the number of users and quotas were all used in the traditional Pacific Island societies. 7 "~ With the search in contemporary societies for appropriate systems of resource management, it would be worthwhile to consider the practices that enabled the traditional communities to be sustainable in their environment. Johannes cautioned that understanding a conservation system means understanding not only the nature of what is being conserved, but also the viewpoint of the conserver. ~ The analysis of the management systems should be conducted in a manner that is mindful of the differences between the traditional and contemporary societies. In addition the factors that can hinder the amicable transfer of management practices should be closely studied. The
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TABLE 1.
Intentional marine conservation measures employed traditionally by tropical Pacific Islanders" Method
Locality
Closing of fishing or crabbing areas
Pukapuka; Marquesas; Truk; Tahiti; Satawal; Yap; Niue; Samoa; Tonga; Gilbert Islands; Hawaii; Solomon Islands; Losap
Closed seasons or banning of fishing spawning periods
Hawaii; Tahiti; Palau; Tonga; Tokelaus; Samoa; Mangaia
Allowing a portion of the catch to escape or deliberately not catching all readily available fish or turtles
Tonga; Micronesia; Hawaii; Enewetak
Holding excess catch in enclosures until needed
Pukapuka; Tuamotus; Marshal Islands; Palau; Fiji; Huahine
Ban on taking small individuals
Pukapuka-crabs; Palau-giant clams
Fishing in inland lagoons or for certain easily accessible species restricted to times of poor fishing conditions
Nauru; Palau; Gilbert Islands; Pukapuka; Lau Islands; Fiji; Mokil
Restrictions on taking seabirds and/or their eggs
Tobi; Pukapuka; Enewetak
Restricting the number of fish traps in the area
Woleai
Ban on taking turtle eggs
ToN; New Hebrides
Ban on taking turtles on beach
Gilbert Islands
Ban on frequenting favourite spots on turtle nesting beach
Samoa
Source: Johannes, 1978 " Marine tenure systems or methods of preserving the catch (see text) are not included.
d i f f e r e n t s y s t e m s n e e d to b e c o n s i d e r e d in t h e i r p r o p e r c o n t e x t . M u n r o a n d F a k a h a u r e m i n d e d us t h a t it 'is i m p o r t a n t to n o t e that the social a n d political setting o f a fishing c o m m u n i t y is n o t a p r o b l e m ; b u t r a t h e r it is a situation', j2 T i m e a n d m o n e y will b e s p a r e d if the e x p e r i e n c e s in t r a d i t i o n a l societies are used t o o u r a d v a n t a g e t o d a y . T r a d i t i o n a l r e s o u r c e m a n a g e m e n t p r a c t i c e s can b e the basis t h r o u g h w h i c h m o r e local p e o p l e are i n v o l v e d in the p r o p e r utilisation o f t h e i r m a r i n e r e s o u r c e s . O n e p o i n t is definite: h u m a n i t y n e e d n o t start all o v e r again. ~3 W a t t s e x p l a i n e d that ' O v e r the s h o r t t e r m , t h e ideas o f civilisation A m i g h t a p p e a r vastly s u p e r i o r to t h o s e o f civilisation B. B u t o v e r the
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long term it could turn out that the apparently 'primitive' practices of civilisation B were based on millennia of trial and error and incorporated deep wisdom that was unintelligible to civilisation A. '~4
1. L E A R N I N G F R O M T H E PAST There is a general consciousness amongst contemporary marine resource users that the experiences of traditional communities are essential to the planning and implementation of appropriate resource m a n a g e m e n t systems. Johannes however warned of the dangers of our failing to 'comprehend a system of resource management employed by people whose perception of their environment differs from our own'. 1~ Some contemporary marine m a n a g e m e n t systems are inadequate because they d e m a n d support systems and back-up facilities that are frivolous. For instance, the requirement of the quota and the licensing systems that the catch be recorded accurately and that the n u m b e r of licences be known. Both these are not the case in the Pacific Islands where the total catch is never known and the number of licences have little bearing on the number of people that actually fish. The appropriate state agencies responsible for these facilities are often 'distant, understaffed and underfunded to be effective '16 while the local chiefs and leaders are not involved. In places like Western Samoa and Fiji, the enforcement responsibility is too demanding and unrealistic as the officers are given huge areas. In places such as Palau and Fiji, the contemporary management systems disregard existing systems of authority and allegiance. Community-based marine management systems were suitable for the sustainable utilisation of marine environmental resources in the Pacific Islands because they involved people and incorporated the necessary features of their culture and tradition. The system of authority, land and marine tenure, custom and tradition, enforcement, beliefs, conflict and dispute settlement protocol made the systems better suited in Palau, Solomon Islands, Papua New Guinea and Fiji. W o m e n are an essential part of the community-based marine resource m a n a g e m e n t systems. W o m e n constitute approximately fifty per cent of the population in the communities and are solely responsible for certain fishing methods. Women's persistence, determination and perseverance are notable features of traditional community life. W o m e n are effective educators in the communities and their contribution will be needed as members of their communities are pressed to formulate more suitable systems of marine resource management.
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127
Although tradition is associated with a specific location 17 and time, community-based marine management systems if appropriately modified and sanctioned, can be the bases of suitable management arrangements. Costly mistakes have been made continually when people ignore the experiences of their ancestors or fail to learn from them. In many parts of the Pacific, people are using the scientific methods of acquiring information and are not asking the people who have lived and used the resources in these areas. Although history is highly valued because of the lessons it offers, contemporary communities very often disregard the wisdom of their elders and indigenous population and their ancient civilisations. The problem is compounded by the fact that in traditional societies that history is less well documented and formalised than in the West. As Johannes explained, the methods are at times so simple that their virtues went almost unnoticed by Westerners. j~ Traditional marine resource management employs knowledge which the ancestors took centuries to work out and accumulate. 1'2° Contemporary users should not be too judgemental of the traditional system and should carefully evaluate the arrangements and situations they were made under. Early European settlers in the Pacific Islands, for instance, were quick to condemn as barbaric the practice of infanticide. These European settlers did not appreciate that through infanticide, these hunting, gathering and warring communities were ensuring the survival of the fittest of their offspring and those most capable of contributing to society. Furthermore, traditional communities were controlling their population and indirectly the demand on the resources of their environment. These early islanders had perceived the inter-relationship and linkage between their numbers and the capacity of the environment to provide for them. In that heathen state the people had made the painful decision that for the sustainable existence of their population some effective control of their numbers was needed. The sustainable use of marine resources was easier to achieve in the past because people were fewer in numbers, had fewer needs and had more limited capacity for consumption. Although the traditional Pacific Islanders were at particular times very destructive in their activities, their small population and limited capacity reduced their overall impacts. 2~ Today, environmental resource management is being undermined by such factors as the emphasis on production, participation in the cash economy, an increased capacity and demand for resource exploitation, a lack of information on which to base management and the socially destabilising effects of the cash economy. Modernisation in traditional communities has promoted the importance of cash crops which should be produced in as much quantity as possible to
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increase income. People, as in all developing countries, are urged to take up economically worthwhile activities such as commercial agriculture, fishing and mining. In some instances people in Pacific societies have settled outside their villages because they cannot improve on their economic positions if they remain. In most of these places, the villagers are pressured by society to meet their social obligations even if these are detrimental to their economic positions. Traditional societies throughout the Pacific Islands are now being replaced by well-connected and intricately linked communities that are part of the modern economic structure. As Ruddle explained 'contemporary community-based marine resource management systems exist under environmental, social, ecological, political and demographic circumstances that are often very different from those even of the recent past', n Community-based marine management systems should be better than the contemporary methods because they take into consideration the peoples' system of marine resource exploitation. The current serious state of over-harvesting, the extensive areas that require patrolling and surveillance and the heavy use of coastal resources require that communitybased management systems be encouraged. In fisheries, Johannes explained that the best way to know the fisheries and how it has been used and managed is to involve the people who have always used it. 23
2. T R A D I T I O N A L M A N A G E M E N T PRACTICES USED IN T H E PACIFIC ISLANDS The main marine resource management practice in most of the Pacific Islands is the ownership of the fishing ground extending to the outer reef slope and the right to organise fishing activities within that specified area. 24"25 Like the land, fishing areas are defined and owned by a clan, chief or family who regulate its use and exploitation (Fig. 1). Traditional authority reinforces compliance. Non conformists are treated harshly and this serves as an effective deterrent. 26 People seeking to use fishing grounds belonging to others are expected to get permission from the owners. 27 Fishing ground owners would from time to time declare a portion of their property out of bounds to preserve the resources for an intended purpose. The concept of sacred ground is prominent in Pacific Island societies. 2~ In some cases the sanctity of the area was such that people were barred from it. The traditional chiefly burial grounds in Fiji, for instance, were permanently off limits to most people. In the sea, the sacred fishing
Traditional marine resource management practices
129
Meaurem
tribe Komel tribe Zagareb tribe
Pe~bre
tribe
Samsep tribe
Keud Reef •.
i ',
Zer Kep Geuaram
Magarem tribe
tribe
0
IS."
1
l
l
km
W~der Is.
Tiibal divisions Fish
traps
f 144 3 7 ' E
Fig. 1.
(approximate), Murray Island (Modified from Rivers, 1908).
Tribal lands a n d h o m e reef b o u n d a r i e s
grounds were special areas where rules were strictly adhered to. At such sites, fishing was conducted only when the traditional priest (bete) granted permission. 2~ In Tatana village, Papua New Guinea, the people collected dead fish from the sea for burial on land to protect their fishing ground from pollution and from the big and dangerous fish that may be attracted to their fishing areas?" The association with the supernatural ensured that the sacred ground was respected and protected at all times - not only when some enforcement officer was watching. In such cases 'a close association was perceived between the living and the dead, whose spirits inhabited sacred areas, who showed offence when customary taboos and rituals were not adhered to. '3~ Amongst the turtle fishermen of Qoma, Fiji, the belief is that their gods will provide for them a catch that will meet the purpose for which the fishing was asked for and conducted. The fishers know that once a turtle swims through their net that their catch on that occasion is
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J. Veitayaki
enough for whatever purpose the fishing was conducted and that they will not catch any more on that trip? 2 In the Solomon Islands people believe in the guardian shark that protects the fishing ground and punishes those who abuse their fishing rights (Toata Molea, Pers. com. 1994). These strong beliefs make people adhere to the fishing traditions and customs and render superfluous the involvement of full-time enforcement officers. The thought of retribution by the ever-vigilant gods was a continuous reminder to the people of the need to treat their resources properly. The land and its adjoining fishing grounds in most Pacific Island countries were associated with the spirits that protected them. Siwatibau noted that in such societies the environment was not something separate 'but an integral part of one's self, providing the physical manifestation of the vital link between the living and the dead'. 33 Outsiders, therefore, must observe the code of conduct in any area where they are visiting. In Fiji, it is expected that visitors make an offering (sevusevu) to publicise their arrival. This system ensures that the members of the community are aware of the presence of visitors amongst them and also protects the visitors from the wrath of the spirits who show offence when customary protocol relating to arrival is not followed. The arrangement also ensures that the customary owners of fishing grounds and rights are consulted every time outsiders want to fish in their area. Most Pacific Islanders have a plant, a bird and a fish totem. The taboo associated with totems restricts particular clans, families, age groups or sexes from catching and eating certain types of fish. 34"35 Fishing was not free as it is today as the fishers were always on the lookout for their totem. In Qoma, the fishers would abandon their nets and run away if their totem fish was caught?" The practice limits the catching effort and contributes to the maintenance of the stock. The use of simple exploitation methods ensures small catches which means less stress on the resource. Fishing is restricted to the most commonly used coastal and mudflat, in-reef and lagoons and the reef and reef-patches. More efficient fishing methods, such as community fish drives, are practiced only when large quantities of fish are needed. The dependence on traditional technologies made fishing more dependent on the vagaries of weather which frequently made fishing impossible. In addition, most fishers in the Pacific Islands are restricted in the zones they exploited by the perishable nature of the fish, their slow and often non-motorised boats and the methods of fishing and preservation available to them. Geographic isolation, difficulties of transportation, and poor marketing, limit production. People desire less and are more independent and self-sufficient in their subsistence communities. There is little need for
Traditional marine resource management practices
131
trade and therefore surplus. The situation is such that the exploitation of marine resources is restricted. Furthermore there is no by-catches such as the 17.9-39.5 million tonnes that are discarded from the world's fisheries yearly. 37
3. T H E F U T U R E OF O U R P A S T Environmental resource m a n a g e m e n t is more critical now because of humanity's increasing numbers, its capacity to deplete resources, and escalating commercial orientation. Traditional resource use methods are being a b a n d o n e d while more efiacient methods are adopted in an attempt to make fishing easier or maximise output. In most of the Development Plans in the region, there are calls for greater exploitation of fisheries resources to earn more foreign exchange. At the community level, while the people are venturing further away from their bases, expanding the areas of depleted and over-exploited resources, most still have not admitted to the depletion of resources in the nearby areas. There is the misconception perhaps related to past experiences, that since the environmental resources have provided for the people's sustenance in the past that it can continue to do so today. Many people have not understood the ecological strain and stress that environmental resources have been subjected to and the fact that many of these natural resources are under threat because of over exploitation. Illegal fishing is becoming a major problem in the customary areas close to the main urban centres. Using contemporary fishing gear such as speed boats and underwater torches, commercial fishers are continually encroaching into fishing areas belonging to others. Disputes are now c o m m o n as people from the same social groups differ over the utilisation of their resources. The experience in Fiji is noteworthy. Fiji's Fisheries Ordinance (Cap 135) (section 13) charged that the Native Fisheries Commission ascertain 'what customary fishing rights in each province of Fiji are the rightful and hereditary property of native owners, whether of mataqali* or in whatsoever manner or way by whatsoever divisions or subdivisions of the people may be held' and (section 14(1)) 'record in writing the boundaries and situations of such rights together with the names of the respective communities claiming to be the owners thereof. '3~ To date the Native Fisheries Commission has * A primary social division in Fiji. It appears to have sprung from the subdivisions of naturally increasing families.
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J. Veitayaki TABLE 2.
Customary Fishing Grounds and Fishing Rights in Fiji Province
Village
No. of customary fishing rights
Ba Bua Cakaudrove Kadavu Lau Lomaiviti Macuata Nadroga Naitasiri Namosi Ra Rewa Serua Tailevu TOTAL
107 54 132 78 72 73 108 122 86 26 93 54 24 141 1170
16 10 38 33 75 31 12 33 14 4 19 15 14 92 406
Source: Waqairatu, 1994. the following information on the ownership of traditional fishing grounds (Table 2). Commercial fishers operating within the customary fishing areas in Fiji are required to have a licence which is renewable every year. The licences are issued by the Fisheries Division upon receipt of the approval of the local chief or head of the extended family unit which owns the fishing rights. Fishers seeking licences within this area are expected to pay goodwill money. This system, though open to abuse, effectively restricts the number of users in any customary fishing area. Fishing licences offered in this way are often not rationally decided upon because the traditional owners offer their consent to nearly everyone that asks and pays for them. There is little scientific basis for such permit allocation and the system can be improved if some scientific formula is used. The global community is encouraging the study, analysis and use of traditional management practices. Chapter 17 of Agenda 21 which maps the future course of action for humanity made important references to traditional management practices. Section 17.81 (c) proposes the development of 'systems for the acquisition and recording of traditional knowledge concerning marine living resources and environment and promote the incorporation of such knowledge into management'. Section 17.92 (c) encourages the promotion of 'study, scientific assessment and use of
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133
appropriate traditional systems.' Section 17.94 (b) proposes the provision of 'support to local fishing communities, in particular those that rely on fishing for subsistence, indigenous people and women, including as appropriate, the technical and financial assistance to organise, maintain, exchange and improve traditional knowledge of marine living resources and fishing techniques, and upgrade knowledge on marine ecosystems'. 39 Traditional communities now have the capability to deplete their environmental resources. With the economic demands to which the people are subjected and their increased capacity and productivity levels, the sustainable utilisation of marine resources has become a major challenge and a source of conflict. Coastal fisheries development throughout the Pacific Islands continues to be characterised by the periodic boom and bust cycles that are associated with the peak and collapse of the trade in marine commodities. The short lifetimes of fishing operations are also a major issue. Pacific Islanders are better placed to use some of the systems of marine resource management mentioned here because they may still remember certain conservation measures that their ancestors did. An excellent example of the convenient marriage of the old and the new resource management systems is the clam sanctuaries in Vava'u in the Kingdom of Tonga. 4° In an attempt to revive the giant clam population, the men and women of Vava'u in Tonga were asked to make giant clam sanctuaries within their reef areas. The people were told of the need to manage the stock and were asked to look after the sanctuaries because they were theirs. No money was promised but the people were told that the clam sanctuaries were necessary for their well being. After the people were convinced of the importance of the sanctuaries, the whole community took on the task of protecting the resource because it is dear to them. According to Chesher, the sanctuaries are now thriving and the people are now testifying to the recovery of the marine communities in surrounding areas. Community-based marine resource management is suitable in the Pacific Islands because in most of these communities, the right of individuals is related to the group's overall position. Decisions are based on consensus which ensures the cooperation of everyone in the community. This decision-making procedure is appropriate because the marine resources are collectively owned. Hence, once the community decides on a course of action there is little need for any formal enforcement arrangement. The dichotomy in coastal communities should be carefully considered to ensure that the appropriate fisheries management systems are designed. The socio-economic and technological changes that have taken place in
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Veitayaki
most communities require modern management input. Most traditional societies have not fully understood the nature of modern environmental issues and the scientific base of the inter-relationships in the ecosystem. The impact of modern fishing technology is an excellent example because fishers now have access to and can spread their sphere of overfishing to more distant areas where they have never gone before. Furthermore, the increase in the number of fishers makes it critical that everyone be familiar with the need to keep production levels well within the stock's capacity to replenish itself. In some areas of the Pacific Islands, the traditional fishing ground owners and fishing right owners have become passive observers to government officials who make all the resource management decisions. In these instances, the traditional owners of fishing grounds and rights are regarded by government officials as ignorant people who needed to be instructed in new ways of managing their resources. In others, traditional fishing grounds and rights owners are suspicious of the government's motives because they emphasise the training of locals in the new ways without considering the virtues of the systems that these traditional societies employed. For the proper exploitation of marine resources in the future, people, including those from traditional and contemporary societies, need to appreciate each other and accept as important the role people in different situations play. No single system will successfully cater for the two different systems that exist in most Pacific Island societies. The owners of customary fishing grounds and rights should be encouraged to properly manage their fishing realm, and to guard them as the prized possession that they are, because to do less is to relinquish the responsibilities associated with ownership. Management and conservation are difficult to promote because they contradict the maximisation of catch aspired to by most operators. Fishers in the region, like their counterparts in the world, are hunters who always leave home with the wish for a big and quick catch. This desire at times drives people to use destructive fishing methods. The increased mobility of people and the decline of traditional authority make total reliance on only traditional management systems inappropriate. Pacific Islanders who are trained in schools and overseas, are losing the knowledge of traditional management practices which were passed down to their parents from their elders. The old system alone cannot be expected to successfully address the issues that relate predominantly to the new system. Yet, given the intricate knowledge that has been accumulated by the traditional societies, it would be ludicrous if contemporary users did not put it to good use. Although it is difficult to scientifically prove the success of traditional
Traditional marine resource management practices
135
resource management practices in the conservation of resources, the fact that these arrangements have been tried in Pacific Island societies is enough to make us consider them as we re-evaluate our management strategies. In a number of places in the Pacific such as in the Solomon Islands and Tonga, the traditional management arrangements have been the basis of contemporary changes. Some traditional fishing ground custodians, for instance, the people of Maroro Lagoon, Solomon Islands 4t are now determining to a great extent the exploitation of their marine resources. In some other places they have banned the contemporary development of resources such as forests and fisheries whereas in others they have been instrumental in the declaration of marine reserves and parks and in the decision of what is allowed and what is not. In different parts of Fiji, the customary fish right owners have banned the use of gillnets, have declared periodic moratoria on their fishing grounds and employed fish wardens to patrol their realm. In other places the local people have asked for resource assessment to allow them to decide on their future course of action. In all, some Pacific Islanders are using the dynamic traditional management practices to formulate more effective management methods. These people are showing that the traditional resource management practices can serve them better in the future.
REFERENCES 1. Hviding, E., Customary Marine Tenure and Fisheries Management: Some Challenges, Prospects and Experiences. In Traditional Marine Tenure and Sustainable Management of Marine Resources in Asia and the Pacific, ed. G. R. South, D. Goulet, S. Tuqiri & M. Church, International Ocean Institute - - South Pacific, Suva, 1994. 2. Johannes, R. E., Traditional marine conservation methods in Oceania and their demise. Annual Reviews Ecol. Syst. 9 1978, 349-364. 3. as in 1. 4. as in 2. 5. Ruddle, K., Traditional marine tenure in the 90s. In Traditional Marine Tenure and the Sustainable Management of Marine Resources in Asia and the Pacific, ed. G. R. South, D. Goulet, S. Tuqiri & M. Church, International Ocean Institute, South Pacific, Suva, 1994. 6. as in 2. 7. Johannes, R. E., Words of the Lagoon. Fishing and Marine Lore in the Palau District of Micronesia, University of California Press, Berkeley, 1992. 8. as in 2. 9. as in 1. 10. as in 5. 1 1 . as in 2 .
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12. Munro, J. L. & Fakahau, S. T., Monitoring and Management of Coastal Fishery Resources in the South Pacific Region. Report to the Forum Fisheries Agency, Honiara, 1987. 13. as in 8. 14. Watt, K. E. F., Man's efficient rush towards deadly dullness. Natural History 1972, 81(2), 74-77, 80, 82. 15. as in 2. 16. as in 5. 17. as in 5. 18. as in 7. 19. as in 2. 20. as in 8. 21. Clarke, W. C., Pacific peoples and land: have they ever been in harmony? Environment: a column about the relations of people with their environment. Review, Pacific Aspects of Health 1986, 7(14). 22. as in 5. 23. Johannes, R. E., Fishing tales. Pacific Islands Monthly, January (1994). 24. Johannes, R. E. & MacFarlane, J. W., Traditional Fishing in the Torres Strait Islands, CSIRO, Hobart, 1991. 25. as in 2. 26. as in 2. 27. as in 2. 28. Siwatibau, S., Traditional environmental practices in the South Pacific: a case study of Fiji. Ambio 1984, 135-6, 365-368. 29. Veitayaki, J., Village-level fishing in Fiji: a case study of Qoma Island. Unpublished thesis, USP, Suva, 1990. 30. Gaigo, B., Past and present fishing practices among the people of Tatana village, Port Moresby. In Traditional Conservation in Papua New Guinea: Implications for Today, (Monograph 16) ed. L. Morauta, J. Pernetta & W. Hearney. Institute of Applied Social and Economic Research, Boroko, 1982. 31. as in 28. 32. as in 29. 33. as in 28. 34. as in 2. 35. Kengalu, A. M., Embargo: The Jeanette Diana Affair. Robert Brown and Associates, New South Wales, 1988. 36. as in 29. 37. Anon, Twenty per cent of the world fisheries catch is discarded. NAGA The ICLARM Quarterly 1995, 18(1). 38. Waqairatu, S., The delimitation of the traditional fishing grounds: the Fiji experience. In Traditional Marine Tenure and Sustainable Management of Marine Resources in Asia and the Pacific, ed. G. R. South, D. Goulet, S. Tuqiri & M. Church. International Ocean Institute, South Pacific, Suva, 1994. 39. United Nations, Programme Areas. Report of the UN Conference on Environment and Development, Rio de Janeiro, 3-14 June 1992 (A/Conf.151/26 Vol. II), 1992. 40. Chesher, R., The giant clam sanctuaries of the Kingdom of Tonga, Marine Studies Technical Report 1995, 95(2).