Traditional use of medicinal plants among Kalasha, Ismaeli and Sunni groups in Chitral District, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa province, Pakistan

Author’s Accepted Manuscript Traditional use of medicinal plants among Kalasha, Ismaeli and Sunni groups in Chitral District, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa province, Pakistan Hassan Sher, Rainer W. Bussmann, Robbie Hart, Hugo J. de Boer www.elsevier.com/locate/jep

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S0378-8741(16)30260-4 http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2016.04.059 JEP10136

To appear in: Journal of Ethnopharmacology Received date: 19 March 2016 Revised date: 28 April 2016 Accepted date: 30 April 2016 Cite this article as: Hassan Sher, Rainer W. Bussmann, Robbie Hart and Hugo J. de Boer, Traditional use of medicinal plants among Kalasha, Ismaeli and Sunni groups in Chitral District, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa province, Pakistan, Journal of Ethnopharmacology, http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2016.04.059 This is a PDF file of an unedited manuscript that has been accepted for publication. As a service to our customers we are providing this early version of the manuscript. The manuscript will undergo copyediting, typesetting, and review of the resulting galley proof before it is published in its final citable form. Please note that during the production process errors may be discovered which could affect the content, and all legal disclaimers that apply to the journal pertain.

Traditional use of medicinal plants among Kalasha, Ismaeli and Sunni groups in Chitral District, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa province, Pakistan Hassan Sher1, Rainer W. Bussmann2, Robbie Hart2, Hugo J. de Boer3,4* 1

Center for Plant Sciences and Biodiversity, University of Swat, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan

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William L. Brown Center, Missouri Botanical Garden, St. Louis, USA

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Department of Organismal Biology, Uppsala University, Sweden

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Natural History Museum, University of Oslo, Norway

[email protected] [email protected] [email protected] [email protected] *Corresponding Author, Hugo de Boer, +4798126030 Abstract Ethnopharmacological relevance: The traditional use of medicinal plants for the treatment of human and livestock ailments is important to indigenous communities in the northern parts of Pakistan, and considered to be a valuable local biological and sociocultural heritage. The aim of this study was to obtain a detailed inventory of medicinal plant use and preparation among Kalasha, Ismaeli and Sunni groups. Materials and Methods: Semi-structured group and individual interviews were carried out with men and women of different age groups that identified themselves as being Kalasha, Ismaeli or Sunni. Interviews were followed up by field visits to collect herbarium vouchers and record in greater detail the exact methods of harvesting, preparation and use on medicinal plants. Results: A total of 76 species were recorded for treatment of various diseases. The Kalasha, Ismaili and Sunni ethnic groups have similar medicinal floras, but show striking differences in plant use. Our

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comparative survey shows that out of all species reported in this study, only 13 species have been reported previously from Chitral District. Conclusions: Indigenous knowledge of folk medicine is intricately linked to local culture, religion and history. Any short study can only scratch the surface of this intricate system, but provide an insight into the critical importance of medicinal plants for local livelihoods and the important role these play in health care systems. There is a great need to assess and properly manage the production potential of medicinal plants to ensure sustainable supply of these species for local use and subsistence trade.

Keywords: Ethnic groups; Indigenous knowledge; Ismaeli; Kalasha; Medicinal plants; Sunni; Traditional herbal practitioners. Introduction There are an estimated 350,000–400,000 species of plants (Joppa et al., 2010; Paton et al., 2008), and many of these are used in the treatment of health disorders (Abbasi et al., 2010; Bussmann et al., 2008, 2007). According to the WHO, around 80% of the world’s population in the developing world relies on herbal remedies for their primary healthcare needs (World Health Organization, 2003). A large proportion of modern pharmaceuticals are derived from plants, and more often than not inspired by traditional use (Farnsworth and Soejarto, 1991; Newman and Cragg, 2012). In 2006, the medicinal and aromatic plants (MAPs) trade as a commodity had a value of 60 billion US$ (Hamilton, 2006). Such trade is expected to expand substantially by the year 2050 (Lange, 1997), because of the increasing popularity of herbal medicines (Al-Quran, 2008; B. Khan et al., 2011). MAP harvesting, cultivation and trade provide crucial livelihood options for millions of rural people in South Asia, particularly women and low income groups (de Boer et al., 2012; Larsen and Olsen, 2007). Over the last decades, there has been a growing scientific and commercial interest in Pakistan in medicinal plants, mainly due to their economic potential and the widespread cultural acceptability of plant based products (Sher et al., 2015a, 2014). In Pakistan, similarly to other developing countries, an estimated 80% of the rural population depends on traditional medicine, especially medicinal plants, for their primary healthcare needs (Khan, 2012).

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Chitral District in northern Pakistan is rich in cultural, geophysical and biological diversity (Khan, 2005; Nüsser and Dickoré, 2002; Sher, 2002). Local wild plant resources provide a variety of basic needs such as building materials, food, and medicines for communities. The depletion of favored plants, especially medicinal plant resources, results in the loss of selfsufficiency and economic opportunities for the inhabitants of the area (Khan, 2005). This can also lead to resource management problems in conservation areas as they become focal points for harvesting selected species, resulting in the loss of diversity and growing conflicts between resource users and managers. Natural resource management systems are localized systems forming the basis for decision making among rural people. Because the majority of land based production systems in Chitral District operate under indigenous knowledge systems, they are not only of value to cultures from which they have evolved, but also to scientists and planners striving to improve livelihoods in rural societies. However, there is tremendous pressure of socio-economic change and with this the indigenous knowledge of folk medicine and its cultural traditions are eroding (Sher et al., 2015a, 2014). Realizing the importance of medicinal plants, both as a potential economic activity for rural populations and as a vehicle to promote conservation and better management of natural resources, the present study was conducted with the aim to document the traditional uses of medicinal plants for the healthcare of people and livestock of indigenous communities. The study has a comparative focus studying similarities and difference in species and uses among three ethno-religious groups living in Chitral District, the Kalasha, Ismaeli and Sunni. It tests the hypothesis that species use among different people living in the same area converges on the same species. The following research questions are addressed: 1) Which species are used by the three groups? 2) How are the species used and for the treatment of what diseases? 3) How does plant use differ between the three groups, and how does this compare with previous studies?

Materials and Methods

Study area and people Chitral District lies in northwestern Pakistan, and south of the Afghan Wakhan Corridor (Figure 1). This remote area of Pakistan is bordered by the Hindu Raj mountain ranges in the South, the

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Hindu Kush in the West and North, the Mashambur in the East and Western extremity, and the Karakoram in the Northeast (Shaw and Shaw, 1993). Chitral can only be reached by air or by crossing the 3118 m Lowarie Pass by jeep from Swat District. This pass is blocked by snow during the colder months of the year (December to April) (Sher et al., 2015a). The Chitral valley is a contrast of snow-capped peaks, barren land, cultivated areas, and the brown waters of the Chitral River. Chitral is an area of great linguistic diversity, and although the predominant language is Khowar, many more languages are spoken here, including Kalasha-mun, Palula, Dameli, GawarBati, Nuristani, Yidgha, Burushaski, Gujar, Wakhi, Uzbeki, Kyrgyz, Dari and Pashto (Morgenstierne, 1926). The main ethnic group are Khowaris, and minority groups include the Kalasha. The Khowaris largely occupy the more northern areas of the District, and are Ismailis, i.e. followers of the Aga Khan. The south of Chitral is inhabited by Pashtun-speaking Sunni Muslims. The most well-known ethnic minority is the Kalash, a Dardic indigenous people speaking a Dardic Indo-Iranian language, Kalasha-mun. The Kalasha live in the Rumbur, Bumberet and Birir Valleys south-west of Chitral town.

Field survey methods Surveys were conducted during the summer of 2014 over a six week period by a male multidisciplinary team comprising an ethnobotanist, a sociologist and a pharmacist from the University of Swat, as well as staff from collaborating agencies including the Agha Khan Rural Support Program (AKRSP) and the Pakistan Forest Department. A questionnaire was devised to identify the knowledge of rural participants and their immediate family about the collection of medicinal plants and their use within the community. Information from the three different ethnoreligious groups, Kalasha, Ismaili and Sunni, living in district Chitral was included in the survey. A medicinal herbal data sheet was incorporated into the survey as a means of obtaining detailed specific information on all species mentioned by local people as being commonly used by themselves and the community. Interviews began with a brief introduction of the team and the purpose for the study to gain the trust and consent of the participants, which allowed them to talk more freely and openly. Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA) techniques, including group discussions, transect walks, and sample survey techniques were used for gathering field data (Chambers, 1994a,

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1994b, 1994c). The survey was divided into three categories: general group discussions, team interviews, and transect walks. The general meetings were held in the local Hujra, the male meeting place, and a focal point for official communication in the community. These meetings were attended by all members of the survey team, the male village elders, male medicinal plant collectors and sellers, male local hakims, and male religious leaders of the ethnic groups. This meeting was a very important aspect of the survey as it helped the men of the community to understand the purpose of the study, and subsequently to give their blessing and allow the facilitation of the female interviews. This was followed by the team interviews in which respondents, mostly elderly people ranging from 40 to 70 years, were interviewed. Interviews with female informants were carried out as small group interviews through female members of the community that also served as interpreters as outlined by de Boer and Lamxay (2009) and de Boer et al. (2012). A total of 200 households out of 400 were contacted and interviewed during the household survey. The 200 respondents included 80 Kalasha (30 male and 50 female), 60 Ismailis (25 male 35 female), and 70 Sunnis (50 male and 20 female). Generally, older people whose practical knowledge was respected by others and those who practice popular folk medicines were contacted in a snowball sampling design, and interviewed about the reported plants. Information about the local names, local uses, parts used, time of collection, processing and preparation were recorded. Herbarium vouchers were collected, dried, and mounted on standard herbarium sheets and identified with the help of available literature (Nasir and Ali, 1971). Identification of vouchers was confirmed by specialists at the herbarium of the Pakistan Agricultural Research Council (RAW) and the National Herbarium (NARC). Vouchers were deposited at NARC and the herbarium of the Centre for Plant Sciences and Biodiversity, University of Swat (SWAT). Plant nomenclature follows The Plant List (2013) and family names are according to the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group III classification (APGIII, 2009). After specimens were identified, uses were codified according to the MBG Tropicos use typology (Kuhlman and Salick, 2014). Clearly distinct uses that fell within the same category (e.g. Allium sativum L. used fresh as a female aphrodisiac for Kalasha, and Allium sativum bulbs mixed with black pepper to treat infertility and relieve menstrual pain for Ismaeli, which would both be coded as C5 or "Reproductive System") were assigned decimal numbers to distinguish them. We then compared species reports (a given species was used) and use reports (a given species used for a specific purpose) across ethnicity and gender. Within each ethnicity and

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gender, we calculated what percentage of informants reported each species, and each use. This also allowed us to identify commonly known species and uses as well as species and uses unique to a gender within an ethnicity, to an ethnicity, or to an intersection of ethnicities. Unique uses of shared species could represent cultural or locally environmental use differentiation; unique uses of unique species the adaptation of a knowledge system to a particular flora.

Results

Ethnomedicinal uses of plants and knowledge of traditional users A total of 76 species (75 plant species and 1 ascomycete) were documented for ethnomedicinal uses in traditional medicine for curing various human ailments such as stomachache, throat ache, inflammation of the oral cavity, general body ailments, eye and ear diseases, diarrhea, urinary system ailments, skin diseases, jaundice, blood purification, diabetes, and arthritis. Out of 76 species the traditional practitioners of Sunni and Ismaeli groups each utilized 62 species, while the Kalsaha used 66 species. A variety of species were used individually, while others were prepared in complex mixtures with other plants or edible items. Similarly, certain plants were considered useful in only one specific disease whereas some have multiple such uses (Table 1). Occasionally participants indicated that local medical herbs were supplemented by those bought from other sources, such as bazaars and hakims. This was not a particularly common practice, but it does demonstrate the confidence bestowed on medicinal herbs and also highlights the need for local cultivation. Forty-seven species-uses are shared by all three ethnicities, but the results also show differences in the use of the same herbs from one ethnic group to another. Interestingly, some gender related differences were observed – all groups for example used Morchella esculenta (L.) Pers. as an aphrodisiac for women. However, among the Ismaili and Kalasha the women themselves made use of the plants, while in case of the Sunni the mushroom was only used by men for the same purpose. Similarly, Diospyros lotus L. was used by all participants apart from Ismaili women, and Viola pilosa Blume was not used by Kalasha men. In general, there were however very few gender differences observed, with most plants used by both sexes equally. A few outstanding exceptions were Achyranthes aspera L., used by male Ismaili for digestive

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purposes, while female participants used the same plant to ease childbirth; only female Kalasha participants used Withania somnifera (L.) Dunal (to treat infertility) and Isatis stocksii Boiss. (to ease childbirth), and only male Sunni used W. somifera as aphrodisiac (administered to Sunni women) (Fig. 2). Only a few species are unique to a single ethnic group, Euphorbia thomsoniana Boiss. and Juniperus excelsa M.Bieb. to the Ismaili; Diospyros kaki L.f. and Verbascum thapsus L. to the Sunni; Arisaema propinquum Schott, Euphorbia helioscopia L., Haloxylon griffithii (Moq.) Boiss., I. stocksii and Onosma hispida Wall. ex G.Don to the Kalasha (Fig. 2). However, a large number of species have unique uses in each ethnic group. For instance, the Ismaili used a large number of species against skin and other tissue disorders, while in the unique Kalasha pharmacopoeia respiratory disorders and reproductive problems were more prevalent. The Sunni on the other hand had a prevalence of unique uses for digestive system disorders (Fig. 2). For example, the traditional practitioners of Ismaili tribes recommended the decoction of the leaves and roots of W. somnifera as a tonic and aphrodisiac. In contrast, the traditional practitioners of the Sunni group used the leaves and flowers of the same species for curing rheumatic swellings and general debility. Similarly, the traditional practitioners of the Kalasha people used the decoction of the roots of W. somnifera for sterility in women. The results showed that the traditional practitioners of the three ethnic groups used medicinal plants either individually or in mixtures with other plants or even in combination with other ingredients such as sugar and honey. The traditional Sunni practitioners used only single herb preparations for single conditions. In contrast, the traditional practitioners of both Kalasha and Ismaeli ethnic groups used approximately 3-5 different herbs in combination in alcoholic tinctures. Tinctures were used as concentrated liquid extracts that have a shelf life that supersedes infusions and decoctions, with the ethanol used as a preservative and a solvent. The traditional practitioners believed that alcohol has medicinal actions in itself, for example as analgesic and vaso-dilatator. It was also noted that the religions of both Kalasha and Ismaeli ethnic groups allowed the use of alcohols while it is strictly prohibited among the Sunni tribes. The study also observed that processing and preparation of herbal remedies made by traditional practitioners among the three ethnic groups of district Chitral were quite basic. Preparations for internal used included decoction, ingesting the ground dried herb with water,

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squeezing the juice out of a fresh herb and using the herb in cooking. For external use, preparations included poultices, lotions and the topically applied ground herb. Finding households that relied solely on herbal medicine was a rare occurrence, and the majority of visited households also sought advice from doctors and pharmacists. The use of allopathic medicine was apparent even in the remotest of areas, as evidenced by empty tablet packages. The standard reasons for using allopathic rather than herbal medicine were, in order of priority: accidents, surgery, births, major illnesses, and trivial complaints e.g. headaches. The availability of herbs and their efficacy also influenced decisions regarding orthodox intervention.

Local perceptions regarding the hot and cold plants The results showed that diagnoses of illnesses most commonly took a number of forms and its general techniques were similar among the hakims of all ethnic groups. The concepts of sard and garmi (cold and hot) were a common feature in the explanation of patients’ illnesses. Sard and garmi are thought to be in balance in a healthy person, and illnesses are caused by imbalances between the two. Garmi conditions were treated with sard medicines and diets, sard conditions with garmi treatments. Prescriptions given to various illnesses often include changes in diet and a variety of social prescriptions in addition to the use of specific medicinal plants remedies. Plants associated with water, i.e. those that grow along the water bodies or whose roots, leaves, fruits are fleshy or which have watery exudates were considered to be sard. Acid tasting plants and plants with strong and persistent odors and those that have soft wood and rot rapidly were also considered sard. Plants with irritant properties or spiny plants growing in dry land were considered garmi. Yuri Dosaks were able to discern a patients’ physical condition through pulse reading by holding the patient right hand in the air and taking two readings from the wrist. The color of the tongue, as well as the color of the eyes were used as indicators to diagnose the cause of the patient’s problem.

Traditional medicine systems and the role of hakims and vades The present study noted that in Chitral District western or allopathic systems of medicine coexist with the traditional systems. In rural communities in the district, Unani or Vade (Ayurvedic) hakims often provide the primary and only source of medical treatment. In the study

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area the people believe that consulting a hakim is more beneficial than consulting a medical doctor. A hakim has a better understanding of the background of the people he is treating, of their religious beliefs and the importance of superstition and magic. In Chitral District, we found 305 hakims, 120 Kalashas, 80 Ismaelis and 105 Sunnis. All hakims were male and all identified themselves as hakims. Only five hakims, Ismaeli, were fully qualified professionals while other were simply knowledgeable about remedies for household and village use. Such practitioners are known as Yuri Dosaks, whose skills involve diagnosis of illness from an assessment of the pulse and general appearance. Additionally, there are Dais in Chitral, who are female, and act as local midwives as well as bonesetters. The study revealed that Ismailis consulted with a medical doctor for almost all ailments, especially for surgery, birth, and serious illnesses. Sunnis consulted doctors for accidents and serious illnesses, and the majority were using medicinal plants for the treatment of human and livestock diseases. Similarly, the Kalasha mostly used medicinal plants and had strong spiritual beliefs on the curative powers of plants for both human and livestock diseases. At the same time, access to hospitals and doctors proved very difficult for remoter communities, and this was compounded by poor communication facilities. In some parts of Chitral District where Sunnis and Kalashas live, a group of 30 young persons would be required to cover a full day trek to bring a patient to hospital. It was generally observed that the choice between selecting an allopathic doctor or a hakim depends on the availability of allopathic drugs, medicinal plants and personal experiences on the benefits from either system.

Comparative review of reported species in previous studies To assess the extent of use of the species reported by the three ethno-cultural groups in our study we carried out a literature survey of fourteen published studies from nearby areas (Abbasi et al., 2010; Ahmad et al., 2014, 2006; Ali and Qaiser, 1986; Hadi et al., 2014; Hamayun et al., 2006; Hussain et al., 2006; B. Khan et al., 2011; N. Khan et al., 2011; Sher et al., 2015a, 2004; Sher, 2002; Shinwari and Gilani, 2003; Soelberg and Jäger, 2016) (Table 2, Figure 3). Only 13 of the 76 species reported in this study have been published before in ethnobotanical surveys from Chitral District (Hadi et al., 2014; Sher, 2002), whereas a total of 69 out of 76 species have been published before in the fourteen reviewed papers (Table 3). The remaining 7 species are

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Asparagus officinalis L., Berberis vulgaris Royle, Dysphania ambrosioides (L.) Mosyakin & Clemants, Elaeagnus umbellata Thunb., Haloxylon griffithii (Moq.) Boiss., Isatis stocksii Boiss., and Onosma hispida Wall. ex G. Don. The first three are commonly known species with a variety of traditional uses (USDA, 1992). Elaeagnus umbellata has been reported in use in India, and there the seeds of the plant are used as a stimulant in the treatment of coughs and seed oil is used in the treatment of pulmonary affections (Chopra et al., 1986). Haloxylon griffithii is used for making soap in Chitral District (Hussain et al., 2007). Onosma hispida is used elsewhere in Pakistan, and reported to have cooling, laxative and anthelmintic effects, and is also used to treat eye diseases, bronchitis, abdominal pain, thirst, itch, fever, wounds and piles. Its flowers are prescribed as a stimulant and cardiac tonic in rheumatism and heart disease (Ahmad et al., 2005). Only Isatis stocksii is completely unknown from previous studies for any traditional use.

Discussion

Ethnomedicinal uses of medicinal plants and knowledge of traditional users Our study found that the people of the Chitral area rely on plants for medicines and other daily needs. The study generally observed that among the different ethno-religious groups in the district herbal medicine is a recognized system of medicine. However, with the comparatively recent introduction of allopathic medicines, the knowledge, skills and faith in herbal medicines are declining as observed by a seemingly increasing knowledge gradient from Chitral town to remoter areas. These findings are similar to previous studies that have shown an attrition of knowledge as subsistence communities become westernized (Cox, 2000; Reyes-García et al., 2003). Informants reported that they were concerned by the rapid spread of allopathic medicines, because of their possible side effects, on-going non progressive treatment, and an increasing perception that natural products are more gentle and more compatible with the body. Among traditional uses, various types of gastrointestinal disorders are particularly common, and a lot of plant species are used to treat such illnesses across different ethnic communities. Some species, like the flowers of Viola pilosa and seeds of Plantago lanceolata L. were used for the curing of various intestinal and stomach ailments.

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Sustainable harvesting, cultivation and commercialization Similar to previous studies in northern Pakistan (Sher and Barkworth, 2015; Sher et al., 2015a, 2015b, 2014), we find that there is a great potential for improving the harvesting, storage, use, preparation, and marketing of medicinal plants as a means of subsistence income. However, the present study also noted that improvement of collection (including the time of year, and part of the plant collected), processing and storage are important factors to take into account. Research in Swat District has shown that cultivation of traditionally wild-harvested medicinal plants can have a higher economic yield than the standard cash crop tomatoes (Sher et al., 2015b). We also observed a trend that with an increase in elevation and remoteness, the involvement of women and children in the collection of, and dependence on, medicinal plants seemed to increase. This agrees with the studies of Sher et al. (2004) who reported that in the northern areas of Pakistan women and children usually gather medicinal plants as a part time business. The inhabitants of the area obtained significant economic benefits from harvesting forest products, especially medicinal plants. Similar observations on the use and dependence of hillside communities in northern Pakistan on forest resources have been reported before (Ahmad et al., 2014; Hamayun et al., 2003; Islam et al., 2006; Sher, 2002; Shinwari et al., 2006). However, like in other areas, these resources are under threat and not sustainably managed (FAO, 2008). In addition to harvesting, the medicinal flora in the area is under heavy grazing pressure, illegal cutting, unabated urbanization, unauthorized collection of medicinal plants by commercial traders and conversion of forest land into agricultural land (Sher and Barkworth, 2015). Other studies have also reported that the number of endangered species is increasing due to environmental degradation, over grazing and over exploitation in the form of medicinal plant extraction and deforestation (Hussain et al., 2006; Larsen and Olsen, 2007; Sher and Barkworth, 2015). It is therefore important to manage the grazing system and encourage the regeneration of medicinal plants. Based on the present study, we suggest that management measures should be developed in participation with local communities through village organizations to conserve medicinal plant resources from becoming extinct. The most important step is to give awareness training to local communities about sustainable exploitation of medicinal plants, and information on prices of marketable species. This is urgent as the advancement of pharmaceutical research into medicinal plants might lead to increasing demand and further exploitation of plant resources.

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Conclusions Our comparative survey shows that out of 76 species reported in this study, only 13 species have been reported previously from Chitral District, whereas the bulk has been reported previously for similar or other uses in other areas of Pakistan, India and Afghanistan. Our study also indicates that MAPs play an important role in daily life of rural mountain communities in northern Pakistan. Livelihoods of many people in Chitral District are based on the collection and trade of MAPs as the provide one of the few sources of cash income. However, wild collection is currently the only source of MAPs in the region, and no species are grown in home gardens or on farmland. Many of the crude herbs collected in Chitral District by local communities find their way to the herbal markets of larger cities such as Peshawar and Islamabad, and from there to international markets. Overall the collection and use of MAPs showed very little gender differences within the various ethnic groups, indicating that traditional knowledge is widely shared. The main differences observed seem to fall along religious lines. Ismaili and Kalasha women were more in charge of their own reproductive life, while Sunni men tended to control their women’s reproductive and sexual life, including the administration of aphrodisiacs to women. Erosion and deterioration of traditional medical knowledge can be observed closer to the main town. Documenting the use of plants by ethnic minorities is not only important in understanding and analyzing elements of traditional medicinal practices, but also a way to perpetuate knowledge at risk of being lost (de Boer and Lamxay, 2009). Overexploitation, habitat loss, destructive harvesting techniques, improper post-harvest care and low monetary return for MAPs were reported as the most important challenges by collectors (Sher and Barkworth, 2015; Sher et al., 2015a, 2015b). Collectors were often not aware of proper harvesting methods and as result often endangered the resource base. MAP collection and trade in Pakistan is largely an unorganized private sector, and legal structure and state control to monitor harvesting and trade practices are almost non-existent (Sher et al., 2015a). The establishment of a community based enterprises focusing on local biodiversity could provide more equitable returns to community groups and hence incentives for a more sustainable use of the resource base. Monitoring systems to control overexploitation of wild plant resources

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and monopolization of trade could play an important role in the promotion of the MAP sector in Pakistan.

Acknowledgements We gratefully acknowledge USAID for their financial support. We are particularly grateful to Dr. David Orden, Senior Research Fellow in the Markets, Trade and Institutions Division of the International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI), for sharing suggestions throughout the study and for his comments on initial drafts of this paper. We sincerely thank Andrew Comstock, Senior Research Assistant, IFPRI for his technical input and support to this paper. We greatly thank the local communities for their willingness to sharing their valuable empirical knowledge and experiences on wild medicinal plants.

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Khan, B., Abdukadir, A., Qureshi, R., Mustafa, G., 2011. Medicinal uses of plants by the inhabitants of Khunjerab National Park, Gilgit, Pakistan. Pak J Bot 43, 2301–2310. Khan, N., Ahmed, M., Ahmed, A., Shaukat, S.S., Wahab, M., Ajaib, M., Siddiqui, M.F., Nasir, M., 2011. Important medicinal plants of Chitral Gol National Park (CGNP) Pakistan. Pak. J. Bot. 43, 797–809. Kuhlman, A., Salick, J., 2014. Database standards for biocultural collections, in: Salick, J., Konchar, K., Nesbitt, M. (Eds.), Curating Biocultural Collections - a Handbook. Kew Publishing, Richmond, UK, pp. 150–168. Lange, D., 1997. Trade in plant material for medicinal and other purposes. Traffic Bull 17, 21– 32. Larsen, H.O., Olsen, C.S., 2007. Unsustainable collection and unfair trade? Uncovering and assessing assumptions regarding central Himalayan medicinal plant conservation, in: Plant Conservation and Biodiversity. Springer, pp. 105–123. Morgenstierne, G., 1926. Report on a linguistic mission to Afghanistan. Instituttet for sammenlignende kulturforskning, Oslo, Norway. Nasir, E., Ali, S.I., 1971. Flora of Pakistan. NARC, Islamabad, Pakistan. Newman, D.J., Cragg, G.M., 2012. Natural products as sources of new drugs over the 30 years from 1981 to 2010. J. Nat. Prod. 75, 311–335. Nüsser, M., Dickoré, W.B., 2002. A tangle in the triangle: vegetation map of the eastern Hindukush (Chitral, northern Pakistan). Erdkunde 37–59. Paton, A.J., Brummitt, N., Govaerts, R., Harman, K., Hinchcliffe, S., Allkin, B., Lughadha, E.N., 2008. Towards Target 1 of the Global Strategy for Plant Conservation: a working list of all known plant species—progress and prospects. Taxon 57, 602–611. Reyes-García, V., Godoy, R., Vadez, V., Apaza, L., Byron, E., Huanca, T., Leonard, W., Pérez, E., Wilkie, D., 2003. Ethnobotanical knowledge shared widely among Tsimane’Amerindians, Bolivia. Science 299, 1707. Shaw, I., Shaw, B., 1993. Pakistan Trekking Guide: Himalaya, Karakoram and Hindu Kush. Odyssey. Sher, H., 2002. Some medicinal and economic plants of Mahodand, Utror, Gabral Valleys (district Swat), Gabur, Begusht, Valleys (district Chitral). Technical report prepared for Pakistan Mountain Areas Conservation project. IUCN-Pakistan, Islamabad, Pakistan. Sher, H., Aldosari, A., Ali, A., de Boer, H.J., 2015a. Indigenous knowledge of folk medicines among tribal minorities in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, northwestern Pakistan. J. Ethnopharmacol. 166, 157–167. Sher, H., Aldosari, A., Ali, A., de Boer, H.J., 2014. Economic benefits of high value medicinal plants to Pakistani communities: an analysis of current practice and potential. J. Ethnobiol. Ethnomedicine 10. doi:10.1186/1746-4269-10-71 Sher, H., Barkworth, M.E., 2015. Economic development through medicinal and aromatic plants (MAPs) cultivation in Hindu Kush Himalaya mountains of District Swat, Pakistan. J. Mt. Sci. 12, 1292–1301. Sher, H., Barkworth, M.E., de Boer, H.J., 2015b. Medicinal and aromatic plant cultivation in the Swat valley, north-western Pakistan, for economic development and biodiversity conservation. Genet. Resour. Crop Evol. [Online First], 1–9. Sher, H., Khan, Z.D., Khan, A.U., Hussain, F., ShengJi, P., others, 2004. Ethnobotanical study on some plants in village Tigdari, district Swat, Pakistan. Acta Bot. Yunnanica 42–54. Shinwari, Z.K., Adnan, S.M., Khan, A.A., Latif, A., 2006. Threats to the sustainability of Ethno-

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Medicinal uses in Northern Pakistan (A Case Study of Miandam Valley, District Swat, NWFP Province, Pakistan). Lyonia 11, 91–100. Shinwari, Z.K., Gilani, S.S., 2003. Sustainable harvest of medicinal plants at Bulashbar Nullah, Astore (Northern Pakistan). J. Ethnopharmacol. 84, 289–298. Soelberg, J., Jäger, A.K., 2016. Comparative ethnobotany of the Wakhi agropastoralist and the Kyrgyz nomads of Afghanistan. J. Ethnobiol. Ethnomedicine 12, 1. The Plant List, 2013. Version 1.1. [WWW Document]. URL http://www.theplantlist.org/ USDA, 1992. Dr. Duke’s Phytochemical and Ethnobotanical Databases [WWW Document]. US Dep. Agric. Agric. Res. Serv. URL http://phytochem.nal.usda.gov/ (accessed 3.17.16). World Health Organization, 2003. Traditional Medicine. Factsheet No. 134.

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Table 1. Medicinal plant use among Kalasha, Ismaili and Sunni communities in Chitral District. Voucher No.*

Plant family

Plant species

Local Name in Khowar

Part used

Respondents per ethnic group and gender Sunni

Ismaeli

Kalasha

SWAT 101

Acanthaceae

Achyranthes aspera L.

Larghakhy

Entire plant

-

M 9; F 0

-

SWAT 101

Acanthaceae

Achyranthes aspera L.

Larghakhy

Leaves

-

M 0; F 19

-

SWAT 101

Acanthaceae

Achyranthes aspera L.

Larghakhy

Leaves

-

SWAT 136

Acanthaceae

Justacia adhatoda L.

Baikar

Flowers

M 7; F3

SWAT 103

Acoraceae

Acorus calamus L.

Skhawaja

Rhizome

SWAT 103

Acoraceae

Acorus calamus L.

Skhawaja

SWAT 104

Adiantaceae

Adiantum capillusveneris L.

SWAT 104

Adiantaceae

SWAT 116

M 11; F 27

M 11; F5

M 24; F 11

M 10; F 11

-

-

Rhizome

-

M 21; F 25

-

Sumbal

Fronds

-

M 17; F9

-

Adiantum capillusveneris L.

Sumbal

Fronds

-

-

M 19; F 15

Amaranthaceae

Dysphania ambrosioides (L.) Mosyakin & Clemants

Skhabotay

Young shoot

M 11; F 15

M 14; F 14

M 20; F 15

SWAT 164

Amaranthaceae

Haloxylon griffithii (Moq.) Boiss.

Patch

Whole plant

-

-

M 20; F 10

SWAT 107

Amaryllidaceae

Allium sativum L.

Werzenu

Bulbs

-

-

M 13; F 11

SWAT 107

Amaryllidaceae

Allium sativum L.

Werzenu

Bulbs

M 19; F 17

-

-

SWAT 107

Amaryllidaceae

Allium sativum L.

Werzenu

Bulbs

-

M 17; F 12

-

17

Traditional use of medicinal plants 1. Entire plant is eaten fresh to relieve general body fever. 2. An infusion of the leaves is given during labour to ease delivery. 3. Dried ground leaves are taken orally to treat anorexia and constipation. The flowers are squeezed and the sap is dropped in the ear to treat earache. 1. Dried ground rhizomes are taken orally for various stomach ailments. 2. Dried ground rhizomes are used orally for to control diarrhea and also to ease dysmenorrhea. 1. A small amount of fresh fronds is taken orally with milk for allergic disorders of the skin. 2. Dried fronds are mixed in oil and applied to the scalp as a hair tonic. Dried ground young shoots are taken orally with water for removal of warts. A paste of the plants is used to treat cracked or or chapped lips during the winter. 1. Fresh garlic is taken orally as a female aphrodisiac. 2. Fresh garlic is taken early before breakfast to treat high blood pressure. 3. Bulbs are used in a mixture with black pepper to treat female infertility and relieve menopause discomforts.

SWAT 166

Anacardiaceaa

Pistacia khinjuk Stocks

Binju

Fruits

M 30; F5

M 19; F 14

M 24; F 34

SWAT 174

Apiaceae

Bunium persicum (Boiss.) B.Fedtsch

Zeera

Seeds

M 37; F 13

M 14; F 16

M 18; F 19

SWAT 173

Apiaceae

Carum carvi L.

Shonjmuk

Seeds

M 15; F 16

M 16; F 13

M 20; F 13

SWAT 119

Apiaceae

Coriandrum sativum L.

Danyal

Fruits

M 19; F 14

M 19; F 14

M 11; F 17

SWAT 146

Apiaceae

Ferula narthex Boiss.

Rawe

Resin

M 37; F 10

M 6; F 2

M 14; F 5

SWAT 131

Apiaceae

Foeniculum vulgare Mill.

Kaga velany

Seeds

M 10; F7

M 19; F8

M 14; F 10

SWAT 170

Apiaceae

Trachydium roylei Lindl.

Moshen

Leaves

M 23; F9

M 12; F 11

M 13; F7

SWAT 170

Apiaceae

Trachydium roylei Lindl.

Moshen

Leaves

M 32; F 14

M 17; F8

M 20; F 8

SWAT 109

Araceae

Arisaema propinquum Schott

Marjarhai

Fruits, leaves

-

-

M 18; F 13

SWAT 110

Asparagaceae

Asparagus officinalis L.

Tendorai

Leaves

-

-

M 12; F 15

SWAT 110

Asparagaceae

Asparagus officinalis L.

Tendorai

Roots

-

M 20; F 32

-

SWAT 110

Asparagaceae

Asparagus officinalis L.

Tendorai

Roots

M 12; F5

-

-

18

A decoction of the fruits is used for treating jaundice. Powdered seeds are taken with a glass of water to treat stomach ache, diarrhoea and indigestion. It is also used as a spice. Powdered seeds are taken with a glass of water for treating stomach ache and indigestion. It is also used as a spice. Fresh and ground seeds are eaten for maintenance of proper blood pressure. It is also used as a carminative agent. A small amount of resin is taken with wheat bread for improving eyesight, treating cough and gastric problems. Dried ground seeds are taken with water to treat the flu, bronchitis and abdominal pain. 1. A paste of the leaves is applied to scorpion stings. 2. A decoction of the flowers is used to treat female infertility. Dried ground leaves and fruit are used to treat diabetic neuropathy, and in mixture with fennel fruits it is used for curing rheumatoid arthritis. 1. Fresh ground leaves are taken orally with water to treat throat infections and chest pains. 2. A paste of the roots is prepared with Aloe vera leaves and used as a facial wash and sun cream. 3. A decoction of the roots is used before breakfast to alleviate all kind of stomach problems and as a general health tonic.

SWAT 108

Asteraceae

Artemisia scoparia Waldst. & Kitam.

Jawkay

Leaves

M 14; F 14

-

M 15; F 13

SWAT 108

Asteraceae

Artemisia scoparia Waldst. & Kitam.

Jawkay

Flowers

M 14; F 14

M 19; F 24

-

SWAT 117

Asteraceae

Cichorium intybus L.

Han

Leaves

M 8; F 13

M 15; F 14

M 21; F 9

SWAT 117

Asteraceae

Cichorium intybus L.

Han

Roots

M 5; F7

M 10; F 15

M 23; F 10

SWAT 111

Berberidaceae

Berberis lyciumRoyle

Kwary

Root bark

M 16; F 12

-

-

SWAT 111

Berberidaceae

Berberis lyciumRoyle

Kwary

Root bark

M 15; F 17

-

M 15; F 13

SWAT 111

Berberidaceae

Berberis lyciumRoyle

Kwary

Root bark

-

M 7; F 14

-

SWAT 112

Berberidaceae

Berberis vulgaris Royle

Tour kwaray

Roots

M 15; F 14

-

M 20; F 17

SWAT 112

Berberidaceae

Berberis vulgaris Royle

Tour kwaray

Roots

-

M 17; F 13

-

SWAT 148

Berberidaceae

Sinopodophyllum hexandrum (Royle) T.S.Ying

Sheringut

Rhizome

M 13; F6

M 10; F8

M 16; F 10

SWAT 171

Boraginaceae

Onosma hispida Wall. ex G. Don

Soi

Whole plant

-

-

M 5; F 20

SWAT 175

Brassicaceae

Isatis stocksii Boiss.

Suii

Leaves

-

-

M 0; F 13

SWAT 143

Brassicaceae

Nasturtium officinale R.Br.

Tharmera

Whole Plant

M 20; F 15

-

M 15; F 20

19

1. Dried and ground leaves are given orally with water as an anthelminthic agent. 2. A decoction of the floral buds is used to treat seasonal fever, especially during summer. 1. Dried ground leaves are mixed in soup and taken orally to relieve arthritis pain. 2. A decoction of the roots is taken orally and said to cure jaundice. 1. A decoction of the root bark is used three times a day for ten days to treat jaundice and fever. 2. Powdered dried root bark is used to treat external injuries. 3. Powdered dried root bark is taken with a glass of water to cure urinary tract infections in women. 1. Dried ground roots are taken orally with water to control high blood pressure. 2. A paste of the rhizomes is used to treat eczema and pimples. Dried ground rhizomes are taken orally with milk to treat lumbago, myalgia. A decoction is used to treat female infertility. Powdered whole plant is taken with a glass of milk for quick recovery after delivery. The leaves are eaten as a vegetable by pregnant women to reduce pain during delivery. The fresh ground plants are decocted, kept overnight and used for lowering blood pressure in a hypertensive state, and also as an antipyretic.

SWAT 151

Buxaceae

Sarcococca pruniformis Lindl.

Laadan

Leaves

-

M 23; F 11

M 18; F 9

SWAT 165

Campanulaceae

Codonopsis clematidea (Schrenk) C.B.Clarke

Gondostak

Young shoot

-

M 20; F9

M 25; F 15

SWAT 120

Capparaceae

Capparis spinosa L.

Kaveer

Floral buds

M 24; F 14

M 20; F 31

M 15; F 26

SWAT 172

Caprifoliaceae

Valeriana jatamansi Jones

Muskbala

Rhizomes

M 34; F 11

M 15; F 19

M 24; F 21

SWAT 118

Colchicaceae

Colchicum luteum Baker

Suranjan-etalkh

Corms

M 23; F7

M 14; F 15

M 20; F 14

SWAT 118

Colchicaceae

Colchicum luteum Baker

Suranjan-etalkh

Seeds

M 28; F 12

M 14; F 17

M 25; F 13

SWAT 118

Colchicaceae

Colchicum luteum Baker

Suranjan-etalkh

Corms

M 21; F 14

M 18; F 12

M 14; F 17

SWAT 161

Cupressaceae

Juniperus excelsa M.Bieb.

Ghondolik

Cones

-

M 12; F8

-

SWAT 126

Dryopteridaceae

Dryopteris juxtaposita Christ

Kwanjay

Flowers

-

-

M 15; F 7

SWAT 126

Dryopteridaceae

Dryopteris juxtaposita Christ

Kwanjay

Flowers

M 10; F5

-

-

SWAT 126

Dryopteridaceae

Dryopteris juxtaposita Christ

Kwanjay

Fruits

-

M 22; F 19

-

SWAT 123

Ebenaceae

Diospyros kaki L.f.

Sur amlok

Roots

M 19; F 15

-

-

20

A decoction of the fresh leaves is taken in the early morning for treating elevated blood pressure. A decoction of the plants is used to treat indigestion and reduce malaria fever. A decoction of the floral buds is used three times a day for 15 days to treat typhoid fever and malaria. The vegetable made of the floral buds is considered one of the famous gifts of Chitrali people to the rest the country. A decoction of the roots is used three times a day for treating epilepsy and neurosis. 1. Fresh ground corms are taken orally by nursing mother to improve lactation. 2. Dried ground seeds are taken orally to improve digestion and to treat anorexia. 3. Dried ground corms are mixed in food and taken orally with water to treat knee pain. Dried ground cones are taken orally with cow's milk to treat abdominal pain and as a general body tonic. 1. A syrup of the dried ground flowers is taken orally to treat stomach pain. 2. A decoction of the dried ground flowers is given orally to children to treat urinary tract infections. 3. A syrup of the dried ground fruits is taken orally to reduce fever. Dried ground root is used orally for the control of diarrhea and also for dysmenorrhea.

SWAT 124

Ebenaceae

Diospyros lotus L.

Toor amlok

Seeds

M 36; F 18

M 18; F0

M 18; F 12

SWAT 154

Eleagnaceae

Elaeagnus angustifolia L.

Shunjoor

Fruits

M 36; F 17

M 21; F 25

M 24; F 45

SWAT 115

Eleagnaceae

Elaeagnus rhamnoides (L.) A.Nelson (Elaeagnaceae)

Mirghiz

Fruits

M 34; F 23

M 14; F 11

M 12; F 17

SWAT 127

Eleagnaceae

Elaeagnus umbellata Thunb.

Ghanab ranga

Fruits

M 16; F 13

M 17; F 16

M 19; F 13

SWAT 150

Ephedraceae

Ephedra gerardiana Wall. ex Stapf

Somani

Stems

M 20; F 10

M 14; F8

-

SWAT 128

Euphorbiaceae

Euphorbia helioscopia L.

Cuury

Whole Plant

-

-

M 19; F 14

SWAT 129

Euphorbiaceae

Euphorbia thomsoniana Boiss.

Cheernisak

Leaves

-

M 18; F 15

-

SWAT 163

Fabaceae

Glycyrrhiza glabra L.

Moshen

Roots

M 20; F7

M 20; F 13

M 15; F 24

SWAT 153

Fabaceae

Sophora mollis (Royle) Baker

Beshu

Leaves

M 9; F4

M 12; F8

M 20; F 25

SWAT 156

Fagaceae

Quercus floribunda Lindl. ex A. Camus

Mer, Tarra

Nuts

M 37; F 13

M 20; F 15

-

SWAT 156a

Fagaceae

Quercus semecarpifolia Sm.

Mer, Tarra

Nuts

M 37; F 13

M 20; F 15

-

SWAT 134

Geraniaceae

Geranium rotundifolium L.

Srazela

Roots

M 37; F9

M 21; F 11

M 24; F 19

SWAT 135

Juglandaceae

Juglans regia L.

Ghoz

Root bark

M 11; F 10

M 21; F 17

M 24; F11

SWAT 135

Juglandaceae

Juglans regia L.

Ghoz

Nuts

M 27; F 11

M 22; F 11

M 30; F15

21

Dried ground seeds are taken orally with water to treat dysentery. Dried ground fruits are mixed with chicken broth and taken orally for relieving arthritis pain. The fruits are crushed and taken with a a glass of milk for treating acne, arthritis, diabetes and obesity. A decoction of the dried ground fruits is given orally to children as an anthelminthic. Dried ground stems are taken orally with water to cure diarrhea and all kind of chest problems. The plants are burned to repel the devil attacks and as such to control diseases. Dried ground leaves are mixed with mustard oil to treat both wet and dry eczema. A decoction of the roots is used to cure cough and throat infections. A paste of the leaves is used to treat wet eczema. Both fresh and dried nuts are used to treat bed wetting in children and for removal of kidney stones in elderly people. Both fresh and dried nuts are used to treat bed wetting in children and for removal of kidney stones in elderly people. Dried and ground root are taken orally with milk or water to treat stomach ache and jaundice. 1. Root bark is used for cleaning teeth and decorating lips. 2. Nuts are eaten to reduce blood cholesterol and strengthen the

immune system. SWAT 135

Juglandaceae

Juglans regia L.

Ghoz

Nuts

M 41; F 19

M 23; F 18

M 27; F12

SWAT 106

Lamiaceae

Ajuga integrifolia Buch.-Ham.

Latruk

Entire plant

M 5; F 15

-

-

SWAT 106

Lamiaceae

Ajuga integrifolia Buch.-Ham.

Latruk

Leaves

-

-

M 15; F 20

SWAT 139

Lamiaceae

Mentha longifolia (L.) L.

Bhen

Whole Plant

M 44; F 10

M 19; F 18

M 25; F 37

SWAT 140

Lamiaceae

Nepeta cataria L.

Mutrich

Whole Plant

M 35; F 13

M 18; F 14

M 25; F 17

SWAT 155

Lamiaceae

Thymus serpyllum L.

Siu

Whole plant

M 29; F 12

M 16; F 11

M 23; F 24

SWAT 162

Lythraceae

Lawsonia inermis L.

Shorang, Nakrez

Leaves, Flowers

M 12; F4

M 24; F8

M 10; F 5

SWAT 149

Lythraceae

Punica granatum L.

Anangorhy

Fruit cortex

M 24; F 14

M 15; F 12

M 22; F 13

SWAT 137

Malvaceae

Malva neglecta Wallr.

Yor-paghuzu

Whole Plant

M 20; F 14

M 10; F9

M 19; F 10

SWAT 138

Meliaceae

Melia azedarach L.

Tora bakayana

Fruits

M 11; F 18

-

M 10; F 25

SWAT 130

Moraceae

Ficus carica L.

Engeer

Fruit latex

M 26; F 14

M 22; F 19

M 16; F 9

SWAT 167

Moraceae

Ficus palmata Forssk.

Sarooz, Partung

Whole plant

M 23; F9

M 19; F 20

-

SWAT 141

Morchellaceae

Morchella esculenta Fr.

Qotzu

Fruiting bodies

M 40; F0

M 0; F 10

M 0; F 16

22

3. Nuts are used in mixture with the nuts of Pinus gerardina for good joint and bone health, especially in the elderly. 1. Dried ground plants are masticated and swallowed to relieve throat inflammation. 2. An infusion of the leaves is given during labour to ease delivery. The whole plant is used as a condiment and to treat indigestion. Dried and powdered it is mixed with yoghurt to treat severe diarrhoea. A decoction of dried plants is used to treat lumbago, and in powdered form it is used to heal external injuries. An infusion is prepared to treat lung disease and asthma. Mixed with water it is used to treat cracked skin around the nails and heel base. Dried ground fruit cortex is used orally with milk or water to relieving body pains and health maintenance. A poultice of fresh ground leaves is applied to treat toothache. Fresh fruit is cooked in cows milk and taken orally for health maintenance. A small amount of fruit latex is taken orally with milk to treat skin inflammations. A decoction of the whole plant is taken in a mixture with dates and coconut to treat backache. Cooked in cow's fat it is considered an aphrodisiac for women.

SWAT 114

Nitrariaceae

Peganum harmala L. (Nitrariaceae)

Ispandur

Seeds

M 13; F 15

M 10; F 11

M 20; F 17

SWAT 144

Oleaceae

Olea ferruginea Wall. ex Aitch.

Khona

Leaves, Fruits

M 35; F 13

M 24; F 17

M 18; F 21

SWAT 145

Paeoniaceae

Paeonia emodi Royle

Sherinkup

Rhizomes

M 21; F 14

M 24; F 11

M 25; F 23

SWAT 133

Papaveraceae

Fumaria indica (Hausskn.) Pugsley

Paprha

Leaves

M 10; F5

M 10; F9

M 19; F 10

SWAT 147

Plantaginaceae

Plantago lanceolata L.

Jabai

Seeds

M 12; F5

M 10; F6

M 18; F 6

SWAT 113

Polygonaceae

Persicaria amplexicaulis (D.Don) Ronse Decr.

Anjabar

Roots

-

M 19; F 11

M 14; F 14

SWAT 169

Polygonaceae

Rheum australe D. Don

Ishpaar

Rhizomes

-

-

M 25; F 35

SWAT 169

Polygonaceae

Rheum australe D. Don

Ishpaar

Leaf stalks

M 25; F 12

M 15; F 13

-

SWAT 142

Primulaceae

Myrsine africana L.

Marwang

Seeds

-

M 23; F 28

M 20; F 25

SWAT 102

Ranunculaceae

Aconitum heterophyllum Wall. ex Royle

Zaharmora

Rhizome

M 10; F5

-

-

SWAT 102

Ranunculaceae

Aconitum heterophyllum Wall. ex Royle

Zaharmora

Rhizome

-

-

M 6; F 12

SWAT 132

Rosaceae

Fragaria indica Wall.

Zmaki toot

Fruits

M 17; F7

M 14; F9

M 19; F 10

23

The seed is burned in a mixture with the leaves of Skimmea laureola and considered to repel the devil and the evil eye. A decoction of the dried ground fruits is used for the removal of renal calculus, as well as all kinds of heart problems. Dried ground rhizomes are cooked with eggs in cow's fat and taken orally to treat general body weaknesses. An infusion of the leaves is given during labour to ease delivery and this remedy is also recommended to cure jaundice. Dried and ground seeds are mixed with yoghurt and taken orally to treat stomach ache and dysmenorrhea. A paste is prepared and used externally as a poultice for swollen knees and knee pain. 1. A decoction of the rhizomes is used for treating jaundice and typhoid fever. 2. The stems are chewed to treat all kinds of mouth diseases, and are also useful for kidney problems. Juice from fresh seeds is rubbed onto pimples and facial rashes that women get after delivery. 1. A decoction of the dried rhizomes is used to cure dysentery and is also believed to enhance memory. 2. Dried rhizomes are eaten with dates for three months during pregnancy in order to have a male child. Dried ground seeds are masticated and swallowed to relieve throat inflammations.

SWAT 160

Rutaceae

Zanthoxylum armatum DC.

Dambara

Fruits

-

M 5; F 15

-

SWAT 160

Rutaceae

Zanthoxylum armatum DC.

Dambara

Fruits

-

-

M 10; F 5

SWAT 105

Sapindaceae

Aesculus indica (Wall. ex Cambess.) Hook.

Ghudoom

Leaves

M 13; F 14

-

-

SWAT 105

Sapindaceae

Aesculus indica (Wall. ex Cambess.) Hook.

Ghudoom

Fruits

-

M 10; F 16

-

SWAT 125

Sapindaceae

Dodonaea viscosa (L.) Jacq.

Ghwaraskay

Rhizomes

M 10; F6

M 16; F 12

M 20; F 16

SWAT 158

Scrophulariaceae

Verbascum thapsus L.

Ghordoughkaro

Seeds

M 35; F 12

-

-

SWAT 168

Solanaceae

Hyoscyamus niger L.

Bangedewana

Fruits

-

-

M 30; F 20

SWAT 168

Solanaceae

Hyoscyamus niger L.

Bangedewana

Leaves

M 31; F 14

M 23; F6

-

SWAT 152

Solanaceae

Solanum nigrum L.

Kachmacho

Leaves, Fruits

M 10; F3

M 20; F7

M 8; F 2

SWAT 122

Solanaceae

Withania somnifera (L.) Dunal

Kotilal

Roots

-

-

M 0; F 17

SWAT 122

Solanaceae

Withania somnifera (L.) Dunal

Kotilal

Leaves, Roots

M 19; F0

-

-

SWAT 122

Solanaceae

Withania somnifera (L.) Dunal

Kotilal

Leaves, Flowers

-

M 15; F 17

-

SWAT 121

Thymeleaceae

Daphne mucronata Royle

Lighony

Fruits

M 37; F 14

M 14; F 21

M 27; F 23

24

1. Dried ground fruits are used orally for treating epilepsy. 2. Fresh fruit is masticated for the control of coughs. 1. Dried ground leaves are mixed in oil and used to treat scabies in children under 10 years. 2. Dried ground fruits are taken orally with the seeds of Plantago ovata to treat anorexia and constipation. Dried ground rhizomes is applied to cuts as an antiseptic and taken orally with water for dysmenorrhea. Dried ground seeds are used orally for quick wound healing and also for lumbago. 1. A decoction of the fruits is used to treat epilepsy and headache. 2. The leaves are boiled in a mixture with Planatago ovata and taken early in the morning for treating backache and lumbago. Dried ground leaves and fruits are mixed with the leaves of Viola pilosa and taken orally with water to treat gastralgia and acidity. A decoction of the same is taken orally to treat infertility. 1. A decoction of the roots is taken orally to treat sterility in women. 2. A decoction of the leaves and roots is used as a tonic and aphrodisiac. 3. A decoction of the leaves and flowers is used to treat rheumatic swellings and in cases of general debility. Dried ground fruits are used orally for quick wound

healing and also for lumbago. SWAT 157

Urticaceae

Urtica dioca L.

Jalbang

Flowers

M 40; F 15

M 20; F 12

M 23; F 12

SWAT 157

Urticaceae

Urtica dioca L.

Jalbang

Seeds

M 43; F 11

M 16; F7

M 30; F 14

SWAT 157

Urticaceae

Urtica dioca L.

Jalbang

Seeds

M 39; F 15

M 24; F 13

M 27; F 13

SWAT 159

Violaceae

Viola pilosa Blume

Punar

Leaves, Flowers

M 38; F 12

M 22; F15

M 0; F 23

SWAT 159

Violaceae

Viola pilosa Blume

Punar

Flowers

M 50; F 11

M 14; F3

M 17; F 9

1. Fresh leaf stalks are eaten to relieve headache. 2. Dried ground seeds are taken orally to treat fever and influenza. 3. Dried ground seeds are mixed with ghee and taken orally to treat myalgia in the elderly. 1. Decoction of leaves and flowers is used to treat perceived hormonal imbalances in women. 2. Decoction of the flowers is used to improve eye sight.

Table 2. Comparative review of other studies from surrounding areas for the recorded plant species. No. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11

Study

District

Province

Country

Abbasi et al., 2010 Shinwari and Gilani, 2003 Hamayun et al., 2006 Sher, 2002

Abbottabad

Khyber Pakhtunkhwa

Pakistan

52

13

Astore

Gilgit-Baltistan

Pakistan

75

11

Buner

Khyber Pakhtunkhwa

Pakistan

65

16

Chitral & Swat

Khyber Pakhtunkhwa

Pakistan

60, 64

13

Ahmad et al., 2006 Ali and Qaiser, 2009 Khan et al., 2011 Hadi and Ibrar, 2014 Khan et al., 2011 Sher et al., 2004 Hussain et al., 2006

Chitral

Khyber Pakhtunkhwa

Pakistan

60

33

Chitral

Khyber Pakhtunkhwa

Pakistan

60

21

Chitral

Khyber Pakhtunkhwa

Pakistan

60

22

Chitral

Khyber Pakhtunkhwa

Pakistan

60

1

Gilgit

Gilgit-Baltistan

Pakistan

73

13

Swat

Khyber Pakhtunkhwa

Pakistan

64

14

Swat

Khyber Pakhtunkhwa

Pakistan

64

27

25

Admin. Code

Shared species

12 13 14

Ahmad et al., 2014 Sher et al., 2015a Soelberg and Jäger, 2016

Swat

Khyber Pakhtunkhwa

Pakistan

64

17

Swat

Khyber Pakhtunkhwa

Pakistan

64

32

Wakhan

Badakhshan

Afghanistan

12

4

Table 3. Comparative presence-absence matrix for the recorded plant species.

Achyranthes aspera L. Aconitum heterophyllum Wall. ex Royle Acorus calamus L. Adiantum capillusveneris L. Aesculus indica (Wall. ex Cambess.) Hook. Ajuga integrifolia Buch.-Ham. Allium sativum L. Arisaema propinquum Schott Artemisia scoparia Waldst. &

Sh er, 20 02 0

Ah mad et al., 200 6 0

Ali and Qais er, 200 9 0

Kh an et al., 20 11 0

Ha di an d Ibr ar, 20 14 0

0

1

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

2

1

0

1

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

1

1

0

0

2

1

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

1

0

1

0

2

1

0

0

0

0

1

1

0

0

0

0

1

0

1

0

4

1

0

0

1

0

0

1

1

0

0

1

1

0

1

0

5

1

1

0

1

0

1

0

0

0

0

1

0

0

0

0

3

1

0

0

0

0

0

1

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

1

1

0

0

0

0

0

1

1

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

2

1

Abb asi et al., 201 0 1

Shin wari and Gilan i, 2003 0

Hama yun et al., 2006 1

0

1

0

26

Kh an et al., 20 11 0

Sh er et al., 20 04 0

Huss ain et al., 2006 0

Ah mad et al., 201 4 1

She r et al., 201 5a 0

Soelb erg and Jäger , 2016 0

Frequ ency 2

Absol ute 1

Kitam. Asparagus officinalis L. Berberis lycium Royle Berberis vulgaris Royle Bunium persic um (Boiss.) B.Fedtsch Capparis spinosa L. Carum carvi L. Cichorium intybus L. Codonopsis clematidea (Sc hrenk) C.B.Clarke Colchicum luteum Baker Coriandrum sativum L. Daphne mucronata Royle Diospyros kaki L.f. Diospyros lotus L. Dodonaea viscosa (L.) Jacq. Dryopteris juxtaposita Christ Dysphania ambrosioides (L.) Mosyakin & Clemants Elaeagnus angustifolia L. Elaeagnus rhamnoides (L.) A.Nelson (Elaeagnaceae) Elaeagnus umbellata Thunb. Ephedra gerardiana Wall. ex Stapf Euphorbia helioscopia L. Euphorbia thomsoniana B oiss. Ferula narthex Boiss. Ficus carica L. Ficus palmata Forssk. Foeniculum vulgare Mill. Fragaria indica Wall. Fumaria indica

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

1

1

0

0

0

0

0

0

1

1

1

0

1

0

6

1

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

1

1

0

1

0

1

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

4

1

0

0

0

0

1

0

1

0

1

0

0

0

0

0

3

1

0

0

0

0

1

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

1

1

0

0

0

0

1

0

1

0

1

0

0

0

1

0

4

1

0

0

0

0

1

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

1

1

1

0

0

0

0

0

1

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

2

1

0

0

0

0

1

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

1

0

2

1

0

0

0

0

1

1

0

0

0

0

0

0

1

0

3

1

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

1

0

0

0

1

1

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

1

1

0

1

0

3

1

1

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

1

1

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

1

0

1

1

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

1

1

1

0

1

0

1

1

0

0

6

1

0

1

0

1

1

0

0

0

1

0

0

0

0

1

5

1

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

1

1

1

0

1

1

0

0

0

0

0

5

1

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

1

0

1

0

2

1

0

0

0

0

0

1

1

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

2

1

0

0

0

1

1

1

1

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

4

1

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

1

0

0

0

0

1

1

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

1

0

1

0

2

1

1

0

1

0

1

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

1

0

3

1

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

1

1

0

1

0

3

1

0

0

1

0

0

0

0

0

0

1

0

0

1

0

2

1

27

(Hausskn.) Pugsley Geranium rotundifolium L. Glycyrrhiza glabra L. Haloxylon griffithii (Moq .) Boiss. Hyoscyamus niger L. Isatis stocksii Boiss. Juglans regia L. Juniperus excelsa M.Bieb. Justacia adhatoda L. Lawsonia inermis L. Malva neglecta Wallr. Melia azedarach L. Mentha longifolia (L.) L. Morchella esculenta Fr. Myrsine africana L. Nasturtium officinale R.Br. Nepeta cataria L. Olea ferruginea Wall. ex Aitch. Onosma hispi da Wall. ex G. Don Paeonia emodi Royle Peganum harmala L. (Nitrariaceae) Persicaria amplexicaulis (D.Don) Ronse Decr. Pistacia khinju k Stocks Plantago lanceolata L. Punica granatum L. Quercus floribunda Lin dl. ex A. Camus Quercus semecarpifolia Sm. Rheum australe D.

0

0

0

0

0

1

1

0

0

0

1

0

0

0

3

1

0

0

0

1

1

1

1

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

4

1

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

1

1

1

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

3

1

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

1

0

1

0

0

0

1

0

1

0

4

1

0

0

0

0

1

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

1

1

1

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

1

0

0

2

1

0

0

0

0

1

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

1

1

0

0

1

0

1

1

0

0

1

1

1

0

1

0

6

1

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

1

1

1

1

0

4

1

1

1

1

1

1

0

0

0

1

1

0

1

1

1

9

1

0

0

0

0

1

0

1

0

0

0

0

0

1

0

3

1

1

0

0

0

0

1

1

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

3

1

0

0

1

0

1

0

0

0

0

0

1

0

1

0

3

1

0

0

0

1

1

1

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

3

1

1

0

0

0

0

0

1

0

0

0

1

1

1

0

5

1

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

1

0

1

1

0

0

0

0

1

1

1

0

5

1

0

1

1

0

1

0

0

0

1

0

0

0

0

1

4

1

0

0

0

1

0

0

1

0

0

0

0

1

0

0

3

1

0

0

0

0

1

0

0

0

0

0

1

0

1

0

3

1

0

0

0

0

1

1

1

0

1

1

1

1

1

1

9

1

1

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

1

0

0

0

0

0

2

1

0

0

0

0

0

0

1

0

0

0

0

0

1

0

2

1

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

1

0

1

0

2

1

0

1

0

1

1

0

1

0

0

0

0

1

0

0

5

1

28

Don Sarcococca pruniformis Li ndl. Sinopodophyll um hexandrum (Royle) T.S.Ying Solanum nigrum L. Sophora mollis (Royle) Baker Thymus serpyllum L. Trachydium roylei Lindl. Urtica dioca L. Valeriana jatamansi Jones Verbascum thapsus L. Viola pilosa Blume Withania somnifera (L.) Dunal Zanthoxylum armatum DC. Number of common species in study

0

0

1

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

1

0

1

0

2

1

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

1

1

0

0

2

1

0

0

0

0

0

0

1

0

0

1

1

0

1

0

4

1

0

0

0

0

1

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

1

1

0

0

0

1

1

0

0

0

1

0

0

0

1

0

4

1

0

0

0

0

1

0

1

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

2

1

0

1

1

0

0

1

1

0

0

0

1

0

1

0

5

1

0

1

1

0

0

0

0

0

1

0

1

1

0

0

4

1

0

1

1

0

1

0

0

0

0

0

0

1

1

0

4

1

0

1

1

1

1

1

1

0

0

1

1

1

0

0

8

1

0

0

0

0

0

1

0

0

0

0

0

1

0

0

2

1

1

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

1

0

1

1

0

4

1

13

11

16

13

33

21

22

1

13

14

27

17

32

4

29

69

Figure 1a. Chitral District, Khyber-Pakhtunkhwa province, Pakistan. 1b. Areas included in the study: 1. Rumbur; 2. Bumbert; 3. Birir; 4. Chitral Town; 5. Drosh; 6. Ayun; 7. Shishi; 8. Buni; 9. Matsuj; 10. Garam Chasma; 11. Turkho; 12. Tirich Mir.

30

Figure 2. Differences in plant use among Kalasha, Ismaili and Sunni communities. Bold: Plants unique to one ethnic group; (Parenthesis): Plant species shared by ethnic groups, but uses unique to each ethnic group.C1: Blood & Circulatory System; C2: Dental; C3: Digestive System; C4: Endocrine System; C5: Reproductive Systems; C6: Urinary System; C7: Immune System; C8: Metabolic system, fevers and nutrition; C9: Muscular-skeletal Systems; C10: Nervous System and Mental Health; C11: Respiratory System; C12: Sensory Systems; C13: Skin and related tissues; C14: Infections, parasites and fungi; C15: Inflammation and pain; C16: Poisons and antidotes; C17: Zoopharmacognosy; C18: ‘Humors’; C19: Cultural indications ; C20: General, nonspecific illnesses; C21: Other; C22: wounds.

31

Figure 3. Map showing the fourteen reviewed studies from Table 2 by district and country.

32

Shared plants (I & K & S) 47 spp.

4 spp.

!

2

nn i

li

!"#$

Shared uses (I & K & S) 47 uses

14 uses

S&I

K

Kalasha

Su

S&I

pp .

Kalasha

10

5 spp.

6s

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12

S K&

nn i

us es