Transforming organic prawn farming in Bangladesh: Potentials and challenges

Accepted Manuscript Transforming organic prawn farming in Bangladesh: potentials and challenges

Nesar Ahmed, Shirley Thompson, Marion Glaser PII:

S0959-6526(17)31281-7

DOI:

10.1016/j.jclepro.2017.06.110

Reference:

JCLP 9860

To appear in:

Journal of Cleaner Production

Received Date:

14 May 2016

Revised Date:

01 June 2017

Accepted Date:

05 June 2017

Please cite this article as: Nesar Ahmed, Shirley Thompson, Marion Glaser, Transforming organic prawn farming in Bangladesh: potentials and challenges, Journal of Cleaner Production (2017), doi: 10.1016/j.jclepro.2017.06.110

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ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT

Full Title: Transforming organic prawn farming in Bangladesh: potentials and challenges

Affiliation and full address of the authors: Nesar Ahmed a, b, , Shirley Thompson b, Marion Glaser a

a Leibniz b

Center for Tropical Marine Research, 28359 Bremen, Germany

Natural Resources Institute, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, Manitoba R3T 2M6,

Canada

Short Running Title:



Transforming organic prawn farming

Corresponding author. E-mail addresses: [email protected]; [email protected] (N. Ahmed).

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ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT Transforming organic prawn farming in Bangladesh: potentials and challenges

Abstract Although giant freshwater prawn (Macrobrachium rosenbergii de Man) farming is widely practiced in southwest Bangladesh due to favorable biophysical resources and agro-climatic conditions, organic prawn culture has not yet taken off. However, the culture of wild prawn postlarvae and the use of snail meat and farm-made feeds with cow dung in many respects are considered as semi-organic. A considerable number of extensive and improved-extensive farmers practice this form of organic culture in southwest Bangladesh. Transformation to truly organic prawn culture, however, faces various environmental, socioeconomic, and technical challenges. We review the opportunities and challenges associated with a transformation towards fully organic prawn farming. We suggest that institutional support and technical assistance may enable prawn farmers to be engaged in fully organic culture that could bring widespread social, economic, and environmental benefits in Bangladesh. Keywords:

Freshwater prawn, Organic aquaculture, Opportunities, Challenges, Economic benefits

1.

Introduction Bangladesh is one of the most suitable countries in the world for giant freshwater

prawn (Macrobrachium rosenbergii de Man) farming, because of its favorable biophysical resources and agro-climatic conditions (Ahmed et al., 2008). Abundant ponds and low-lying rice fields with the availability of wild postlarvae1in coastal Bangladesh provide ample opportunity for prawn culture (Ahmed et al., 2010). Since the 1980s, coastal Bangladesh has been extensively used for prawn farming (Ahmed, 2013a). Over three-quarters of prawn Postlarvae and fry are interchangeably used in this article. Postlarvae usually apply to animals from the time of metamorphosis up to about 60 days later. 1

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ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT farms are located in southwest Bangladesh. In 2014–20152, total annual prawn production was estimated at 42,053 tons from 59,115 ha area, with an average annual productivity of 711 kg/ha (FRSS, 2016). Prawn farming has diversified livelihood opportunities for coastal poor, with over two million people involved in prawn and shrimp3 production, marketing, processing, and exporting (WorldFish, 2013). Prawn farming is currently one of the most important sectors of the national economy. Over the last three decades, its development has attracted considerable attention due to its export potential in the global market, particularly the European Union (EU) and the United States of America (USA) (Ahmed, 2013a). In 2014–2015, Bangladesh exported 44,278 tons of prawn and shrimp valued at US$506 million, of which US$106 million (21%) was prawn (FRSS, 2016). The prawn and shrimp sector is the 2nd largest export industry after readymade garments. Overall, prawn and shrimp production play an important role in earning foreign exchange, increasing food production, diversifying livelihoods, and income for farming households and associated groups (Ahmed, 2013a; Islam, 2008a; Ito, 2002, 2004). Despite wider economic benefits, there are some concerns about the long-term environmental sustainability of prawn farming. Bangladesh is one of the most densely populated countries in the world, covering an area of 144,000 km2 with a population of over 160 million. The demand for food production is constantly increasing due to population growth. However, agricultural land has declined at 0.24% (33,140 ha) per annum over the last three decades (1976–2010) (Hasan et al., 2013). Although prawn farming with fish and rice contributes to food production (Ahmed et al., 2010), the associated wild postlarvae fishing has negative environmental impacts (Ahmed and Troell, 2010). Shrimp farming also has devastating effects on the world’s largest continuous mangrove forest of the Sundarbans. Bangladesh fiscal year: 1 July – 30 June. Although statistics often do not distinguish between prawn and shrimp, they are different species as prawn grows in freshwater while shrimp grows in saltwater. However, prawn is a catadromous species that hatch or born in marine habitats and migrate to freshwater areas. 2 3

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ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT Since 1975, around 10,000 ha of mangrove loss has been attributed to shrimp culture in Bangladesh (Hasan et al., 2013; Shahid and Islam, 2002). Because of environmental degradation, major prawn and shrimp producing countries in Asia have recently experienced a substantial decline in export as a result of diseases (FAO, 2016a). Nevertheless, organic culture could help to prevent disease as organic management practices achieve a high level of disease resistance (Debio, 2009; Ötles et al., 2010). It is, therefore, important to produce environmentally sustainable prawn in compliance with organic culture standards. Globally, organic aquaculture emerged as an alternative to solve environmental problems with health and safety issues faced by modern aquaculture (Biao, 2008; Boehmer et al., 2005; Stern, 2007). The emergence of organic aquaculture is associated with concerns about animal welfare, eco-labeling, food safety and quality issues, high consumer acceptance, and reducing environmental impacts (Aarset et al., 2004; Brister and Kapuscinski, 2001; Censkowsky and Altena, 2013; Xie et al., 2013). Organic aquaculture takes into account animal welfare through fish health management with disease control and prevention (Censkowsky and Altena, 2013). Animal welfare is a growing concern by consumers (Cottee and Petersan, 2009), and thus, consumer perceptions of animal welfare and farming practices are important in terms of their health and living environment (Frewer et al., 2005). Consumers’ awareness about environmental impacts of production systems and knowledge of eco-labels are important factors for purchasing eco-labeled seafood (Jonell, 2016). Although a significant number of studies have been conducted on prawn farming in Bangladesh, none have addressed organic prawn culture. The concept of organic aquaculture is relatively new, although Bangladesh is ranked 6th in global aquaculture production after China, Indonesia, India, Vietnam, and the Philippines (FAO, 2016a). In recent years, attention has been paid to organic shrimp farming in Bangladesh (Hensler and Bremer, 2013; Paul and Vogl, 2013).

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ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT This article reviews the prospect, opportunities, and challenges for organic prawn farming in southwest Bangladesh. It is argued that a number of farmers practice some form of organic culture that can be transformed to fully organic for value addition to prawn in the international market and to reduce environmental risks. The aim of this paper is to highlight key issues for determining organic prawn farming to meet social, economic, and environmental challenges.

2.

Organic aquaculture: global perspective

2.1.

Concept of organic aquaculture Organic aquaculture is a holistic approach that aims to produce fish and other aquatic

products, which are ecologically, economically, and socially sound (Birt et al., 2009; Cottee and Petersan, 2009; IFOAM EU Group, 2010). In particular, organic aquaculture refers to ecological production management systems that promote and enhance biodiversity, biological activity, and biological cycles (Bergleiter, 2003; Bergleiter et al., 2009; INFOFISH, 2011a). General characteristics of organic aquaculture are: no artificial chemicals, minimize environmental impacts, and ecosystem-based management (FAO, 2016b; IFOAM, 2014; Naturland, 2016). Organic aquaculture plays an important role in improving environmental conditions, often reducing production costs, and eco-friendly farming (Bergleiter et al., 2009; IFOAM EU Group, 2010; Sutherland, 2001). A third-party audit is needed to ensure organic practices before certification. Farmers often involve in non-certified organic culture that refers to organic farming practices by intent and not by default, which excludes nonsustainable systems that do not use synthetic inputs but degrade environment due to lack of environmental awareness (FAO, 2016b). Although different countries have their own regulations, many organic aquaculture standards may not improve environmental conditions (e.g., organic salmon culture) with respect to acidification, biotic resource and energy use,

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ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT eutrophication, global warming, and marine aquatic ecotoxicity (Pelletier and Tyedmers, 2007). Attention has to be paid to organic aquaculture standards for enhancing environmental performance. Like organic agriculture, organic aquaculture offers a wide range of social, economic, and ecological benefits (Biao, 2008; Parrott and Marsden, 2002; UNEP, 2008). Although organic agriculture reduces yields by 20%, it also reduces the application of fertilizers and pesticides by 34% and 97%, respectively (Mäder et al., 2002), resulting in enhanced biodiversity, nutrient management, soil fertility, and sustainability than high-yielding farming systems (Biao et al., 2003; Pimentel et al., 2005; Ramesh et al., 2010; Trewavas, 2001). Organic culture of rice and prawn in rotational systems reduces rice yields by 23%, but increases prawn yields by 10%, resulting in a 20% increase in net revenue (Nair et al., 2014). Organic culture has the potential to contribute substantially to global food supply (Badgley et al., 2007; LaSalle et al., 2008). Organic culture offers insights towards a paradigm shift in food security (Scialabba, 2007). Sustainable development of organic farming addresses the growing problems of hunger and poverty in developing countries (Johannsen et al., 2005; Kilcher, 2007; UNEP, 2008). Organic culture has a significant role in addressing two of the world’s most important issues: (1) food security and (2) climate change (Criveanu and Sperdea, 2014; IFOAM, 2009; Scialabba and Müller-Lindenlauf, 2010). However, organic culture has lower yields, and thus, requires more land to produce the same amount of food as conventional farms, resulting in more deforestation (Seufert et al., 2012). Nevertheless, organic mangrove-shrimp farms have lower greenhouse gas emissions than non-certified farms in Vietnam, due to differences in land management practices (Jonell and Henriksson, 2015). A better understanding of the consequences of land-use and land-use change in relation to coastal aquaculture, mangrove deforestation, and greenhouse gas emissions is needed.

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ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT 2.2.

History of development Organic aquaculture was the original form of aquaculture, but it was not certified. The

development of organic aquaculture has recently received attention from both industry and researchers (Censkowsky and Altena, 2013; Perdikaris and Paschos, 2010). Historically, organic aquaculture is rooted in the organic agriculture movement. In the early 1990s, organic aquaculture first started in Austria and Germany as part of developing organic carp production systems. In 1995, the first international organic aquaculture project aimed at developing a standard for organic salmon culture was launched in Ireland with the help of the Naturland Association of Germany, based on principles of the International Federation of Organic Agriculture Movements (IFOAM) and the European organic regulations. Eventually, organic salmon standards were established in 1998 and the first successful organic salmon culture was launched in Germany, and later in the United Kingdom (UK) and France (IFOAM EU Group, 2010). In 2000, national standards for organic aquaculture were established by France and the UK (Bergleiter et al., 2009). Debate on organic aquaculture standards started in the USA in 2000 within the National Organic Standards Board (Burden, 2009; Lockwood, 2013). In 2000, the first organic shrimp was certified by Naturland in Ecuador (Tacon and Brister, 2002). In Asia, the first organic shrimp farming started in Vietnam in 2000. At the same time, IFOAM published a first draft of the basic regulations for organic aquaculture, which was finally approved in 2005. In 2007, the EU introduced detailed organic aquaculture regulations, which were modified in 2008 and 2009 (IFOAM EU Group, 2010). Subsequently, guidelines for organic aquaculture have been privately developed in many countries. Regulations for organic aquaculture were introduced in Brazil, Canada, China, Hong Kong, and India (Censkowsky and Altena, 2013). Globally, over 80 different organic aquaculture standards exist, among them 18 in EU countries (Bergleiter et al., 2009; Prein et

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ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT al., 2012). The growth of certified organic aquaculture is likely to be accompanied by establishing more acceptable and uniform global and national standards.

2.3.

Present status and future prospects There is no recent data about global organic aquaculture production. In 2009, global

organic aquaculture production reached 53,500 tons from 240 certified operations in 29 countries. About 70% of organic aquaculture products were sold under an organic label with a total market value of US$300 million, the remainder (30%) were not sold at a premium price (IFOAM EU Group, 2010). In China, organic aquaculture production reached 85,000 tons from 174 certified operations in 2012 (Xie et al., 2013). Globally, 43,222 ha of aquaculture farms are under organic culture (Willer and Lernoud, 2016). Export opportunities with high market price for organic products remain the major driver of conversion towards organic aquaculture. The major markets for certified organic products are the EU and North America (Biao, 2008; Franz, 2005). Common organic aquaculture products are Asian tiger shrimp (Penaeus monodon Fab.), Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar L.), blue mussel4 (Mytilus edulis L.), brown trout (Salmo trutta L.), rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss Wal.), seabass (Dicentrarchus labrax L.), and seabream (Sparus aurata L.) (IFOAM EU Group, 2010; Nizza, 2012; Polymeros et al., 2014). The future growth of organic aquaculture is likely to be accompanied by expanding niche markets (Prein et al., 2012), which have to be developed with efficient marketing systems. Organic aquaculture is no longer a phenomenon of developed countries. Asia dominates global aquaculture production (FAO, 2016a), and organic aquaculture in Asia is set to grow (Biao, 2008; Willer and Lernoud, 2016). There is growing attention to organic aquaculture in a number of Asian countries, including Bangladesh, China, India, Indonesia, The culture of bivalve mollusks (e.g., clams, mussels, oysters, and scallops) and seaweeds can be described as “organic by default” (IFOAM EU Group, 2010). 4

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ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT Thailand, the Philippines, and Vietnam (Biao, 2008; Dube and Chanu, 2012; IFOAM EU Group, 2010; Kühlmann and dela Fuente, 2008; Paul and Vogl, 2012; Ruangpan, 2007; Xie et al., 2013). However, transforming conventional to organic culture is a challenging multidimensional operation (Duram, 1999; Koesling et al., 2008; Xie et al., 2013). The challenge is to follow the set of principles for organic farming. Adapting management practices to organic aquaculture supports the sustainable utilization of resources (Tusche et al., 2011), while posing challenges in terms of the welfare of fish, farmers, and environmental integrity (Cottee and Petersan, 2009).

3.

Conventional prawn farming in southwest Bangladesh

3.1.

Prawn farming systems Remarkable development of M. rosenbergii farming has taken place in southwest

Bangladesh (Fig. 1), where thousands of farmers have converted their rice fields to prawn farms, locally known as “gher” (Ahmed et al., 2010). The culture of prawn and fish (mainly Indian major carp and exotic carp) in ponds and rice fields, with high prices for prawn in the international market, combined with rice and fish for household consumption and local markets, has led to an increasing number of farmers in Bagerhat district (Ahmed et al., 2008). Although integrated prawn-fish-rice farming is a common practice, an increasing number of farmers avoid stocking fish as they compete with prawn for feed, space, and limited capital. Similarly, a growing number of farmers avoid cultivating monsoon season aman rice, which also competes with prawn for living space (Ahmed et al., 2010). The peak season of prawn farming is from April to November, a culture period of around 6–8 months. The principal water sources of prawn farms are rainfall and groundwater. [Fig. 1 here] Conventional prawn farming in the Bagerhat area of southwest Bangladesh is

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ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT classified as: (1) extensive, (2) improved-extensive, and (3) semi-intensive (Table 1). Although prawn farming is still extensive (50%), an increasing number of farmers are involved in improved-extensive (30%) and semi-intensive (20%). Extensive production typically use slightly modified versions of traditional methods with low-input5 systems. An improved-extensive method is a modification of extensive culture where farmers apply higher inputs, but lower than in semi-intensive farming (Ahmed, 2013b). Global aquaculture can be classified as: (1) extensive, (2) semi-intensive, and (3) intensive (Tidwell, 2012). However, none of the farmers in southwest Bangladesh practice intensive farming due to inadequate facilities. Although there is great potential to increase productivity through increased inputs, environmental and financial constraints may occur with increase in culture intensity (Fig. 2). Increased productivity may generate environmental impacts, including eutrophication and water pollution (Hall et al., 2011). [Table 1 here] [Fig. 2 here] 3.2.

Farming inputs Prawn culture in southwest Bangladesh still largely depends on the capture of wild

postlarvae as the supply of hatchery fry is limited and farmers consider them to be of a lower quality due to a low survival rate (Ahmed and Troell, 2010). The average annual stocking density of prawn postlarvae was reported to be 15,431 per ha in extensive farming, compared with 20,369 and 24,752 per ha in improved-extensive and semi-intensive farming, respectively. The highest average annual fish fingerling stocking density was applied in semiintensive farming (5112 per ha), followed by improved-extensive (4365 per ha), and extensive farming (3571 per ha) (Ahmed, 2013b).

In aquaculture, inputs can be classified as: (1) material input (seed, feed, and fertilizer) and (2) management input (labor). 5

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ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT A variety of feeds are used to grow prawn. In general, extensive farmers use freshwater apple snail (Pila globosa Swainson) meat as prawn feed. The supply of snail meat is irregular, and thus, extensive farmers often supplement with home-made feeds that are prepared by mixing cooked rice, rice bran, and wheat flour. In contrast, improved-extensive and semi-intensive farmers use farm-made feeds (mixture of fishmeal, mustard oilcake, and rice bran) and industrially-manufactured pelleted feeds, respectively (Fig. 2). Most farmmade feed ingredients (except fishmeal) are on-farm agricultural byproducts while ingredients for industrially-manufactured pelleted feeds are both sourced locally and imported. Various ingredients are used in the production of commercial pelleted feeds, including fishmeal, oilcake, defatted rice bran, rice polish, wheat flour, maize, meat and bone meal, soybean meal, calcium phosphate, salt, and vitamin premixes (Ahmed, 2013b). Feed ingredients often contain the banned antibiotic nitrofuran (Islam et al., 2014). The implementation of the Fish Feed and Animal Feed Act (2010) and Fish Feed Rules (2011) aim to improve the quality of feed (Hasan and Arthur, 2015). The highest average annual feeding rate was estimated in semi-intensive farming (1627 kg/ha), followed by improvedextensive (1506 kg/ha), and extensive farming (1454 kg/ha) (Ahmed, 2013b). In addition to feed application, farmers use both organic and inorganic fertilizers for the growth of natural live food organisms (e.g., benthos, periphyton, and plankton), thereby increasing prawn and fish yields (Ahmed et al., 2010; Tacon et al., 2009). The most widely used organic fertilizer is cow dung, which is relatively cheap, while common inorganic fertilizers are urea and triple super phosphate (TSP). Although extensive farmers only apply organic fertilizer on an intermittent basis, improved-extensive farmers rely on both organic and inorganic fertilizers. However, semi-intensive farmers apply more inorganic fertilizers than improved-extensive farmers (Ahmed, 2013b). An increasing number of semi-intensive farmers apply lime, growth hormones, and probiotics for increasing farm productivity.

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ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT 3.3.

Productivity The production of prawn and fish varies between farming systems (Fig. 3). According

to Ahmed (2013b), the highest average annual yields of prawn were found in semi-intensive farming (718 kg/ha), followed by improved-extensive (489 kg/ha), and extensive farming (351 kg/ha). The highest average annual fish yields varied from 1173 kg/ha in semi-intensive farming to 824 kg/ha in improved-extensive, and 526 kg/ha in extensive farming. The highest average annual yields of aman rice were achieved in improved-extensive farming (2527 kg/ha), followed by semi-intensive (2491 kg/ha), and extensive farming (2453 kg/ha) (Ahmed, 2013b). Rice yields do not vary greatly between faming systems since farmers concentrate less on food crop (rice) than cash crop (prawn and fish). Measures of rice productivity included the area of canal and water for aquaculture, and thus, actual yields per hectare are likely to be 25–30% higher. [Fig. 3 here] A number of factors affect prawn productivity, including farm size, inputs, feed types, water quality, and farm management (Ahmed et al., 2010; Rahman et al., 2011). Comparing the three farming systems, prawn productivity is the lowest in extensive farming due to the use of snail meat as a prawn feed with low-input farming. In contrast, prawn productivity is the highest in semi-intensive farming, which is attributed to the use of commerciallymanufactured pelleted feeds with high-input. Despite the highest feeding rate, average economic feed conversion ratio (FCR) is the lowest in semi-intensive farming (2.27) due to using quality pelleted feeds. Conversely, average FCR is the highest in extensive farming (4.14) because of using snail meat and poor quality home-made feeds. The average FCR in improved-extensive farming is 3.08 (Ahmed, 2013b).

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ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT 4.

Organic prawn farming: opportunities and challenges

4.1.

Opportunities The culture of wild prawn postlarvae and the use of snail meat and farm-made feeds

with cow dung can in many respects be considered as semi-organic. Extensive and partly improved-extensive farmers mainly practice this form of aquaculture (Table 2). These farmers prefer: (1) low-input farming, (2) stocking of wild prawn fry, (3) using snail meat, home-made, and farm-made feeds, and (4) applying cow dung as organic fertilizer. However, these farmers are unaware of the potential for economic benefit associated with semi-organic culture. Lack of financial capital has prevented them from applying high-input culture with commercial feeds and chemical fertilizers. Nevertheless, there are advantages of low-input prawn farming in rice fields such as integrated pest management. The presence of fish in rice fields increases soil fertility, which in turn reduces pesticide and fertilizer use (Halwart and Gupta, 2004). [Table 2 here] The use of snail meat as a prawn feed can be considered as organic farming. Snails provide a suitable feed for prawn as they are highly digestible and rich in protein, fat, vitamins, and minerals. Freshwater snails contain 37–68% protein, 6–11% fat, and 3–6% glycogen. Moreover, on a dry weight basis, P. globosa contains about 4.74–5.59 kcal/g energy (Sing, 1991). The golden apple snail (Pomacea canaliculata Lam.) meat is also a suitable feed for prawn farming (Jintasataporn et al., 2004), which has a proximate composition of 54% crude protein, with an essential amino acid index of 0.84 (BombeoTuburan et al., 1995). The garden snail (Limicolaria aurora Jay) meat also contains 67% of crude protein, which is suitable for catfish culture (Sogbesan et al., 2006). Although farm-made feeds are appropriate for organic prawn culture, attention has to be given to feed preparation. The fishmeal, as well as protein content of feed, needs to be

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ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT reduced as far as possible for organic aquaculture (Naturland, 2016). Moreover, plant materials (e.g., rice bran, wheat bran, and oilcake) used in farm-made feeds need to be certified for organic culture (Mente et al., 2011). Although genetically modified plants are used as fish feed ingredients (Sissener et al., 2011), they are not allowed in organic aquaculture (Censkowsky and Altena, 2013; Craig, 2004). Cow dung as organic fertilizer for prawn culture should be from organic livestock production, which is neither using commercial compound feed nor any treatment with allopathic medicines unless the latter are prescribed by a veterinary surgeon (Naturland, 2016). Although the use of urea and TSP is normally restricted in organic prawn farming, agricultural lime (CaCo3) is a natural product, which is allowed in organic culture (Censkowsky and Altena, 2013; IFOAM EU Group, 2010). The application of chlorinated lime is not allowed in organic farming (FiBL, 2011). Clearly, semi-organic prawn farming practices must be improved to transform organic culture. However, shifting from semi-organic to organic culture may not substantially change in farming practices. Similar to prawn farming in Bangladesh, a number of farmers in Vietnam practice mangrove-shrimp organic culture without formal certification. Shifting from non-certified organic to certified organic farming does not change culture practices since farmers do not use supplementary feeds and chemical fertilizers (Jonell and Henriksson, 2015). Thus, if non-certified farming practices are similar to organic culture, this will not result in an improved environment.

4.2.

Challenges There are multiple challenges for transforming organic prawn farming (Fig. 4). The

stocking of wild prawn postlarvae is not permitted in organic aquaculture (Paul and Vogl,

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ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT 2012). Indiscriminate fishing of wild postlarvae with high levels of bycatch6 has negative impacts on biodiversity and ecosystems. This concern has led to a ban on postlarvae fishing by the government. However, this ban has not been implemented due to inadequate supply of hatchery fry and lack of alternative livelihood opportunities for 400,000 postlarvae fishers (Ahmed and Troell, 2010). Maintaining biodiversity and local ecosystems is one of the core principles in organic aquaculture (Bengtsson et al., 2005; Censkowsky and Altena, 2013; IFOAM EU Group, 2010). Awareness among postlarvae fishers regarding biodiversity conservation and ecosystem services, improvements in fishing techniques to reduce bycatch, and a temporal ban in certain ecologically sensitive areas may be prudent measures in the context of postlarvae fishing (Ahmed and Troell, 2010). [Fig. 4 here] Although there are 85 prawn and shrimp hatcheries and 879 fish hatcheries in Bangladesh (FRSS, 2016), none produce organic fry. While most prawn hatcheries depend on wild broodstock, organic aquaculture suggests a shift from wild source to organic farm (IFOAM EU Group, 2010). Using pituitary gland hormone in fish hatcheries is incompatible with organic aquaculture, which requires natural reproduction (Censkowsky and Altena, 2013). Thus, monosex tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus L.) with prawn is not allowed in organic aquaculture due to using male hormone testosterone for reversing sex to produce male tilapia7 (IFOAM EU Group, 2010). Conventional hatcheries with native fish can be adapted to organic fry production. Commercially-manufactured pelleted feeds are not acceptable in organic aquaculture due to presence of certain feed additives (EC, 2013). Similarly, using snail meat as organic prawn feed cannot be considered a sustainable source due to inadequate supply. The snail population has become extinct in most prawn farming areas as a result of excessive 6 7

The incidental catch of non-target fish species is due to using fine mesh nets. Being prolific breeders, female tilapia in ponds is resulted in larger populations.

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ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT harvesting during the monsoon, which correlates with their reproductive season (Ahmed et al., 2008). Removal of the snails is also likely to increase in the growth of some species of aquatic weeds, which could reduce light penetration as well as photosynthesis, and lead to eutrophication and ecological imbalance (Begg, 2006; Gain, 1998). Snail harvesting is also concerned with the disposal of snail shells, resulting in blockage of canals and water pollution (Ahmed et al., 2010). Similarly, a study using life cycle assessment (LCA) implies that organic salmon culture often fails to reduce the environmental impacts of feed production, including organic crop ingredients and fisheries byproduct meals and oils (Pelletier and Tyedmers, 2007). LCA methodology can be applied to evaluate the comparative environmental performance of conventional and organic prawn feed formulations. Polyculture of different fish species is recommended in organic aquaculture due to diverse farming practices (IFOAM EU Group, 2010; Xie et al., 2013). However, the coculture of alien species with prawn is not allowed in organic aquaculture without knowing long-term ecological effects (Censkowsky and Altena, 2013). Thus, exotic carp including common carp (Cyprinus carpio L.), grass carp (Ctenopharyngodon idella Val.), and silver carp (Hypophthalmichthys molitrix Val.) with prawn are inadmissible in organic aquaculture. Although a number of farmers prefer high density monoculture, total biomass of prawn shall not exceed 1600 kg/ha in organic culture (Naturland, 2016). Exceeding the carrying capacities can lead to various ecological effects, including harmful algal blooms and diseases (Censkowsky and Altena, 2013; Hall et al., 2011). The use of growth hormones is prohibited in organic aquaculture (Singh et al., 2011; White et al., 2004). Although probiotics are effective for use in organic aquaculture, research on their application is needed (Mente et al., 2011). Treatment of prawn with antibiotics is not permitted in organic aquaculture (Naturland, 2016). Several consignments of Bangladeshi prawn and shrimp were rejected by

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ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT the EU due to the presence of banned antibiotics (Islam et al., 2014).

5.

Further concerns of organic prawn culture In addition to the above mentioned challenges, a number of further issues arise in

transforming organic prawn culture (Fig. 5). Organic aquaculture considers four major areas: (1) environment, (2) animal welfare, (3) socioeconomics, and (4) consumer protection (Censkowsky and Altena, 2013; IFOAM, 2014; IFOAM EU Group, 2010). [Fig. 5 here] 5.1.

Environment Organic aquaculture relies on clean water and it does not allow any adverse effects on

water resources. Moreover, the construction of ponds should be environmentally friendly in terms of efficient management of landscape and biophysical resources (IFOAM EU Group, 2010). However, there are some ecological effects due to the widespread conversion of lowlying rice fields and wetlands to prawn farms. The reduction in these water resources is likely to have negative impacts on biodiversity and ecosystems as they conserve a great variety of aquatic flora and fauna, including birds, crabs, fish, frogs, snails, and turtles (Ahmed et al., 2010). Effluent discharged from prawn farms may also have adverse effects on surrounding water resources, leading to eutrophication (Ahmed and Garnett, 2010). Increase eutrophication in coastal waters can lead to environmental concerns (BOBLME, 2015). Irrigation from canals and tributaries may also cause eutrophication in prawn farms due to loading organic matter. Moreover, prawn culture is often carried out in polluted water with heavy metal contamination (Sarkar et al., 2016). In order to produce quality products, groundwater pumping with aeration is recommended for organic aquaculture (Censkowsky and Altena, 2013), but this is not followed by extensive and improved-extensive farmers due to economic constraints. Only a few semi-intensive farmers use pumped groundwater with

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ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT aerator for prawn production, but they use commercial feeds and chemical fertilizers. Organic aquaculture does not allow fish to escape from ponds due to the risk of transmitting diseases to wild fish species (Censkowsky and Altena, 2013). However, preventing prawn escape is very difficult during floods and heavy rains as farmers cannot raise low and narrow dikes due to the concentration of ponds back-to-back and side-by-side (Ahmed and Garnett, 2010). Moreover, invasion of predators to prawn farms is incompatible with the concept of organic aquaculture (IFOAM EU Group, 2010; Ötles et al., 2010). The construction of higher pond dikes may help to protect farms and surrounding ecosystems from fish escape and entry of predators. In order to enhance the ecological condition of farms, at least 50% of total dike surface should be covered by plants (Naturland, 2016). Organic aquaculture requires green pond dikes, which improve biodiversity in various ways (Censkowsky and Altena, 2013). Biodiversity is maintained and fostered on farms to the best of the farmer’s ability (Naturland, 2016).

5.2.

Animal welfare Organic aquaculture respects the physiological behavior of fish with animal welfare

standards, which aim to reduce the suffering of fish as much as possible (Censkowsky and Altena, 2013; Cottee and Petersan, 2009; IFOAM EU Group, 2010). In southwest Bangladesh, the transport of fry from capture sites and hatcheries to grow-out farms often takes place over long distances, leading to stress on fry. Moreover, high density of fry with lower dissolved oxygen levels during transportation often causes high mortalities that may be avoided in organic aquaculture. Longer transport and stress of fry can cause subsequent mortality after stocking. In prawn hatchery operation, antibiotics and chemicals are used, but organic aquaculture allows antibiotic-free postlarvae (Paul and Vogl, 2012). Precaution should be taken during hatchery operation and fry transportation to address animal welfare

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ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT issues. Organic aquaculture also aims to protect fish from health injury, parasite infestations, and disease outbreaks through low stocking densities and maintaining water quality (Bergleiter and Meisch, 2015; Censkowsky and Altena, 2013; Debio, 2009; Ötles et al., 2010). Prawn farming is often affected by diseases, including black spot, white spot, soft shell, body color, gill disease, and tail rot (Ahmed et al., 2010). Disease affected prawn can lead to increase mortality and reduce profitability because of reducing yield and lowering the harvest value. Disease affected prawn must be treated first with organic substances in homeopathic dilutions, including plant and herbal extracts. Natural disinfectants, such as derris, neem, and tobacco can be used in organic aquaculture. If homeopathic treatment is not available for disease cure, organic aquaculture allows limited allopathic medicines with treatment restricted to two courses per year (Censkowsky and Altena, 2013). With regard to disease prevention, good management practices can help organic prawn culture.

5.3.

Socioeconomic aspects Social performance is an integral part of organic aquaculture (Padel, 2001; Sligh and

Cierpka, 2007). Organic culture is particularly committed to sustainable management with the acceptance of social responsibility. It also includes a concern with the livelihoods and socioeconomic conditions of farming households and associated groups. Organic aquaculture does not allow discrimination by gender, race, and the violation of labor rights (Censkowsky and Altena, 2013). Violation of social justice (e.g., equality, freedom, opportunities, and profit distribution) is not acceptable in organic aquaculture (Naturland, 2016). In southwest Bangladesh, prawn marketing and processing rely heavily on physical labor. A significant number of coastal poor, including women, are involved in these tasks. However, the prawn sector is often accused of violating human rights, including low wages, less working freedom,

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ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT long working hours, inadequate health and safety issues, and limited medical care (Islam, 2008b). Aquaculture production, which violates human rights, cannot be certified as organic (Naturland, 2016), and thus, organic prawn culture upholds human rights. In organic aquaculture, child labor is prohibited (Censkowsky and Altena, 2013). However, children are often involved in various tasks of prawn farming, including snail breaking, postlarvae fishing, prawn farming, and marketing. Taking account of such conditions, children may work on the farms of their own families if working conditions are: (1) not hazardous for the health and safety of children, (2) not harmful for the educational, moral, social, and physical development of children, and (3) supervised by adults or undertaken with permission by a parent or legal guardian (Naturland, 2016). These working conditions should be followed for the involvement of children in organic prawn farming.

5.4.

Consumer protection Organic aquaculture often faces challenges in balancing between producer and

consumer needs and expectations, and between economic viability and ecological performance (IFOAM EU Group, 2010). Organic food production and consumption are often driven by concerns about food quality and safety issues (Leifert et al., 2007; Rigby et al., 2001; Roitner-Schobesberger et al., 2008). Consumer protection, food quality, and safety issues are considered in organic aquaculture through product inspection and certification norms. The certification system consists of standard setting, accreditation, and certification (INFOFISH, 2011b). Certification aims to facilitate and regulate the sale of organic products by supporting consumer confidence about food quality and safety issues. Certified organic aquaculture operations must be supervised by a third party control systems (Censkowsky and Altena, 2013; Hatanaka, 2010). Certified products need to be labelled as organic according to organic aquaculture standards (IFOAM EU Group, 2010).

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ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT The certification procedure is often costly for organic aquaculture, presenting an obstacle to the organic market (Biao, 2008; Ha et al., 2012). The cost of third party organic certification is the disproportionate high cost element in the form of certification costs (Washington and Ababouch, 2011). Government support, key stakeholder involvement, and private sector investment in certification are needed (FAO, 2007). In order to certify organic products, inspection of all value chain actors is required (Boyd, 2008; Censkowsky and Altena, 2013). Input suppliers, such as hatcheries, wild fry catchers, feed producers, fertilizer providers, prawn traders, and market actors have to be included in annual inspection. According to Naturland (2016), when the farm is inspected, all stages of the value chain have to be recorded. For a certified organic prawn product, the whole value chain from farming, marketing, processing, and exporting needs to be assessed by certifying organizations.

6.

Future prospects Despite significant challenges, there is potential for transforming organic prawn

culture that could be driven by market demand. The economic viability of certified organic prawn farming is closely linked to market access. There is an existing export market for prawn with appropriate infrastructure, processing facilities, and export services. Although export markets for Bangladeshi prawn have grown in volume and value over the decades, a good reputation for organic product will need to be established for international markets. The international market price of organic prawn is significantly higher than that of conventionally produced prawn. The average export price of conventionally produced prawn in Bangladesh is US$16 per kg (FRSS, 2016). The premium price of organic seafood is 20% higher (i.e., US$19.2 per kg) than conventional farming (Ankamah-Yeboah et al., 2016). Organic prawn farmers would be greatly benefited by higher market price and by reducing production costs through avoiding high-input culture systems. Increased profit will motivate

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ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT more farmers to engage in organic prawn culture, enhancing livelihoods and socioeconomic conditions of farming households (Paul, 2013). However, the premium price of organic prawn may not increase farmers’ profit level due to inefficient marketing systems with presence of intermediaries (Ahmed et al., 2009). It is, therefore, necessary to improve marketing systems. Incentives for organic farmers may address the multiple asymmetric patronage relations to help small farmers (Lewis, 2011). There is great potential for export earnings through transforming organic prawn culture. Total organic aquaculture area in Bangladesh was estimated at 9338 ha (Willer and Lernoud, 2016), but there are no statistics about organic prawn culture area. After discussion with stakeholders (e.g., farmers, government fisheries officers, policymakers, and researchers), we estimate that about 25,000 farmers practice semi-organic prawn culture on around 6000 ha of farms8, which is 10% of total prawn culture area. If a further 10% of this potential area would be converted to organic prawn farming, Bangladesh would earn an additional US$8.19 million annually (Table 3). Similarly, if organic prawn farming expanded to 50% of the potential area, the country would get an additional US$40.95 million annually. There is a growing demand for organic food in the global market, and consumers are willing to pay 15–30% more for organic products (Aschemann-Witzel and Zielke, 2017; Ruangpan, 2007). Thus, the transformation of semi-organic to certified organic prawn farming is potentially supported by demand, market price, and consumer willingness to pay a high premium price. [Table 3 here] Transforming organic prawn culture would bring a wide range of environmental benefits. Organic prawn culture would considerably increase farm water quality and soil fertility due to reducing the application of inorganic fertilizers and chemicals (Biao et al., Average farm size in extensive and improved-extensive prawn culture is 0.24 ha (Ahmed, 2013b), which is multiplied by 25,000 farmers. 8

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ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT 2009; Escobar and Hue, 2007). Transforming organic prawn culture would minimize the impact of farm operations on the surrounding ecosystems of rice fields and wetlands. Organic prawn farming would significantly reduce environmental impacts of wild postlarvae fishing and snail harvesting. Reducing the ecological footprint from postlarvae fishing and snail harvesting would help to conserve aquatic biodiversity and fisheries management (Ahmed and Troell, 2010; Ahmed et al., 2010). Sustainable management of organic aquaculture includes the respectful treatment of nature and the environment (Escobar and Hue, 2007; Mansfield, 2004; Naturland, 2016).

7.

Conclusions and recommendations The culture of wild prawn postlarvae and the use of snail meat and farm-made feeds

with cow dung in southwest Bangladesh can be considered as semi-organic. However, the transformation of semi-organic to certified organic prawn farming is a huge challenge. The stocking of wild postlarvae is incompatible with the concept of organic aquaculture. The application of snail meat and industrial feeds are also concerned for organic prawn production. Moreover, the utilization of chemical fertilizers is not acceptable in organic aquaculture. In addition, organic aquaculture considers environmental issues, animal welfare, socioeconomics aspects, and consumer protection. All of these challenges must be addressed for transforming organic prawn culture. Despite significant challenges, the initial advantage of semi-organic prawn farming may help farmers to be involved in fully organic aquaculture which can be socially, economically, and ecologically sustainable. The following recommendations are suggested to transform to organic prawn farming: 

The motivations of organic prawn production require awareness of farmers, which can be provided through extension services, training programs, and technical assistance.

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ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT 

Institutional support and strong collaborations among stakeholders, including farmers, government agencies, market actors, policymakers, private sectors, and researchers are needed to facilitate organic prawn culture.



Particular attention has to be given to hatchery operation, feed formulation, and growout operation to correspond with organic aquaculture standards.



Organic prawn needs to be certified by recognized certifying bodies for export markets according to organic aquaculture standards.



Empirical research is also needed to develop organic prawn farming to meet social, economic, and ecological challenges. These steps may help to establish organic prawn farming to promote a chemical-free

aquaculture that protects the natural environment, enhances soil fertility, and maintains water quality to support long-term sustainable production.

Acknowledgments The study was supported through the Alexander von Humboldt Foundation, Germany. The study was a part of the first author’s research work under the Georg Forster Research Fellowship by the Alexander von Humboldt Foundation at the Leibniz Center for Tropical Marine Research (ZMT), Germany. The study was also linked to the first author’s Visiting Research Fellowship at the Natural Resources Institute (NRI), University of Manitoba, Canada. The views and opinions expressed herein are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the views of ZMT or NRI. Thanks to anonymous reviewers for their helpful comments.

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Fig. 1. Prawn farming area in the Khulna division of southwest Bangladesh.

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Environmental concern Productivity

Semiintensive

Farm-made feed Improvedextensive

Snail meat Extensive

Culture intensity Fig. 2. Relationship between culture intensity and input in prawn farming.

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Production cost

Farming input

Commercially-produced pelleted feed

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Fig. 3. Prawn, fish, and rice productivity in different farming systems (source: Ahmed, 2013b).

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Wild postlarvae Hatchery fry

Stocking

Extensive (low-input)

Concern of organic culture Antibiotics (hatchery) Bycatch (wild fry) Exotic species Hormones (hatchery) Monoculture

Feeding

Farming input

Antibiotics Feed additives Genetic modification (Oilcake) Growth hormones Over-fishing (fishmeal) Over-harvesting (snail) Pesticides (rice bran)

Fertilization

Culture intensity

Allopathic treatment (dairy) Ammonia Insecticides (fodder for cattle) Nitrogen, phosphorus Other chemicals

Reproduction Snail meat

Prawn farming systems

Home-made feed Improved-extensive (medium input)

Farm-made feed Industrial feed Cow dung Urea

Semi-intensive (high-input)

TSP

Fig. 4. Concerns of organic prawn culture in southwest Bangladesh.

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Water pollution

Affect rice fields, wetlands

Fish stress Health injury

Biodiversity concern

Ecological effect Certification

Environment

Animal welfare

Organic prawn culture

Food quality

Consumer protection

Disease outbreak

Health safety Socioeconomics

Death of fish

Gender and race Social violation

Human rights

Child labor

Fig. 5. Transforming organic prawn culture faces multidimensional challenges.

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Table 1 Culture intensity with characteristic of prawn farming in southwest Bangladesh Culture

Farmers

intensity

involved (%)

Extensive

50

Characteristic

 Small farmers (less than 50 decimals1 or 0.20 ha farm size)  Low-input farming  Stocking wild prawn postlarvae with hatchery fish fry  Use snail meat and home-made feeds  Apply cow dung as organic fertilizer

Improved-

30

extensive

 Medium farmers (51–100 decimals or 0.21–0.40 ha farm size)  Intermediate level of inputs  Stocking wild and hatchery postlarvae with hatchery fish fry  Use farm-made feeds  Apply organic and inorganic fertilizers

Semiintensive

20

 Large farmers (above 100 decimals or 0.40 ha farm size)  High-input farming  Stocking wild and hatchery postlarvae with hatchery fish fry  Use commercial pelleted feeds  Apply chemical fertilizers

1

A decimal is a unit of area in Bangladesh equivalent to 1/100 acre or 1/247 hectare.

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Table 2 Prawn farming intensity with possibility and concern of organic culture. Farming

Possibility of organic culture

Concern of organic culture

intensity  Low-input farming systems

 Stocking hatchery fish fry

 Stocking wild prawn postlarvae

 Biodiversity concern with postlarvae fishing

 Use snail meat or home-made feeds

 Environmental impacts of snail harvesting

 Apply cow dung as fertilizer

 Inadequate farm management

Improved-

 Intermediate level of inputs

 Presence of antibiotics in hatchery fry

extensive

 Stocking wild postlarvae

 Environmental concerns with postlarvae fishing

 Employ farm-made feeds

 Negative impacts of snail harvesting

 Use organic fertilizer

 Use inorganic fertilizers (urea, TSP)

Semi-

 Avoid high-input farming systems

 Presence of antibiotics in hatchery fry

intensive

 Stocking wild prawn postlarvae

 Adverse impacts of postlarvae fishing

 Use farm-made feeds rather than

 Existence of feed additives in commercial feeds

Extensive

 Use chemical fertilizers

commercial feeds  Apply organic fertilizer as opposed to inorganic

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Table 3 Potential for export earnings from organic prawn farming in Bangladesh. Potential

Convert to

Area for

Average

Total

Average export

Total export

area for

organic

organic

prawn

prawn

price of

earning1

organic

culture

culture

yield

yield

organic prawn

(million

culture (ha)

(%)

(ha)

(kg/ha/yr)

(t/yr)

(US$/kg)

US$/yr)

10

600

426.6

8.19

20

1200

853.2

16.38

30

1800

40

2400

1706.4

32.76

50

3000

2133.0

40.95

6000

1

711

1279.8

19.2

24.57

Export earnings from conventional prawn farming may reduce potential gain from conversion of

organic farming, however, it was not considered here.

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