Travelers' pro-environmental behavior in a green lodging context: Converging value-belief-norm theory and the theory of planned behavior

Tourism Management 47 (2015) 164e177

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Travelers' pro-environmental behavior in a green lodging context: Converging value-belief-norm theory and the theory of planned behavior Heesup Han* College of Hospitality and Tourism Management, Sejong University, 98 Gunja-Dong, Gwanjin-Gu, Seoul 143-747, Republic of Korea

h i g h l i g h t s

g r a p h i c a l a b s t r a c t


We merged value-belief-norm theory and the theory of planned behavior in green hotels.
Non-green alternatives' attractiveness had a moderating role.
The proposed unified model had strong prediction power for intention.

a r t i c l e i n f o

a b s t r a c t

Article history: Received 20 April 2014 Accepted 17 September 2014 Available online 10 October 2014

This research was designed to provide a comprehensive understanding of the formation of travelers' proenvironmental intentions in a green lodging context by merging value-belief-norm theory and the theory of planned behavior into one theoretical framework and by considering the moderating impact of non-green alternatives' attractiveness. Results of the structural analysis from a sample of 402 guests showed that our unified model includes a satisfactory level of prediction power for pro-environmental intention, which was superior to existing theories. Findings also supported the hypothesized relationships among study variables, identified the prominent role of awareness of consequences and normative process in generating intention, and verified the mediating impact of study variables. In addition, the invariance test identified the significant moderating impact of non-green alternatives' attractiveness. Specifically, the role of attitude, perceived behavioral control, and moral obligation in forming intention was found to be more important when customers felt the alternatives were less attractive. © 2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Theory of planned behavior Value-belief-norm theory Pro-environmental intention Green hotel

1. Introduction The term “Green” is attracting considerable attention within the lodging sector (Chen, Sloan, & Legrand, 2009; Kim & Han, 2010). The interchangeable use of termsdgreen, sustainable, eco-friendly, and environmentally responsibledis quite common when

* Tel.: þ82 2 3408 4462; fax: þ82 2 3408 4314. E-mail address: [email protected]. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.tourman.2014.09.014 0261-5177/© 2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

describing a green lodging firm (Pizam, 2009). There has been a growing awareness of the environmental impact of hotel operation and development among customers, operators, and investors (Chen et al., 2009; Jones, Hillier, & Comfort, 2014; Pryce, 2001). In particular, lodging customers in recent years have become increasingly concerned about the environmental impact of the hotel industry (Han, Hsu, Lee, & Sheu, 2011; Kim & Han, 2010). Greening a hotel is inevitable in order to meet hospitality customers' increasing green needs and boost their positive intention

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and behavior toward the firm (Han, Hsu, et al., 2011; Jones et al., 2014). Improving customers' favorable intention or behavior toward a firm is a major goal of any hotel business (Han, 2013; Jani & Han, 2013, 2014; McCall & Voorhees, 2010; Tanford, Raab, & Kim, 2012). The importance of sustainable business management in attracting and retaining lodging guests has led many hotel operators to develop diverse sustainability plans, programs, and guidelines as vital constituents of their corporate strategies for enhancing their guests' positive intentions or behavior (Chen et al., 2009; Pryce, 2001). In general, such pro-environmental intentions or behavior are viewed as activated by either prosocial or self-interest motives (Bamberg, Hunecke, & Blobaum, 2007). Researchers who view individuals' environmentally responsible intention and behavior as being stimulated by prosocial motives generally utilize the norm activation model (Schwartz, 1977) or the Value-Belief-Norm (VBN) theory (Stern, Dietz, Abel, Guagnano, & Kalof, 1999), while researchers who consider eco-friendly intention and behavior as self-interest motives mostly rely on rational-choice models such as the theory of reasoned action (Fishbein & Ajzen, 1975) or Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB) (Ajzen, 1991). Considerable research has been conducted to explain the formation of customers' pro-environmental intentions or behavior, applying these theories (e.g., Chen & Tung, 2014; De Groot & Steg, 2009; De Groot, Steg, & Dicke, 2007; Kim, Ham, Yang, & Choi, 2013; Kim, Njite, & Hancer, 2013; Steg & De Groot, 2010; Zhang, Wang, & Zhou, 2013). In particular, the appropriateness of using norm activation model or VBN theory involving pro-social motives (e.g., De Groot & Steg, 2009; De Groot et al., 2007; Steg & De Groot, 2010; Stern, 2000; Stern et al., 1999; Schwartz, 1977; Zhang et al., 2013) and the adequacy of employing rational-choice models involving self-interest motives (e.g., Ajzen, 1991; Chen & Tung, 2014; Fishbein & Ajzen, 1975; Han, Hsu, & Sheu, 2010; Kim, Ham, et al., 2013; Kim, Njite, et al., 2013; Kim & Han, 2010) in the context of environmentally responsible intention or behavior have been repeatedly evaluated by researchers in a variety of contexts. Each research stream has proven to be helpful in comprehending customers' proenvironmental behavior, but little research has empirically compared the theories to identify the superiority of a particular model. In addition, the sufficiency of the theories in efforts to comprehensively understand pro-environmental intention or behavior has been often questioned (Bamberg et al., 2007; Bamberg € ser, 2007; Harland, Staats, & Wilke, 1999; Onwezen, & Mo Antonides, & Bartels, 2013). Yet, research efforts to integrate both theoretical aspects into one comprehensive conceptual framework have rarely been made. In particular, none have combined them to predict guests' pro-environmental intention and behavior in a hotel context. Furthermore, within the competitive hospitality industry, there is a general consensus that alternatives' attractiveness affects the formation of individuals' intention or behavior (Colgate & Lang, 2001; Han, Back, & Barrett, 2009; Jones, Mothersbaugh, & Beatty, 2000; Lee, Ahn, & Kim, 2008; Sharma & Patterson, 2000). In other words, these researchers agree that customers' decisionmaking process differs between when they feel that competing alternatives are attractive and when they feel that alternatives lack attractiveness. However, surprisingly, no research has yet considered the role of non-green alternatives' attractiveness in generating pro-environmental intention or behavior, nor applied a pro-social or rational-choice model. To fill these research gaps, the following objectives were developed for the present study: 1) Develop a robust model that provides a more comprehensive and apparent understanding of hotel guests' pro-environmental

2) 3) 4)

5)

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decision-making process by merging VBN theory and TPB into one theoretical framework; Compare VBN theory, norm activation model, TPB, and our proposed model to verify the superiority of the proposed model; Examine the moderating role of non-green alternatives' attractiveness within the proposed theoretical framework; Identify the relative importance among constructs within the proposed model in determining pro-environmental intention; and Investigate the mediating role of study variables in hotel customers' eco-friendly decision-making process.

The discussion of the present research is organized as follows. In the next section, an in-depth review of the related literature is presented. Then, research methods involving measurement development, data-collection process, sample profiles, and tools for data analysis are presented. Next, study results are reported. Lastly, a summary of the research, implications, limitations, and suggestions for future work are provided. 2. Literature review 2.1. Sustainability in hotels A growing number of companies have publicly emphasized and demonstrated their environmental commitment to green development and management as a strategy in order to differentiate themselves from rival companies and increase their competitive advantages in the marketplace (Jones et al., 2014). Greening in particular is attracting increasing attention in the lodging industry (Chen et al., 2009; Kim & Han, 2010). Due to continuous environmental issues in the hotel industry, including environmental natural resource effects, this industry is working hard to decrease the level of any environmental harm and become more eco-friendly (Han et al., 2010; Jones et al., 2014). Green hotels are eco-friendly hotels that seek to minimize their harmful impact on the environment (Han et al., 2010). Unlike conventional hotels that cause enormous harm to the environment (e.g., excessive consumption of water, energy, and disposable products, vast amounts of emissions into the air, water, and soil, excessive use of natural resources), green hotels actively follow eco-friendly guidelines, dynamically practice environmental management to demonstrate their environmental commitment, and continuously develop and implement sustainability business strategies (Han, Hsu, et al., 2011; Kim & Han, 2010). Greening a hotel is believed to fulfill guests' growing ecofriendly needs, enhance competitive advantages in the marketplace where the public's sustainable development concerns are emerging, and result in significant cost savings by generating environmental benefits such as water and energy conservation, recycling, waste reduction, and product-life extension (Chan, 2005; Han et al., 2010; Manaktola & Jauhari, 2007). Recognizing these benefits, many hotel leaders are eager to develop innovative greenmanagement guidelines and effective sustainable-development strategies (Chen et al., 2009; Ham & Han, 2013; Jones et al., 2014; Pryce, 2001). 2.2. Value-belief-norm theory Schwartz's (1977) norm activation framework was originally developed to investigate altruistic intention and behavior in a prosocial context. The norm activation model comprises three major concepts in explicating the formation of pro-social intention and behavior, namely awareness of consequences, ascription of responsibility, and personal norm (Schwartz, 1977). Though the theory was designed to predict altruistic intention and behavior,

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the applicability of norm activation model to a range of environmental issues has been repeatedly identified in previous studies (e.g., Cordano, Welcomer, Scherer, Pradenas, & Parada, 2011; De Groot & Steg, 2009; Guagnano, Stern, & Dietz, 1995; Schultz & Zelezny, 1999; Widegren, 1998). Linking value theory and the new environmental paradigm to the norm activation model, Stern et al. (1999) developed VBN theory. The VBN theory is a broadened version of the norm activation model that better accounts for pro-environmental intention and behavior in that it is particularly designed to examine proenvironmental behavior and includes several essential concepts (i.e., values and ecological worldview) in environmentalism (Oreg & Katz-gerro, 2006; Stern, 2000). The theory comprises these newly integrated constructs and the variables originally established in the norm activation model (i.e., awareness of consequences, ascription of responsibility, and personal norm) as a form of adverse consequences for valued objects, ascribed responsibility, and sense of obligation to take pro-environmental actions in explaining individuals' environmentally responsible decision€ckner, making process or behavior (De Groot et al., 2007; Klo 2013; Stern, 2000; Stern et al., 1999). The VBN theory assumes that one's eco-friendly intention and behavior is determined by pro-environmental personal norms; and these personal norms are activated by the sequential process of values / ecological worldview / awareness of adverse € ckner, 2013; Stern, consequences / ascribed responsibility (Klo 2000; Stern et al., 1999). Within the theory, the terms “pro-environmental personal norm” and “sense of obligation to take proenvironmental actions”, are interchangeably used; and the terms “awareness of adverse consequences” and “adverse consequences for valued objects” are alternately utilized. In VBN theory, the role €ckner, 2013). of value and ecological worldview is emphasized (Klo Value orientations such as biospheric, altruistic, and egoistic values are directly related to the ecological worldview (Stern, 2000). Unlike egoistic values that lose the environmental worldview, €ckner, 2013; biospheric and altruistic values are likely to hold it (Klo Stern, 2000). Biospheric value is linked to the nature and biosphere; altruistic value is concerned with the welfare of others; and egoistic value emphasizes maximizing individuals' benefits (De Groot et al., €ckner, 2013). While some studies about pro-social 2007; Klo behavior have not supported a distinction between biospheric and altruistic values, it is generally believed to be effective to differentiate altruistic from biospheric value orientations (De Groot € ckner, 2013). Since the ecological problems are et al., 2007; Klo more visible in recent years, a separate biospheric value is emerging and considered to be a critical aspect of value in explicating one's pro-environmental decision-making process and €ckner, 2013). Individuals who behavior (De Groot et al., 2007; Klo perceive high level of biospheric value are more likely to be concerned about the environment, pollution, global warming, and biosphere itself than those who perceive lower level of biospheric value (De Groot et al., 2007; Stern, 2000). According to Stern (2000) and Dunlap, Van Liere, Mertig, and Jones (2000), some socio-psychological theories consider environmentalism to be a type of worldview that involves adopting a new environmental paradigm particularly when human behavior and a delicate biosphere are regarded as inextricably interrelated. A general ecological worldview, which directly affects awareness of consequences, is measured by the new environmental paradigm (Dunlap et al., 2000; Stern, 2000; Stern et al., 1999). This ecological worldview is based on the acceptance of general beliefs that humans jeopardize the balance of nature, natural resources are limited, and humans are not allowed to abuse the environment €ckner, 2013). The definitions of the variables within the VBN (Klo theory are presented in Table 1.

Table 1 Definitions of study variables.
Value refers to “a desirable trans-situational goal varying in importance, which serves as a guiding principle in the life of a person or other social entity” (Schwartz, 1992, p. 21); and Biospheric value orientation indicates “values emphasizing the environment and the biosphere itself” (De Groot et al., 2007, p. 104).
Ecological worldview (New ecological paradigm) indicates “the propensity to take actions with pro-environmental intent” (Stern, 2000, p. 411).
Awareness of adverse consequences (Adverse consequences for valued ob jects) refers to one's level of consciousness of adverse consequences for valued objects when not performing an action pro-socially (Schwartz, 1977).
Ascribed responsibility indicates “feelings of responsibility for the negative consequences of not acting pro-socially” (De Groot & Steg, 2009, p. 426).
Personal norm (Sense of obligation to take pro-environmental actions) refers to “moral obligation to perform or refrain from specific actions” (Schwartz & Howard, 1981, p. 191).
Attitude toward the behavior refers to “the degree to which a person has a favorable or unfavorable evaluation or appraisal of the behavior in question” (Ajzen, 1991, p. 188).
Subjective norm indicates “the perceived social pressure to perform or not to perform the behavior” (Ajzen, 1991, p. 188).
Perceived behavioral control refers to “the perceived ease or difficulty of performing the behavior” (Ajzen, 1991, p. 188).
Alternatives' attractiveness indicates “customer perceptions regarding the extent to which viable competing alternatives are available in the market place” (Jones et al., 2000, p. 262).
Behavioral intention can be described as “an indication of how hard people are willing to try, of how much of an effort they are planning to exert, in order to perform the behavior” (Ajzen, 1991, p. 181)

2.3. Relationships among the constructs within the VBN theory According to Schwartz's (1977) norm activation framework, individuals' awareness of conceivably harmful consequences and their ascribed responsibility for these possibly detrimental consequences of not behaving pro-socially or pro-environmentally trigger personal norms that determine whether they should engage in a particular behavior that prevents damaging outcomes. Similarly, in explaining a variety of individuals' pro-social intentions and behavior in the social and environmental contexts, De Groot and Steg (2009) identified the significant relationships among awareness of consequences, ascription of responsibility, personal norm, and pro-social intention. Their findings provided the empirical evidence that the interpretation of the original norm activation model as a sequential process is adequate. Consistently, Steg and De Groot's (2010) findings supported this sequential model (i.e., mediation model) in which ascribed responsibility perfectly mediated the impact of awareness of consequences on personal norm; and this personal norm completely mediated the relationship between ascribed responsibility and pro-social intention. Stern et al. (1999) conceptually extended such sequential process of the original norm activation framework by integrating values and ecological worldview in the pro-environmental context in order to develop a VBN framework. Substantial evidence supports this theory's applicability in various environmental contexts and the sequential procedure of study variables within the VBN theory in generating pro-environmental intention or behavior (values / ecological worldview / adverse consequences for valued objects / ascribed responsibility / sense of obligation to take pro-environmental actions / intention or behavior) (De € ckner, 2013; Stern, 2000). In particular, in Groot et al., 2007; Klo their recent study for understanding the internal processes of behavioral engagement in a national park, Van Riper and Kyle (2014) empirically verified that the sequence of value-new environmental paradigm-ascribed responsibility-personal norm leads to individuals' pro-environmental behavior. Consistently, past research in environmental behavior identified that values lead to

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ecological worldview, flow through awareness of adverse consequences and ascribed responsibility, and then anticipate personal norm as a direct predictor to pro-environmental intention or behavior (Dietz, Fitzgerald, & Shwom, 2005; Dunlap et al., 2000). Given these evidences, in the context of green hotel, we developed the following hypotheses: H1. Bioshperic value positively affects ecological worldview in a green hotel context. H2. Ecological worldview positively affects adverse consequences for valued objects in a green hotel context. H3. Adverse consequences for valued objects positively affect ascribed responsibility in a green hotel context. H4. Ascribed responsibility positively affects sense of obligation to take pro-environmental actions in a green hotel context. H5. Sense of obligation to take pro-environmental actions positively affects behavioral intention for green hotel stay.

2.4. Theory of planned behavior The TPB, which is one of the most widely utilized rationalchoice models, is a theoretical framework that explains an individual's decision-making process. The TPB originally proposed by Ajzen (1985) evolved as an expansion of the theory of reasoned action (Fishbein & Ajzen, 1975), where one's decision is mainly determined by volitional factors (Ajzen, 1991). According to the TPB, the proximal predictor of one's behavior is his/her intention to engage in the behavior; and this intention is determined by attitude toward the behavior, subjective norm, and perceived behavioral control (Ajzen, 1991; Han et al., 2010). The TPB postulates that attitude toward the behavior, subjective norm, and perceived behavioral control are a significant function of behavioral, normative, and control beliefs, respectively (Lee & Back, 2009; Oh & Hsu, 2001; Perugini & Bagozzi, 2001). Unlike the theory of reasoned action which comprises volitional dimensions (i.e., behavioral beliefeattitude toward the behavior and normative beliefesubjective norm), the TPB encompasses both volitional and non-volitional (i.e., control beliefeperceived behavioral control) dimensions (Ajzen, 1991; Lam & Hsu, 2004; Lee & Back, 2009). The integration of this non-volitional dimension is believed to significantly increase the theory's ability to predict one's intention and behavior, especially when such intention and behavior are not completely under volitional control (Han & Kim, 2010; Lee & Back, 2009; Oh & Hsu, 2001; Perugini & Bagozzi, 2001). The efficacy of the TPB in explicating a variety of behaviors has been validated in diverse situations (Ajzen & Driver, 1991; Han & Kim, 2010; Han et al., 2010; Lam & Hsu, 2004, 2006; Oh & Hsu, 2001). Particularly, due to its effectiveness in predicting an individual's intention and behavior, the TPB has been successfully applied to a large variety of hospitality and tourism settings, such as gambling behavior (Oh & Hsu, 2001), leisure participation (Ajzen & Driver, 1991), convention participation (Lee & Back, 2009), international traveling (Lam & Hsu, 2004), destination choice (Lam & Hsu, 2006), and, recently, pro-environmental behaviors in a hotel context (Han & Kim, 2010; Han et al., 2010). The definitions of the constructs within the TPB are shown in Table 1. 2.5. Impact of attitude, subjective norm, and perceived behavioral control on intention Empirical findings in previous studies support the positive associations among attitude, subjective norm, perceived behavioral

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control, and intention, showing the significance of these variables within the TPB in explaining individuals' decision-making process (e.g., Chan & Bishop, 2013; Chen & Peng, 2012; Han et al., 2010; Kim, Ham, et al., 2013; Kim, Njite, et al., 2013). In particular, in their investigation of patrons' food purchasing decisions for healthy labeling at casual-dining restaurants, Kim, Ham, et al. (2013); Kim, Njite, et al. (2013) identified the significant role of patrons' attitude, subjective norm, and perceived behavioral control in determining their intention to read menu labels. In examining individuals' recycling behavior, Chan and Bishop (2013) verified that individuals' attitude, subjective norm, and perceived behavioral control significantly and directly affect their intention to recycle, triggering actual recycling behavior. Their theoretical framework significantly improved the sufficiency of the TPB for proenvironmental behavior by including moral norm. Han et al. (2010) applied the TPB in a green hotel setting. Their findings showed the effectiveness of the TPB in hotel guests' decisionmaking process and demonstrated that guests' favorable evaluation toward a green lodging product, subjective norm, and perceived ease of visiting a green hotel build strong intention to stay at a green hotel. Similarly, in their recent research about tourists' staying behavior at green hotels, Chen and Peng (2012) found that individuals' attitude, subjective norm, and perceived behavioral control increase their willingness to stay at a green hotel when going to tourism activities. Their empirical findings also showed that travelers with sufficient knowledge about green lodging operations build strong intention to visit if they are confident that they are monetarily and physically capable and if they have favorable attitude toward green hotel stay whereas those with weak environmental knowledge are likely to rely on others' recommendation when choosing a green hotel product. Accordingly, the following hypotheses were formulated: H6. Attitude toward the behavior positively affects behavioral intention for green hotel stay. H7. Subjective norm positively affects behavioral intention for green hotel stay. H8. Perceived behavioral control positively affects behavioral intention for green hotel stay. 2.6. Relationships among adverse consequences, TPB variables, and personal norm Such variables as attitudes toward the behavior, subjective norm (social norm), and perceived behavioral control that are essential in socio-psychological theories are often integrated in studies of the theory derived from pro-social motives due to its criticality in enhancing predictive ability for one's pro-environmental behavior €ckner, 2013; Klo €ckner & Matthies, (e.g., Bamberg et al., 2007; Klo €ckner, 2012). These studies generally 2004; Matthies, Selge, & Klo indicate that individuals' attitude toward the eco-friendly behavior, perceived social pressure, and perceived behavioral control are strongly related to variables (e.g., adverse consequences for valued objects, sense of obligation to take pro-environmental actions) within the theories with pro-social motives. In particular, in their endeavors to expand the norm activation model by incorporating attitude, subjective norm, and perceived behavioral control, Bamberg et al. (2007) empirically showed that individuals' perceived level of social pressure increases when they are highly aware of environmental problems and that their sense of obligation to take pro-environmental actions increases when they feel significant social pressure. Consistently, in their meta-analysis of psycho-social determinants of pro-environmental behavior, €ser (2007) revealed that one's problem awareness Bamberg and Mo

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is an essential concept in explicating the generation of attitude, subjective norm, and perceived behavioral control, and that the moral norm is a significant function of subjective norm. Chen and Tung (2014) found that awareness of environmental problems, which is regarded as individuals' general attitude toward protecting the environment, plays a critical role in generating attitudes toward hotel guests' pro-environmental behavior, subjective norm, and perceived behavioral control in the formation of intention to visit green hotels. In their extension of the norm activation model, Onwezen et al. (2013) showed that attitude, subjective norm, and perceived behavioral control along with variables within the norm activation model play an important role in the formation of proenvironmental intention or behavior; and subjective norm induces personal obligation for pro-environmental behaviors. In his research about college students' pro-environmental behavior, Bamberg (2003) identified that individuals' concern about negative consequences of environmental problems has a direct impact on subjective norm, perceived behavioral control, and belief constructs (i.e., normative, behavioral, and control beliefs). Kim and Han (2010), in an eco-friendly hotel setting, asserted that customers who are aware of the seriousness of environmental problems are more likely to have favorable attitudes toward green consumption activity, feel social pressure to engage in green consumption, and perceive the ease of buying a green product than those who little concern about the environmental issues. Matthies et al. (2012) examined how parental behavior influences their children's pro-environmental behaviors (i.e., recycling and re-use of paper). Results of their research wholly supported their assumption that norm activation model is applicable for children's environmentally-friendly decision-making process and behavior. Their findings also indicated that children's personal ecological norm is significantly influenced by awareness of need and adverse consequences as well as subjective norm in explaining both re-use and recycling behaviors. Given these evidences, in the context of green hotel, we developed the following hypotheses: H9. Adverse consequences for valued objects positively affect attitude toward the behavior in a green hotel context. H10. Adverse consequences for valued objects positively affect subjective norm in a green hotel context. H11. Adverse consequences for valued objects positively affect perceived behavioral control in a green hotel context. H12. Subjective norm positively affects sense of obligation to take pro-environmental actions in a green hotel context.

2.7. Alternatives' attractiveness and its moderating impact Individuals are attracted to strong alternatives, particularly when they perceive the relative merit of competing alternatives' price, value, location, service, or quality (Colgate & Lang, 2001; Sharma & Patterson, 2000). According to Sharma and Patterson (2000), customers are likely to terminate an existing relationship with a service provider and go to a new provider when they perceive that the alternative is more attractive. A new alternative that makes customers switch is commonly expected to be superior to that offered by the current provider in terms of service, location, quality, price, or image (Kim, Park, & Jeong, 2004; Sharma & Patterson, 2000). However, when customers perceive few viable alternatives and find those that do exist unattractive, the probability of terminating an existing relationship with the service provider decreases, resulting in higher retention levels (Han et al., 2009; Jones et al., 2000). Empirical evidence across a number of areas supports the moderating role of alternatives' attractiveness (Han et al., 2009;

Jones et al., 2000; Kim et al., 2004; Sharma & Patterson, 2000). In a service context, Jones et al. (2000) provided empirical evidence that one's behavioral intention and its antecedents are significantly affected by alternatives' attractiveness. In a financial service context, Sharma and Patterson (2000) showed that the magnitude of relationships among such critical variables as satisfaction, trust, and commitment are under the influence of alternatives' attractiveness. Kim et al. (2014) indicated that first-class passengers who perceive a high level of alternatives' attractiveness are less likely to experience well-being in that they are likely to search for alternatives that provide more suitable service. In a hospitality context, Han et al. (2009) found that the strength of the relationships between patrons' visit intention and its direct predictors is significantly weakened by the attractiveness of alternatives. In their meta-analytical review, Nagengast, Evanschitzky, Blut, and Rudolph (2014) identified that a lack of alternatives' attractiveness, which is a vital aspect of switching costs, includes a moderating nature, particularly for the relationship between repurchase intention and its direct antecedents. For instance, the outcomes from switching to a potentially more satisfying alternative might be weakened by enhancing switching costs, and thus increasing individuals' perceived level of switching costs (e.g., reducing alternatives' attractiveness) are likely to undermine the satisfactionrepurchase intention link. Similarly, Han, Kim, & Hyun's (2011) study demonstrated that the service performance-intention relationship and the satisfaction-intention relationship become stronger when hotel guests perceive that alternatives' attractiveness is lack. In contrast, such relationships become weaker when guests feel that alternatives are highly attractive. No specific research has provided empirical evidence about the moderating impact of alternatives' attractiveness on the specific paths from attitude toward the behavior, subjective norm, perceived behavioral control, and personal norm to behavioral intention. However, these studies discussed above demonstrated the significant moderating role of alternatives' attractiveness in customers' decision-making process for remaining with the current provider or switching to competitors, and empirically identified that customers' purchase intention for a particular product and its direct antecedent(s) are likely to be affected by the attractiveness of alternatives. Consistently, in the present study, it would be plausible to assume that at the similar level of attitude, subjective norm, perceived behavioral control, and sense of obligation, hotel customers who perceive high attractiveness of non-green alternatives are likely to diminish their purchase intention for an environmentally-responsible hotel product. A large number of empirical studies have investigated factors moderating the relationship between intention or behavior and its predictors and identified that alternatives' attractiveness has an important moderating impact (Han, Kim, et al., 2011; Jones et al., 2000; Nagengast et al., 2014). Given these, it can be posited that the relationships between guests' pro-environmental intention for green hotel and its direct predictors are under the influence of their perceived level of the attractiveness of non-green alternatives. This leads us to hypothesize: H13a. Alternatives' attractiveness has a significant moderating impact on the relationship between attitude toward the behavior and behavioral intention for green hotel stay. H13b. Alternatives' attractiveness has a significant moderating impact on the relationship between subjective norm and behavioral intention for green hotel stay. H13c. Alternatives' attractiveness has a significant moderating impact on the relationship between perceived behavioral control and behavioral intention for green hotel stay.

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H13d. Alternatives' attractiveness has a significant moderating impact on the relationship between sense of obligation to take proenvironmental actions and behavioral intention for green hotel stay. 2.8. Extended unified model comprising the VBN theory and TPB Socio-psychological theories are basically open to alternation and extension with the involvement of new important variables or with the modification of existing casual relationships within the theories if such alternation and extension contributes to capturing a greater proportion of the total variance in one's intention or behavior after the original variables established within the theories have been taken into account (Ajzen, 1991; Han & Ryu, 2012; Perugini & Bagozzi, 2001). Indeed, theories with pro-social and self-interest motives have been broadened and deepened in a large variety of contexts based on assumptions that the theories' mechanism can be better comprehended through alternation or extension that renders them more appropriate in a particular setting and through integration of meaningful constructs in that specific setting in order to possibly enhance the theories' explanatory power (Chen & Tung, 2014; Han et al., 2010; Kim, Ham, et al., 2013; €ckner & Matthies, Kim, Njite, et al., 2013; Kim & Han, 2010; Klo 2004; Oreg & Katz-gerro, 2006). These researchers' efforts to extend the theories and develop a rigid version of them have significantly improved ability to predict individuals' pro-social and pro-environmental intention or behavior, accounting for the greater proportion of the total variance not sufficiently captured by the original theories. In an attempt to integrate the aforementioned theories and avoid the weakness of one single theory based on either pro-social or self-interest motives while providing a comprehensive theoretical framework that would apply in diverse pro-environmental situations, the present study model integrated volitional and nonvolitional factors of the TPB into the VBN theory. In line with the TPB (Ajzen, 1985, 1991), our framework assumed that customers' pro-environmental intention is directly affected by attitude toward the behavior, subjective norm, and perceived behavioral control. Consistent with the VBN theory's assumption (Stern, 2000; Stern et al., 1999), the sequential process of generating individuals' environmentally responsible intention (i.e., values / ecological worldview / adverse consequences for valued objects / ascribed responsibility / sense of obligation to take pro-environmental actions / intention or behavior) was also applied in the

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proposed model. Our conceptual framework particularly centered on biospheric value because unlike altruistic value that concerns about others' welfare and egoistic value that considers the maximization of one's benefits, this is mainly concerned with the environment and biosphere itself, which are directly associated € ckner, with the focus of this research (De Groot et al., 2007; Klo 2013). While egoistic value loses the environmental worldview, €ckner, 2013; Stern, biospheric value is likely to embrace it (Klo 2000). Based on the assertions of previous studies, our proposed model included the impact of adverse consequences for valued objects from the TPB's volitional and non-volitional factors (Bamberg & €ser, 2007; Chen & Tung, 2014) and the impact of subjective Mo norms on sense of obligation to take pro-environmental actions (Bamberg et al., 2007; Onwezen et al., 2013) in the formation of behavioral intentions. In addition, it incorporated the impact of the strength of alternatives' attractiveness. Based on evidence in a series of studies in different domains (Han, Kim, et al., 2011; Jones et al., 2000; Nagengast et al., 2014), the attractiveness of nongreen alternatives was assumed to moderate the relationships between intention and its direct predictors. Our proposed model was specified as displayed in Fig. 1. The model has a total of nine constructs involving twelve causal linkages and one that includes four moderation paths. 3. Methodology 3.1. Measurement instruments Measurement instruments for study variables were adopted from prior studies described in the literature (i.e., Ajzen, 1991; Ajzen & Fishbein, 1980; Bamberg & Schmidt, 2003; Bamberg et al., 2007; Cordano et al., 2011; De Groot et al., 2007; Han et al., 2009, 2010; Jones et al., 2000; Onwezen et al., 2013; Stern et al., 1999). Then, employed measures were amended to make them appropriate to the present study setting. The measurement instruments from these researchers have been broadly utilized in many studies about theory broadening and deepening in a variety of contexts (e.g., Bamberg, € ser, 2007; De Groot & Steg, 2009; Han & Kim, 2003; Bamberg & Mo 2010; Han & Ryu, 2012; Kim, Ham, et al., 2013; Kim, Njite, et al., 2013; Lam & Hsu, 2006; Steg & De Groot, 2010) and the validity of such instruments have been repeatedly demonstrated in these studies. In particular, four items having a seven-point scale from “Not

Fig. 1. Research model.

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very important” (1) to “Very important” (7) were utilized to measure biospheric value; and four items having a seven-point scale (“Bad” [1] e “Good” [7]) were used to evaluate attitude toward the behavior. In addition, four items on ecological worldview and adverse consequences for valued objects were employed; three items for ascribed responsibility, subjective norm, perceived behavioral control, sense of obligation to take pro-environmental actions, and behavioral intention were adopted; and two measurement items for alternatives' attractiveness were utilized. These measures were assessed with a seven-point Likert-type scale from “Extremely disagree” (1) to “Extremely agree” (7). The initial version of the questionnaire was pre-tested and reviewed by academic and industry experts. A minor amendment was made based on their feedback (e.g., wording, typo errors, phrasing, and layout of the questionnaire). The measurement items used in this study are presented in the Appendix. The final version of the questionnaire comprised an introductory letter, a concise description of a green hotel, queries for demographic information, and measures for study constructs.

To analyze the collected data, SPSS 20 and AMOS 20 were used. Based on Anderson and Gerbing’s (1988) suggestion, a two-step procedure was employed. That is, the structural model was evaluated after the assessment of the measurement model. The simultaneity of the entire hypothesized associations among multiple constructs can be efficiently assessed by using the structural equation modeling (Hair, Anderson, Tatham, & Black, 1998; Tabachnick & Fidell, 2007). Particularly, this analytical method is effective when testing a theoretical model involving multiple independent and dependent variables like the present study (Hair et al., 1998; Tabachnick & Fidell, 2007). Modeling comparisons were also conducted to identify the superiority of the proposed theoretical framework compared to alternative models. Lastly, invariance tests containing non-restricted, full-metric invariance, baseline, and constrained models were performed to test the proposed moderating impact.

3.2. Data collection

4. Results

Survey questionnaires were sent to study subjects selected from an online sample purchased from an online survey research firm (i.e., E-rewards) through its survey system. E-rewards uses a byinvitation only panel as the sampling frame and has about six million panelists around the globe. The firm chose samples randomly from its online respondent panels in the U.S. These panelists were from diverse geographical areas in the U.S. A total of 5000 invitations were processed with a target of receiving 300 completed and usable responses. Two screening questions about frequency of hotel stay and knowledge of green hotels were included in the e-mail invitations. In particular, to participate in the survey, the subjects had to be frequent travelers who stayed at a hotel at least once every three months and who knew what a green hotel was. Within 9 h, the survey was terminated with 375 members who accessed the link to the survey, 340 of whom began, and 315 completed the survey. These 315 subjects who met the requirements participated in the survey received E-rewards points for completing the survey. Unusable responses and outliers were excluded. Finally, a total of 308 cases were retained for data analysis.

4.1. Confirmatory factory analysis

3.3. Sample profile Among the survey respondents, the gender ratio was almost identical. While 49.7% were male, about 50.3% were female. The respondents' average age was 35.49 years old. About 75.2% indicated that their last stay at a hotel was within the last one month; 88.9% revealed that their last stay was within the past two months; and all participants indicated that their most recent stay was within the last three months. Approximately 45.5% of the respondents revealed that they had stayed at a hotel at least 6e10 times a year, followed by 11e15 times a year (35.3%), 5 times or less (10.1%), and 16 times or more (9.1%). With regard to green-hotel experience, about 65.3% were experienced customers. Among these respondents, 35.5% had stayed at a green hotel within the last 6 months. The largest category for annual household income (43.3%) was between $40,000 to $ 69,999, followed by $70,000 - $99,999 (26.7%), $39,999 or less (20.1%), and $100,000 or more (9.9%). In terms of ethnic background, a majority were Caucasian/White (58.4%), followed by Hispanic (14.6%), African American (14.0%), and Asian (13.0%). A majority of the respondents had a high education leveld57.5% were college graduates; 20.8% held a graduate degree; 13.6% were two year or some college graduates; and 8.1% had a high-school-diploma or less.

3.4. Tools for analysis

Before analyzing the data, data screening was performed to investigate if there were any violations of the assumptions. A close examination of the values of skewness and kurtosis identified that some variables included significant negative skewness problems. These items were altered by applying a square-root transformation. Results from the KolmogoroveSmirnov test revealed no significant violation of normality. Further, an investigation of normalprobability plots, scatterplot matrices, and residual scatterplots showed that multivariate linearity, normality, and homoscedasticity were free from violation. The measurement model was estimated by conducting a confirmatory factor analysis with a maximum likelihood estimation method. The results of the measurement model assessment revealed that the measurement model included a good fit to the data (c2 ¼ 942.961, df ¼ 447, p < .001, RMSEA ¼ .060, CFI ¼ .941, IFI ¼ .942). In order to evaluate the internal consistency of the multi-item measures for each construct, a composite-reliability test was conducted. All values for composite reliability, which ranged from .787 to .954, were greater than the recommended threshold of .60 (Bagozzi & Yi, 1988). Next, construct-validity testing was conducted. As presented in Table 2, convergent validity was evident in that all AVE values ranging from .516 to .868 exceeded the suggested cutoff of .50 (Fornell & Larcker, 1981). In addition, these AVE values were greater than the square of correlations between a pair of variables. Therefore, discriminant validity was also evident (Fornell & Larcker, 1981). 4.2. Structural equation modeling A structural equation modeling was conducted. The goodnessof-fit statistics indicated that the proposed model satisfactorily fit the data (c2 ¼ 1177.301, df ¼ 417, p < .001, RMSEA ¼ .077, CFI ¼ .904, IFI ¼ .904, NFI ¼ 859, PGFI ¼ .675). Prior to testing the hypothesized relationships, this model was compared to the original VBN theory (c2 ¼ 730.055, df ¼ 182, p < .001, RMSEA ¼ .099, CFI ¼ .889, IFI ¼ .889, NFI ¼ 858, PGFI ¼ .651), norm activation model (c2 ¼ 278.454, df ¼ 62, p < .001, RMSEA ¼ .107, CFI ¼ .901, IFI ¼ .901, NFI ¼ 881, PGFI ¼ .576), and TPB (c2 ¼ 192.113, df ¼ 59, p < .001, RMSEA ¼ .086, CFI ¼ .911, IFI ¼ .912, NFI ¼ 896, PGFI ¼ .565) to identify the superiority of the proposed model in predicting behavioral intention. As indicated in Table 3, our proposed model (c2/df ¼ 2.823) had a better fit than did the VBN theory (c2/

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Table 2 Correlation, reliability, AVE, mean, and standard deviation. BV BV EW ACVO AR ATB SN PBC SOTPA AA BI Mean SD

.954 .411 (.169) .379 (.144) .517 (.267) .518 (.268) .553 (.306) .320 (.102) .622 (.387) .567 (.321) .663 (.440) 3.929 1.339

EW

ACVO

AR

ATB

SN

PBC

SOTPA

AA

BI

.839 .516

.810 .401 (.161) .462 (.213) .438 (.192) .442 (.195) .358 (.128) .342 (.117) .526 (.277) .384 (.147) 5.446 .931

AVE

.848 .642 (.412) .329 (.108) .326 (.106) .284 (.081) .361 (.130) .554 (.307) .444 (.197) 5.808 .943

.584 .844 .398 (.158) .418 (.175) .305 (.093) .441 (.194) .669 (.448) .558 (.311) 5.146 1.034

.644 .923 .501 (.251) .498 (.248) .506 (.256) .491 (.241) .620 (.384) 5.604 1.183

.753 .952 .316 (.100) .527 (.278) .473 (.224) .559 (.312) 4.041 1.258

.868 .861 .243 (.059) .433 (.187) .436 (.190) 5.373 1.184

.674 .913 .421 (.177) .588 (.346) 4.727 1.152

.778 .787 .581 (.338) 3.034 1.194

.650 .908

.769

4.794 1.278

Note1. Squared correlations between constructs are in parentheses. Note2. Goodness-of-Fit Statistics: c2 ¼ 942.961 (df ¼ 447, p < .001), RMSEA ¼ .060, CFI ¼ .941, IFI ¼ .942. Note3. Values for composite reliability are on the diagonal. Note4. BV ¼ Biospheric Value, EW ¼ Ecological Worldview, ACVO ¼ Adverse Consequences for Valued Objects, AR ¼ Ascribed Responsibility, ATB ¼ Attitude toward the Behavior, SN ¼ Subjective Norm, PBC ¼ Perceived Behavioral Control, SOTPA ¼ Sense of Obligation to Take Pro-environmental Actions, AA ¼ Alternatives' Attractiveness, BI ¼ Behavioral Intention.

df ¼ 4.011), norm activation model (c2/df ¼ 4.491) and TPB (c2/ df ¼ 3.256); and other goodness-of-fit statistics for the proposed framework were in general superior to those for other models. In addition, the proposed model included a greater predictive ability for intention (R2 ¼ .579) than the original VBN theory (R2 ¼ .427), norm activation model (R2 ¼ .421) and TPB (R2 ¼ .502). A Chisquare difference test revealed that our proposed theoretical framework was significantly superior to the VBN theory (Dc2 ¼ 447.246, p < .01), norm activation model (Dc2 ¼ 898.847, p < .01), and TPB (Dc2 ¼ 985.188, p < .01). The results of the modeling comparisons are displayed in Table 3. The hypothesized relationships were tested based on the structural model results. Table 4 and Fig. 2 summarize the findings

Table 3 Results of the structural-model comparisons. Goodness-of-fit statistics & R square

TPB

Proposed model

VBN theory

Norm activation model

730.055 182 4.011 .099 .889 .889 .858 .651

278.454 62 4.491 .107 .901 .901 .881 .576

192.113 59 3.256 .086 .911 .912 .896 .565

1177.301 417 2.823 .077 .904 .904 .859 .675

.427

.421

.502

.579

.299

.294

e

.406

Fit indices

c2 df

c2/df RMSEA CFI IFI NFI PGFI R2 (Adjusted): Behavioral intention Sense of obligation to take pro-environmental action

Note1. Chi-square difference test between the proposed model and the VBN Theory: Dc2 ¼ 447.246, p < .01. Note2. Chi-square difference test between the proposed model and the norm activation model: Dc2 ¼ 898.847, p < .01. Note3. Chi-square difference test between the proposed model and the TPB: Dc2 ¼ 985.188, p < .01.

from the structural analysis. First, the relationships among the variables within the VBN theory (i.e., biospheric value, ecological worldview, adverse consequences for valued objects, ascribed responsibility, sense of obligation to take pro-environmental actions, and intention) were assessed (H1eH5). As expected, the links were all significant (b Biospheric value e Ecological worldview ¼ .512, p < .01; b Ecological worldview e Adverse consequences of valued objects ¼ .592, p < .01; b Adverse consequences of valued objects e Ascribed responsibility ¼ .812, p < .01; b Ascribed responsibility e Sense of obligation to take pro-environmental actions ¼ .340, p < .01; and b Sense of obligation to take pro-environmental actions e Behavioral intention ¼ .355, p < .01). Therefore, hypotheses 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5 were supported. In addition, the relationships among variables within the TPB (i.e., attitude, subjective norm, perceived behavioral control, and intention) were tested. Findings indicated that attitude toward the behavior (b Attitude toward the behavior e Behavioral intention ¼ .275, p < .01), subjective norm (b Subjective norm e Behavioral intention ¼ .201, p < .01), and perceived behavioral control (b Perceived behavioral control e Behavioral intention ¼ .211, p < .01) had a significant impact on intention. These findings supported hypotheses 6, 7, and 8. The hypothesized impact of the adverse consequences of valued objects on attitude (H9), subjective norm (H10), and perceived behavioral control (H11) were evaluated. Results of the structural model revealed that the links from the adverse consequences of valued objects to attitude (b Adverse consequences of valued objects e Attitude toward the behavior ¼ .425, p < .01), subjective norm (b Adverse consequences of valued objects e Subjective norm ¼ .411, p < .01), and perceived behavioral control (b Adverse consequences of valued objects e Perceived behavioral control ¼ .411, p < .01) were all positive and significant. Hence, hypotheses 9, 10, and 11 were supported. In addition, the proposed linkage from subjective norm to sense of obligation to take pro-environmental actions was found to be significant, thus supporting hypothesis 12 (b Subjective norm e Sense of obligation to take pro-environmental actions ¼ .438, p < .01). Biospheric value, ecological worldview, and adverse consequences for valued objects explained 65.9%, 18.0%, 16.9%, and

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Table 4 Standardized parameter estimates of the structural equation modeling.

H1: H2: H3: H4:

/ / / /

Biospheric value Ecological worldview Adverse consequences for valued objects Ascribed responsibility

Ecological worldview Adverse consequences for valued objects Ascribed responsibility Sense of obligation to take pro-environmental actions / Behavioral intention / Behavioral intention / Behavioral intention / Behavioral intention / Attitude toward the behavior / Subjective norm / Perceived behavioral control / SOTPA Total variance explained: R2 of BI ¼ .579 R2 of SOTPA ¼ .406 R2 of AR ¼ .659 R2 of ATB ¼ .180 R2 of SN ¼ .169 R2 of PBC ¼ .169 R2 of ACVO ¼ .351

H5: Sense of obligation to take pro-environmental actions H6: Attitude toward the behavior H7: Subjective norm H8: Perceived behavioral control H9: Adverse consequences for valued objects H10: Adverse consequences for valued objects H11: Adverse consequences for valued objects H12: Subjective norm Goodness-of-Fit Statistics for the proposed model: c2 ¼ 1177.301 (df ¼ 417, p < .001), RMSEA ¼ .077, CFI ¼ .904, IFI ¼ .904 *p < .05,**p < .01

Standardized estimate

t-value

Hypothesis

.512 .592 .812 .340

7.610** 7.570** 10.914** 5.604**

Supported Supported Supported Supported

.355 .275 .201 .211 .425 .411 .411 .438 Total impact on behavioral BV ¼ .136 EW ¼ .265 ACVO ¼ .448 AR ¼ .121 ATB ¼ .275 SN ¼ .357 PBC ¼ .211 SOTPA ¼ .355

6.188** 4.533** 3.569** 3.869** 6.135** 6.326** 6.054** 7.546** intention:

Supported Supported Supported Supported Supported Supported Supported Supported

Note. BV ¼ Biospheric Value, EW ¼ Ecological Worldview, ACVO ¼ Adverse Consequences for Valued Objects, AR ¼ Ascribed Responsibility, ATB ¼ Attitude toward the Behavior, SN ¼ Subjective Norm, PBC ¼ Perceived Behavioral Control, SOTPA ¼ Sense of Obligation to Take Pro-environmental Actions, BI ¼ Behavioral Intention.

Fig. 2. Results of the structural equation modeling.

Table 5 Indirect-impact assessment. Indirect effect of

On

Biospheric value Ecological worldview Adverse consequences of valued objects Ascribed responsibility Subjective norm

.303** .246** .129* .125* .124* .138* e .481** .252** .244** .243** .270** e e e e e .456**

.136* .265** .448**

e e

.121* .155*

ACVO

AR

e e

ATB

e e

SN

e e

PBC

e e

SOTPA BI

e e

Note. ACVO ¼ Adverse Consequences for Valued Objects, AR ¼ Ascribed Responsibility, ATB ¼ Attitude toward the Behavior, SN ¼ Subjective Norm, PBC ¼ Perceived Behavioral Control, SOTPA ¼ Sense of Obligation to Take Proenvironmental Actions, BI ¼ Behavioral Intention. *p < .05, **p < .01.

16.9% of the total variance in ascribed responsibility, attitude, subjective norm, and perceived behavioral control. About 40.6% of the variance in the sense of obligation to take pro-environmental actions was explained by its antecedents. As stated earlier, all study variables accounted for 57.9% of the variance in intention. Subsequently, indirect impacts of study constructs in the model were assessed. As displayed in Table 5, biospheric value (b ¼ .126, p < .05), ecological worldview (b ¼ .265, p < .01), adverse consequences for valued objects (b ¼ .448, p < .01), ascribed responsibility (b ¼ .121, p < .05), and subjective norm (b ¼ .155, p < .05) had a significant indirect impact on behavioral intention. In addition, biospheric value had a significant and positive indirect influence on the adverse consequences of valued objects (b ¼ .303, p < .01), ascribed responsibility (b ¼ .246, p < .01), attitude (b ¼ .129, p < .05), subjective norm (b ¼ .125, p < .05), perceived behavioral control (b ¼ .124, p < .05), and sense of obligation to take

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173

Table 6 Results of the measurement- and structural-invariance models. Measurement-invariance models for the high (N ¼ 126) and low groups (N ¼ 182) of alternatives' attractiveness

c2

Models

df

Dc2

Full-metric invariance

Dc (22) ¼ 39.450, p > .01 (insignificant) Non-restricted model 1535.005 790 Full-metric invariance 1574.455 812 Other Goodness-of-Fit indices of the non-restricted model: RMSEA ¼ .056; CFI ¼ .906; IFI ¼ .908 Other Goodness-of-Fit indices of the full-metric invariance model: RMSEA ¼ .056; CFI ¼ .901; IFI ¼ .903 2

Supported

Structural-invariance model for the high (N ¼ 126) and low groups (N ¼ 182) of alternatives' attractiveness Paths

High group Coefficients

Low group t-values

ATB / BI .231 3.073** SN / BI .180 2.080* PBC / BI .087 .773 SOTPA / BI .221 2.776** Chi-square difference test: a Dc2 (1) ¼ 6.741, p < .01(H13a e supported) b Dc2 (1) ¼ .120, p > .05 (H13b e not supported) c Dc2 (1) ¼ 4.803, p < .05 (H13c e supported) d Dc2 (1) ¼ 8.222, p < .01 (H13d e supported)

Baseline model (Freely estimated)

Coefficients

t-values

.404 .205 .215 .417

5.612** c2 (856) ¼ 1898.481 2.634** c2 (856) ¼ 1898.481 3.020** c2 (856) ¼ 1898.481 5.152** c2 (856) ¼ 1898.481 Other goodness-of-fit indices of the baseline model: RMSEA ¼ .063; CFI ¼ .900; IFI ¼ .902 *p < .05,**p < .01

Nested model (Constrained to be Equal)

c2 (857) ¼ 1905.222a c2 (857) ¼ 1898.601b c2 (857) ¼ 1903.284c c2 (857) ¼ 1906.703d

Note. ATB ¼ Attitude toward the Behavior, SN ¼ Subjective Norm, PBC ¼ Perceived Behavioral Control, SOTPA ¼ Sense of Obligation to Take Pro-environmental Actions, BI ¼ Behavioral Intention.

pro-environmental actions (b ¼ .138, p < .05). Further, ecological worldview indirectly affected ascribed responsibility (b ¼ .481, p < .01), attitude (b ¼ .252, p < .01), subjective norm (b ¼ .244, p < .01), perceived behavioral control (b ¼ .243, p < .01), and sense of obligation to take pro-environmental actions (b ¼ .270, p < .01). Lastly, adverse consequences of valued objects affected on the sense of obligation to take pro-environmental actions indirectly through ascribed responsibility (b ¼ .456, p < .01). These findings imply that variables within the proposed research framework played a significant mediating role in forming intention. 4.3. Non-restricted and full-metric invariance models The hypothesized moderating role of alternatives' attractiveness in the model (H13aed) was evaluated by employing a series of modeling tests for metric invariance. A grouping was done using a K-means cluster analysis based on survey participants' responses to items about alternatives' attractiveness. The groups included 126 cases for the high group on alternatives' attractiveness and 182 cases for the low group. A non-restricted model for the split groups was initially generated. Results indicated that it had a good fit to the data (c2 ¼ 1535.005, df ¼ 790, p < .001, RMSEA ¼ .056, CFI ¼ .906, IFI ¼ .908). Next, a full-metric invariance model was generated. This model also included an adequate fit to the data (c2 ¼ 1574.455, df ¼ 812, p < .001, RMSEA ¼ .056, CFI ¼ .901, IFI ¼ .903). The nonrestricted model was compared to a full-metric invariance model to identify any difference between the measurement structures. Results of the chi-square difference test revealed that the difference was not significant (Dc2 [22] ¼ 39.450, p > .01). Accordingly, the full-metric invariance was supported. The summary of the results from the measurement-invariance test are presented in Table 6. 4.4. Structural-invariance models A baseline model was generated by adding the proposed links among study variables to the full-metric invariance model. Our findings revealed that the baseline model was an excellent fit with the data (c2 ¼ 1898.481, df ¼ 856, p < .001, RMSEA ¼ .063, CFI ¼ .900, IFI ¼ .902). This baseline model was compared with a series of nested models in which a particular path across the high and low groups was constrained to be identical. Hypothesis 13a was

tested. Results of the structural invariance test revealed that the link from attitude toward the behavior to behavioral intention differed significantly between the high and low groups on alternatives' attractiveness (Dc2 [1] ¼ 6.741, p < .01). Thus, hypothesis 13a was supported. However, the path from subjective norm to behavioral intention across groups was found not to be significantly dissimilar (Dc2 [1] ¼ .120, p > .05). Hence, hypothesis 13b was not supported. Subsequently, hypotheses 13c and 13d were tested. In line with the hypotheses, the proposed linkages from perceived behavioral control (Dc2 [1] ¼ 4.803, p < .05) and sense of obligation to take pro-environmental actions to intention (Dc2 [1] ¼ 8.222, p < .01) were identified to be significantly different across the high and low groups. Accordingly, hypotheses 13c and 13d were supported. Findings from the structural-invariance test are presented in Table 6 and Fig. 2. 5. Discussion 5.1. Implications The adequacy of employing pro-social models or rational-choice models for environmentally responsible behaviors has been often assessed by researchers in diverse fields (Chen & Tung, 2014; De Groot et al., 2007; Kim, Ham, et al., 2013; Kim, Njite, et al., 2013; Kim & Han, 2010; Zhang et al., 2013). However, the sufficiency of each research stream has been repeatedly questioned (Bamberg € ser, 2007; Han et al., 2010; Harland et al., 2007; Bamberg & Mo et al., 1999; Onwezen et al., 2013). In this research, a series of structural modeling comparisons indicated that combining biospheric value, ecological worldview, adverse consequences for valued objects, ascribed responsibility, sense of obligation to take pro-environmental actions, attitude toward the behavior, subjective norm, and perceived behavioral control into one theoretical framework is efficient in explaining customers' decision formation. The main advantage of our theoretical model is its comprehensiveness and sufficiency. Further, it is widely utilizable for theory and model developments in a variety of pro-environmental contexts. In addition, our theoretical framework, which can be applied in diverse consumption situations relating to green products, provides a clear comprehension of individuals' eco-friendly decisionmaking process. The theoretical values of the proposed conceptual

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framework involving high applicability, comprehensiveness, and effectiveness are noteworthy. The findings from the structural-invariance test revealed that the impacts of the attitude toward the behavior, perceived behavioral control, and sense of obligation to take pro-environmental actions on behavioral intention were significantly moderated by non-green alternatives' attractiveness. In particular, as displayed in Table 6 and Fig. 2, the magnitude of such impacts across groups were greater in the low group for alternatives' attractiveness than in the high group. From a theoretical perspective, the present research provided a crucial verification process for demonstrating why considering individuals' perceived level of non-green alternatives' attractiveness is essential in comprehending a decisionmaking process for an environmentally-responsible product and why diminishing guests' perceived attractiveness from conventional hotels is imperative in comprehending their eco-friendly intention to stay at a green hotel in the theoretical framework comprising both self-interest and pro-social motives. From a practical viewpoint, due to results supported by the criticality of the reduction of alternatives' attractiveness, effectively dealing with this variable can be a helpful approach in the positive intention enhancement process for a firm. For green hotel practitioners, boosting the level of reputation, image, and service/product quality of green lodging firms to be comparable or even superior to those for non-green lodging properties is essential to reducing the attractiveness of alternative non-green hotels. Additionally, in recent years, individuals are more and more concerned about their health even when traveling domestically and internationally (Han & Hyun, 2014). Offering various health-related advantages to customers during their stay at a green lodging property (e.g., fresh air with natural scent, organic foods in hotel restaurants, mini bar in a room with green food and beverage options, live potted plants and air cleaners with carbon filters that keeps air healthier in a room, non-chemical-base amenities, cotton towels and linens, non-toxic environmental cleaning for rooms and laundry) (Han et al., 2010) and marketing such health-related benefits to them will help these customers perceive non-green alternatives are less attractive than green lodging products. It is also critical that practitioners try to make the green practices of their hotels visible. For instance, a restaurant in a hotel can promotes itself as having menus that describe which items are prepared with organically-grown ingredients. Overall, these efforts described above, which are necessary to fulfill guests' rising demand and need for healthy stay at a hotel, will help green lodging operations to be more competitive and fortify the impact of guests' personal obligations, attitudes, subjective norms, and perceived behavioral control on positive intention generation for eco-friendly lodging establishments. Adverse consequences for valued objects, subjective norm, and sense of obligation to take pro-environmental actions were the strongest predictors of behavioral intention. On the basis of the results obtained, customers with greater awareness of harmful outcomes, social pressure, and moral norm were more likely to intend to choose an eco-friendly lodging property. Practitioners may wish to direct their customer attraction and retention strategies toward improving guests' awareness of environmental problems, social pressure, and moral obligation to behave in an ecofriendly fashion. For instance, it is crucial for green hotel operators to educate their guests about their green practices as well as the seriousness of environmental problems (e.g., pollution, climate change, and exhaustion of natural resources) and harmful environmental impacts caused by the hotel industry (e.g., its impact on neighboring areas, excessive use of energy and water, and wastes from rooms, restaurants, and other facilities). These efforts will increase guests' awareness of the negative consequences of environmental problem and enhance perceived level of social pressure

for pro-environmental actions, which activate personal norm to take a pro-environmental consumption behavior for a green lodging product. In addition, recognizing the fact that hotels can benefit by minimizing their environmental impact in systematic and effective ways in response to the public's emerging sustainable development concerns, their development of innovative greenmanagement guidelines and effective sustainable-development strategies that appeal to customers highly aware of adverse consequences and with subjective norms and a sense of obligation to engage in eco-friendly behaviors will foster guests' intention to select an environmentally responsible hotel. Consistent with the original mediating framework of the VBN theory (Stern, 2000; Stern et al., 1999), biospheric value, ecological worldview, adverse consequences for valued objects, and ascribed responsibility were found to have a significant indirect impact on intention. This finding implies that utilizing the sequential framework of the VBN in generating intention or behavior (biospheric value / ecological worldview / adverse consequences for valued objects / ascribed responsibility / sense of obligation to take proenvironmental actions / behavioral intention) is effective for theory extension or broadening rather than altering existing paths within the theory or adding new links on the VBN framework. Researchers should understand the efficacy of this sequential mediating framework for variables when developing a theory to explain a proenvironmental decision-making process or behavior. Attitude toward the behavior, subjective norm, and perceived behavioral control, along with variables in VBN theory such as ascribed responsibility and moral norm, were also found to significantly mediate the impact of their antecedents on behavioral intention. Practitioners who seek to make the best use of biospheric value, ecological worldview, and awareness of consequences in generating intention should increase such mediator variables. Effectively managing these mediator variables will maximize the role of biospheric value, ecological worldview, and awareness of consequences in driving customers' pro-environmental intention toward green hotels. 5.2. Future research directions and limitations Our results may not be generalized to all guests' proenvironmental decision formation or behaviors, and may be affected by their nationality or culture. Individuals' proenvironmental behavior can differ across national cultures (Oreg & Katz-gerro, 2006). Future research should consider the impact of national culture on the proposed theoretical framework. Second, like many other studies, we employed an online-survey method to collect data. While this method has been prevalent in recent years, evaluating individuals' immediate responses during an actual consumption situation is not possible using this method. Future research should employ a field survey method during an actual green lodging-product consumption situation. Third, as with many studies about pro-social or pro-environmental behaviors, since this research deals with the topic of green consumption, which is eventually good for the public and environment, it can be possible for the survey participants to feel little ethical pressure of showing pro-environmental interest when completing the questionnaire. Hence, the results of this study should be interpreted and generalized with caution. Fourth, in the present study, the randomly chosen samples were from the market research firm's database. That is, the samples are not completely representative for the entire population of the U.S. Thus, it should be noted that this research included a sampling limitation. Fifth, in this study, the countries and states where the hotels, which the survey participants stayed, are located were not asked. For future study, more thorough information should be requested to report. Sixth, alternatives' attractiveness was measured with two items. While the use of a

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two-item measure is not problematic (Bollen, 1989), utilizing more number of items will allow us evaluate diverse facets of non-green alternatives' attractiveness. Future research should include more number of indicators to precisely assess alternatives' attractiveness. Lastly, the proposed theoretical model encompassing the VBN theory and TPB is open to extension. Other important constructs in a pro-environmental product consumption context may not have been included in the model. Identifying such variables and integrating them into our proposed theoretical framework would be a meaningful extension of this research.

5.3. Conclusion In this research, we go beyond existing models by expanding on the VBN theory and TPB by incorporating non-green alternatives' attractiveness as a moderator, which has not been explored in the extant literature. In general, our proposed theoretical framework involving nine constructs and twelve causal linkages was satisfactorily supported; a significant mediating role of some study variables within the model was found; and five research objectives were successfully obtained. In conclusion, despite a scarce of existing research efforts to merging VBN theory and the TPB into one theoretical framework and by considering the moderating impact of non-green alternatives' attractiveness in a green lodging context, this study can provide specific and meaningful implications and should provide a degree of valuable and original insight into this emerging topic. In addition, this study helps to further enrich the hospitality and consumer-behavior literature, and help hotel practitioners develop better marketing (e.g., communication of a hotel's green initiatives and practices to its customers) and service (e.g., implementation of green practices in providing services) strategies for eco-friendly customer retention through effective management of customers' volitional, non-volitional, cognitive, and normative processes of pro-environmental decision-making.

Appendix A

Biospheric value (Mean, SD) (Source: De Groot et al., 2007; Stern et al., 1999) Not very important (1)/Very important (7) Preventing pollution (3.916, 1.432) Respecting the earth (3.909, 1.409) Unity with nature (3.922, 1.389) Protecting the environment (3.971, 1.454) Ecological worldview (Mean, SD) (Source: Cordano et al., 2011; Stern et al., 1999) Extremely disagree (1)/Extremely agree (7) The balance of nature is very delicate and easily upset (5.562, 1.210). Humans are severely abusing the environment (5.091, 1.357). The earth is like a spaceship with limited room and resources (5.552, 1.150). The so-called “ecological crisis” facing humankind has been greatly exaggerated (reverse coded) (2.422, 1.171). Adverse consequences for valued objects (Mean, SD) (Source: Bamberg & Schmidt, 2003; Bamberg et al., 2007) Extremely disagree (1)/Extremely agree (7) The hotel industry causes pollution, climate change, and exhaustion of natural resources (5.276, 1.395). Hotels generate the environmental impacts on the neighboring areas and wider environment (5.890, 1.107). Hotels cause environmental deteriorations (e.g., waste from rooms, restaurants, and other facilities, excessive use of energy/water) (6.068, 1.070). Green hotels practicing energy/water conservation, waste reduction, and diverse eco-friendly activities help to minimize the environmental degradations (reverse-coded) (2.003, 1.016).

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(continued ) Ascribed responsibility (Mean, SD) (Source: De Groot et al., 2007; Onwezen et al., 2013) Extremely disagree (1)/Extremely agree (7) I believe that every hotel guest is partly responsible for the environmental problems caused by the hotel industry (5.442, 1.127). I feel that every hotel guest is jointly responsible for the environmental deteriorations caused by the hotel industry (5.068, 1.221). Every hotel guest must take responsibility for the environmental problems caused by hotels (4.929, 1.277). Attitude toward the behavior (Mean, SD) (Source: Ajzen, 1991; Ajzen & Fishbein, 1980; Han et al., 2010) For me, staying at a green hotel when traveling is Bad (1) e Good (7) (5.507, 1.241). For me, staying at a green hotel when traveling is Foolish (1) e Wise (7) (5.565, 1.326). For me, staying at a green hotel when traveling is Unpleasant (1) e Pleasant (7) (5.617, 1.335). For me, staying at a green hotel when traveling is Harmful (1) e Beneficial (7) (5.727, 1.369). Subjective norm (Mean, SD) (Source: Ajzen, 1991; Han et al., 2010) Extremely disagree (1)/Extremely agree (7) Most people who are important to me think I should stay at a green hotel when traveling (4.062, 1.365). Most people who are important to me would want me to stay at a green hotel when traveling (4.065, 1.305). People whose opinions I value would prefer that I stay at a green hotel when traveling (4.001, 1.285). Perceived behavioral control (Mean, SD) (Source: Ajzen, 1991; Ajzen & Fishbein, 1980; Han et al., 2010) Extremely disagree (1)/Extremely agree (7) Whether or not I stay at a green hotel when traveling is completely up to me (5.552, 1.264). I am confident that if I want, I can stay at a green hotel when traveling (5.669, 1.284). I have resources, time, and opportunities to stay at a green hotel when traveling (4.899, 1.482). Sense of obligation to take pro-environmental actions (Mean, SD) (Source: De Groot et al., 2007; Onwezen et al., 2013) Extremely disagree (1)/Extremely agree (7) I feel morally obliged to stay at a green hotel instead of a conventional hotel when traveling (4.925, 1.183). I feel personally obliged to travel in an environmentally sound way, such as by staying at a green hotel (4.623, 1.277). I feel a moral obligation to take the environmental problems caused by hotels into account when making hotel choices (4.633, 1.281). Alternatives' attractiveness (Mean, SD) (Source: Han et al., 2009; Jones et al., 2000) Extremely disagree (1)/Extremely agree (7) Compared to a green hotel, there are many other conventional hotels with which I would probably be equally or more satisfied (5.140, 1.288). I will probably be happy with the products/services of many other conventional hotels (4.792, 1.347). Behavioral intention (Mean, SD) (Source: Ajzen, 1991; Ajzen & Fishbein, 1980; Han et al., 2010) Extremely disagree (1)/Extremely agree (7) I am willing to stay at a green hotel when traveling in the future (4.711, 1.367). I plan to stay at a green hotel instead of a conventional hotel when traveling in the future (4.977, 1.454). I will expend effort on staying at a green hotel instead of a conventional hotel when traveling in the future (4.695, 1.367).

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Heesup Han is an Associate Professor in the College of Hospitality and Tourism Management at Sejong University, Korea. His research interests include airline, medical tourism, green hotels, and hospitality and tourism marketing. His papers have been selected as the most downloaded and read articles in many top-tier hospitality and tourism journals.