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Trends and prospects for microcomputer-based education
Int. J. Man-Machine Studies (1982) 17, 143-148
Trends and prospects for microcomputer-based education G. M. MILLS AND T. T. STONIER
School of Science and Society, University of Bradford, Bradford BD7 1DP, U.K. The future direction in the use of microcomputers in teaching children is now becoming clearer. It is suggested that the present use of computers mainly for drill and practice is likely to play a much less significant part in future education strategies. Contrary to fears expressed by some educationalists, micros can play an important part in promoting both socialization and creativity. To take full advantage of their potential will require massive resources into the production of imaginative software. Some examples of the types of programs being developed are discussed, particularly in the context of current and probable developments in microcomputer hardware.
Introduction In the development of civilization, the main mode of instruction of the young in classical times consisted of apprenticeships and oral tutorials, while more recently it has included the study of printed books. It was only towards the end of the 19th century that classroom teaching became predominant. One hundred years from now, educational historians may find it difficult to believe that 20th century British children had to undergo some 10,000 hours sitting behind desks, mainly listening to an individual teacher. They might find it even more strange that such a system was tolerated for so long when a considerable proportion of children were alienated by it. By the 1990s, a microcomputer will be available to the vast majority of homes in the U.K. and most schools (including primary schools) will possess between 10 and 30 computers per 100 children. This will inevitably mean a tremendous change in the method of operating our schools which is currently based on: (a) 4 0 / 5 0 min time slots dedicated to specific curriculum topics; (b) groups of up to 35 pupils and (c) authoritarian modes of instruction. The next few decades will see the development of an integrated system of instruction in which microcomputer-based learning will play a key role. The main features in such a system will be the degree of control which pupils will have over their own learning--a freedom to pursue one's own path, previously available only to the very rich or the very lucky in some mediaeval universities with good libraries. One key element will be the almost instant availability of a vast store of information and instruction. Despite the constraints imposed by the current classroom tradition, British teachers have retained considerable freedom to develop their own teaching approaches. Many teachers are now becoming aware of the imminent changes which the micro will bring about. They are more ready to accept the implications than teachers in many other 143 0020-7373/82/050143 + 06503.00/0
O 1982 Academic Press Inc. (London) Limited
144
G . M. M I L L S A N D
T. T. S T O N I E R
countries with more rigid educational systems. They see the need for more information and re-training and guidance on the way ahead.
Developments in microcomputers With all forms of technical innovation, the future is difficult to forecast in detail. It would be rash to attempt to predict any but the most general trends in such a fast changing field as microelectronics. Nevertheless, many important developments are already past their initial stages. First, on cost, the past 3 years have seen an average of between 10% and 15% reduction per year in real terms in the cost of similar micros. For peripherals, such as disk storage and printers, the costs have dropped much more dramatically. As new microcomputers, using more advanced technology become available, this general reduction in costs is likely to continue throughout the 1980s. Second, the facilities provided have improved. Colour and high resolution graphics are now available on microcomputers which cost less than one-half of those which supported such facilities 3 years ago. Third, future microcomputers will have facilities for being linked via telecommunications to educational data banks. Such data banks may be capable of accessing not only alphanumeric data but also audio-visual data stored on devices such as videodisc. The newer (and cheaper) micros now coming onto the market (e.g. the B.B.C. microcomputer) will have full high resolution graphics, colour capabilities and sound production capacity sufficient for recognizable speech. The potential of these machines as an educational resource cannot be overestimated. Both technical feasibility and economic trends point to microcomputer-based information devices with enormous accessing power available by the mid-1990s at a capital cost in real terms comparable with the price of present day videotape recorders. Those families who do not possess such devices (for economic or other reasons) will be the educationally underprivileged of the future. Educational institutions will have to modify their own processes to cope with a continuous period of change due to this microelectronics revolution for many years to come. One further important development will be the capability of micro-electronically controlled devices to recognize human speech commands. Already, many microcomputer-based devices can reproduce human speech and are likely to become commonplace within the next 5 years. Speech recognition may take much longer to provide at an acceptable cost but is likely to have a significant impact in the education of young or mentally-handicapped children and in oral language teaching.
The new education environment In addition to its use in educational administration, there will be three main roles for the microcomputer in education. (1) Individual pupil instruction in the home and at school--perhaps mainly for acquiring basic information and skills. (2) Group instruction at school by pupils working on programs mainly in groups of two or three, but larger groups for special simulations. (3) By teachers who will use them to assess educational progress for each pupil.
TRENDS AND PROSPECTS
145
The primary role of teachers in schools will gradually change from being mainly purveyors of information and knowledge to children e n m a s s e , to that of advisors on an individual basis (Stonier, 1979). There will, of course, remain many group activities to be supervized such as sports, drama, laboratory work in science, and language teaching, but the ratio of time spent in individual tuition and advice to time spent on group supervision will increase dramatically. In fact, to gain full advantage from the new technologies may well require an increase in the teacher/pupil ratio. One of the major problems which should be exercising educational planners today will be how to organize the training and retraining of teachers to adapt to the changes required. It is not just a matter of putting on courses in computer language programming. In fact, such an approach may be an example of a little learning being a dangerous thing! Of course, teachers will need to be computer-literate but more important is the development of skills in using the facilities provided by micros in new and imaginative ways. If necessary, the current curriculum will need adapting to make the best use of the new technology. One possibility which is being explored by the School of Science and Society at Bradford University is the development of part-time postgraduate courses for teachers to enable them to pursue action research into the use of micros directly in their own teaching.
H o w should w e use t h e micro? There are some areas of the curriculum, such as mathematics, in which micros lend themselves readily to computer-based learning. However, even in Art, Music, Domestic Science and Physical Education one can already see significant developments. Education programmes using a micro can be categorized in several different ways, depending on the mode of learning, the degree of constraint imposed on the learner and the extent of guidance provided by the instructor. One such classification (Howe & du Boulay, 1979) divides programs for pupils into applications, simulations, drill and practice, tutorial learning and computer modelling. The most common types are "drill and practice" based on a programmed learning mode and simulations (including games). Many currently available drill and practice computer programs can be extremely boring, both for children of less than average ability and for the much brighter child. To retain motivation, all such educational materials should incorporate game elements. Two examples of such an approach are "Multiplication Bingo" and "Equivalent Fraction Pelmanism" developed by the authors. Multiplication Bingo involves a 10 • 10 matrix of squares which are filled in one at a time if the pupil provides a correct answer to questions thrown up at random by the computer. The questions consist of simple multiplications of two numbers (from 1 to 10). Any three boxes in a row (in any direction) filled by the same player constitutes a win.
146
G.M.
3 - - - I I 9 -I -m sEEE . -Ell+~ . . . . . el - E l 9 . . . . . te-E - -
I F YOU HAHT TO P L ,Y A G A I N I F HOT PRESS < C T R L > Z
MILLS A N D T. T. STONIER
- E l l - O . . . . . . . . . . n - -BUN" 9 -li - -i-it . . El -Ell" -
PRESS
9 9 9
*R'
FIG. 1. "Multiplation Bingo" game to test simple multiplication skills. The lower left corner provides the question, in this case 3*5 = ?, and indicates it is B's turn. (Note: normally pupils are expected to type in the full name, e.g. Alf, Bob, etc.). Upper plate shows screen while game is in progress involving two players ( " A " and " B ' ) . The upper left corner indicates that it is B's turn because mouse sits on top of B's coloured box (bright colour). Below B's box is the number "16" which indicates that B has answered correctly 16 times. A has answered correctly 15 times. To the right, the screen shows that B has occupied 15 squares, while A has occupied 13 squares. The discrepancy arises from A or B capturing a square from the other player if the random question invo!ves a locus already occupied by the other. The arrows at the left and upper edge of the matrix indicate the position of the square which the correct answer will occupy. (Row 3, column 5). The lower plate shows screen a few rounds later when A has won by occupying the squares in rows 7, 8 and 9 of column 8. B might have won if the computer had asked, and B answered correctly, any of the following questions: 1 * 7, 1 * 1 0 , 2 . 2 , 2 . 7 , 2 . 8 , 3 . 3 , 3 . 9 , 3 . 1 0 , 5 * 2, 6.1, 6.4, 7.3, 8.2, 8.4, 9.5, 10.5, 10.8. Note that both A and B each occupy 17 squares at the end of the game. It is an important part of the educational strategy that with luck the player with poorer skill can still win. (Copyright: T. Stonier, 1982.)
Equivalent Fraction Pelmanism forms part of an introductory program on fractions. The idea here is based on the old card game in which a pack of playing cards are placed face downwards. O n e player turns over two cards. If they m a k e a pair, they count towards that player's score, who then has another turn. If the two cards do not match, the cards are replaced face downwards and the next player takes a turn. The
147
TRENDS AND PROSPECTS
FIG. 2. "Equivalent Fraction Pelmanism".
twist in the computer game is that the pupil has to not only try to remember any "cards" previously displayed (and then hidden) but also has to recognize that (say) 3/5 matches with 6/10. Both the above games allow for one to four players although experience seems to indicate that when there are more than three pupils to one micro, there may be some alienation. In the next few years, while micros are relatively scarce in most U.K. schools, it will be necessary to concentrate on devising educational programs which allow for two or three pupils per micro. Many computer games on the present-day market have an appreciable educational content. Less hapilly, many of them indulge aggressive fantasies. Unrestricted playing of such games may conceivably have undesirable psychological conditioning effects. Computer programs should be preferably based on a mixture of competition and co-operation designed to promote social skills as well as practice in the educational materials studied individually. It is therefore with some relief that one notes a steady rise in more imaginative games and simulations such as "The Spanish Main" written by Barry Holmes, a Cambridgeshire teacher. The documentation of this program refers to, "group discussion and co-operation which, although it may be monitored, should be allowed to develop without the participation of the t e a c h e r . . , the children's ideas for solving the p r o b l e m . . , are of paramount importance". The Spanish Main is a game involving two groups taking the roles of Spaniards and Pirates. The Spaniards must sail to at least three ports, collect treasure and sail off the (given) map while the Pirates seek to capture them. Many computer simulations, usually for one person, have been developed by the Minnesota Educational Computing Consortium (Ahl, 1981), an organization with a budget exceeding $5 million per year! Particularly impressive is their "CELL MEMB R A N E " which requires one to role-play a single-cell organism with the aim of allowing it to survive to maturity. This is a good example of a simulation which can instruct at several different levels (from elementary biology/chemistry up to first-year University). Another important use for computers--to stimulate creativity--is still in its infancy, but some of the possible directions have been indicated by Seymour Papert in his
148
G. M. MILLS AND
T. T. S T O N I E R
book Mindstorms (Papert, 1981). This describes his thoughts and experiences in developing "turtle geometry" as a tool to enhancing children's numeracy skills. More importantly, Papert's " L O G O environment" develops a whole range of attitudes towards the learning process itself. Mistakes no longer become a source of embarrassment but rather appear as "bugs" to be found and fixed. Learning becomes exploration and fun--with the child in control of the process.
Strategies for the next 5 years Even in the fast-moving microcomputing field, most of the major developments of the next 5 years are already in train. Only the timing is uncertain. On hardware, the 8-bit micros are likely to continue with their dominance of the cheaper end of the market but the 16-bit machines will gradually encroach. There will be a gradual increase in networking arrangements, via the telephone system. By 1986, many micros will have colour, high-resolution graphics and fast storage devices. The demand for educational software is already here. At present, the supply is very patchy and of uneven quality. However, as the field develops, there should emerge good quality programs. The main problem to be overcome is incompatability between the many different micro systems, even when they all use "BASIC". Standards are urgently required. Some have been suggested by MUSE (Microcomputer USers in Education), but not followed up (Sweeten, 1980). One of the authors has developed the MUSE suggestions to the point at which the same "BASIC" program can be used on several popular educational micros. This can be achieved by the use of standard subroutines which will be different for each machine. It is initially planned to support the Commodore PET, Apple II, Tandy TRS80, Sharp MZ80K, and the B.B.C. Microcomputer. There are some limitations to this approach, particularly regarding graphics. But many good educational programs only require a minimum of graphics, such as the Fractions program described above. Finally, it must be emphasized that one should not confuse the false dawn of the 1960s teaching machines, or the 1970s main-frame computer systems, with the reality of the microcomputers. The accelerating pace of hardware and software developments heralds a genuine revolution in education, probably the most significant one in the last hundred years.
References AHL, D. H. (1981). Minnesota Educational Computing Consortium. Creative Computing 7 (3), 115-128. HOWE, J. A. M & DU BOULAY, B (1979). Microprocessor assisted learning: turning the clock back? Programmed Learning & Educational Technology, 16 (3), 240-246. PAPERT, S. (1981). Mindstorms. Brighton: Harvester Press. SWEETEN, C. (1980), MUSE program standards version 1.1. Microcomputer Users in Education. Bromsgrove, Worts. STONIER, T. (1979). Changes in western society: educational implications. In SCHULLER,T. & MEGARRY, J., Eds, World Yearbook of Education 1979. London: Kogan Page.
Trends and prospects for microcomputer-based education G. M. MILLS AND T. T. STONIER
School of Science and Society, University of Bradford, Bradford BD7 1DP, U.K. The future direction in the use of microcomputers in teaching children is now becoming clearer. It is suggested that the present use of computers mainly for drill and practice is likely to play a much less significant part in future education strategies. Contrary to fears expressed by some educationalists, micros can play an important part in promoting both socialization and creativity. To take full advantage of their potential will require massive resources into the production of imaginative software. Some examples of the types of programs being developed are discussed, particularly in the context of current and probable developments in microcomputer hardware.
Introduction In the development of civilization, the main mode of instruction of the young in classical times consisted of apprenticeships and oral tutorials, while more recently it has included the study of printed books. It was only towards the end of the 19th century that classroom teaching became predominant. One hundred years from now, educational historians may find it difficult to believe that 20th century British children had to undergo some 10,000 hours sitting behind desks, mainly listening to an individual teacher. They might find it even more strange that such a system was tolerated for so long when a considerable proportion of children were alienated by it. By the 1990s, a microcomputer will be available to the vast majority of homes in the U.K. and most schools (including primary schools) will possess between 10 and 30 computers per 100 children. This will inevitably mean a tremendous change in the method of operating our schools which is currently based on: (a) 4 0 / 5 0 min time slots dedicated to specific curriculum topics; (b) groups of up to 35 pupils and (c) authoritarian modes of instruction. The next few decades will see the development of an integrated system of instruction in which microcomputer-based learning will play a key role. The main features in such a system will be the degree of control which pupils will have over their own learning--a freedom to pursue one's own path, previously available only to the very rich or the very lucky in some mediaeval universities with good libraries. One key element will be the almost instant availability of a vast store of information and instruction. Despite the constraints imposed by the current classroom tradition, British teachers have retained considerable freedom to develop their own teaching approaches. Many teachers are now becoming aware of the imminent changes which the micro will bring about. They are more ready to accept the implications than teachers in many other 143 0020-7373/82/050143 + 06503.00/0
O 1982 Academic Press Inc. (London) Limited
144
G . M. M I L L S A N D
T. T. S T O N I E R
countries with more rigid educational systems. They see the need for more information and re-training and guidance on the way ahead.
Developments in microcomputers With all forms of technical innovation, the future is difficult to forecast in detail. It would be rash to attempt to predict any but the most general trends in such a fast changing field as microelectronics. Nevertheless, many important developments are already past their initial stages. First, on cost, the past 3 years have seen an average of between 10% and 15% reduction per year in real terms in the cost of similar micros. For peripherals, such as disk storage and printers, the costs have dropped much more dramatically. As new microcomputers, using more advanced technology become available, this general reduction in costs is likely to continue throughout the 1980s. Second, the facilities provided have improved. Colour and high resolution graphics are now available on microcomputers which cost less than one-half of those which supported such facilities 3 years ago. Third, future microcomputers will have facilities for being linked via telecommunications to educational data banks. Such data banks may be capable of accessing not only alphanumeric data but also audio-visual data stored on devices such as videodisc. The newer (and cheaper) micros now coming onto the market (e.g. the B.B.C. microcomputer) will have full high resolution graphics, colour capabilities and sound production capacity sufficient for recognizable speech. The potential of these machines as an educational resource cannot be overestimated. Both technical feasibility and economic trends point to microcomputer-based information devices with enormous accessing power available by the mid-1990s at a capital cost in real terms comparable with the price of present day videotape recorders. Those families who do not possess such devices (for economic or other reasons) will be the educationally underprivileged of the future. Educational institutions will have to modify their own processes to cope with a continuous period of change due to this microelectronics revolution for many years to come. One further important development will be the capability of micro-electronically controlled devices to recognize human speech commands. Already, many microcomputer-based devices can reproduce human speech and are likely to become commonplace within the next 5 years. Speech recognition may take much longer to provide at an acceptable cost but is likely to have a significant impact in the education of young or mentally-handicapped children and in oral language teaching.
The new education environment In addition to its use in educational administration, there will be three main roles for the microcomputer in education. (1) Individual pupil instruction in the home and at school--perhaps mainly for acquiring basic information and skills. (2) Group instruction at school by pupils working on programs mainly in groups of two or three, but larger groups for special simulations. (3) By teachers who will use them to assess educational progress for each pupil.
TRENDS AND PROSPECTS
145
The primary role of teachers in schools will gradually change from being mainly purveyors of information and knowledge to children e n m a s s e , to that of advisors on an individual basis (Stonier, 1979). There will, of course, remain many group activities to be supervized such as sports, drama, laboratory work in science, and language teaching, but the ratio of time spent in individual tuition and advice to time spent on group supervision will increase dramatically. In fact, to gain full advantage from the new technologies may well require an increase in the teacher/pupil ratio. One of the major problems which should be exercising educational planners today will be how to organize the training and retraining of teachers to adapt to the changes required. It is not just a matter of putting on courses in computer language programming. In fact, such an approach may be an example of a little learning being a dangerous thing! Of course, teachers will need to be computer-literate but more important is the development of skills in using the facilities provided by micros in new and imaginative ways. If necessary, the current curriculum will need adapting to make the best use of the new technology. One possibility which is being explored by the School of Science and Society at Bradford University is the development of part-time postgraduate courses for teachers to enable them to pursue action research into the use of micros directly in their own teaching.
H o w should w e use t h e micro? There are some areas of the curriculum, such as mathematics, in which micros lend themselves readily to computer-based learning. However, even in Art, Music, Domestic Science and Physical Education one can already see significant developments. Education programmes using a micro can be categorized in several different ways, depending on the mode of learning, the degree of constraint imposed on the learner and the extent of guidance provided by the instructor. One such classification (Howe & du Boulay, 1979) divides programs for pupils into applications, simulations, drill and practice, tutorial learning and computer modelling. The most common types are "drill and practice" based on a programmed learning mode and simulations (including games). Many currently available drill and practice computer programs can be extremely boring, both for children of less than average ability and for the much brighter child. To retain motivation, all such educational materials should incorporate game elements. Two examples of such an approach are "Multiplication Bingo" and "Equivalent Fraction Pelmanism" developed by the authors. Multiplication Bingo involves a 10 • 10 matrix of squares which are filled in one at a time if the pupil provides a correct answer to questions thrown up at random by the computer. The questions consist of simple multiplications of two numbers (from 1 to 10). Any three boxes in a row (in any direction) filled by the same player constitutes a win.
146
G.M.
3 - - - I I 9 -I -m sEEE . -Ell+~ . . . . . el - E l 9 . . . . . te-E - -
I F YOU HAHT TO P L ,Y A G A I N I F HOT PRESS < C T R L > Z
MILLS A N D T. T. STONIER
- E l l - O . . . . . . . . . . n - -BUN" 9 -li - -i-it . . El -Ell" -
PRESS
9 9 9
*R'
FIG. 1. "Multiplation Bingo" game to test simple multiplication skills. The lower left corner provides the question, in this case 3*5 = ?, and indicates it is B's turn. (Note: normally pupils are expected to type in the full name, e.g. Alf, Bob, etc.). Upper plate shows screen while game is in progress involving two players ( " A " and " B ' ) . The upper left corner indicates that it is B's turn because mouse sits on top of B's coloured box (bright colour). Below B's box is the number "16" which indicates that B has answered correctly 16 times. A has answered correctly 15 times. To the right, the screen shows that B has occupied 15 squares, while A has occupied 13 squares. The discrepancy arises from A or B capturing a square from the other player if the random question invo!ves a locus already occupied by the other. The arrows at the left and upper edge of the matrix indicate the position of the square which the correct answer will occupy. (Row 3, column 5). The lower plate shows screen a few rounds later when A has won by occupying the squares in rows 7, 8 and 9 of column 8. B might have won if the computer had asked, and B answered correctly, any of the following questions: 1 * 7, 1 * 1 0 , 2 . 2 , 2 . 7 , 2 . 8 , 3 . 3 , 3 . 9 , 3 . 1 0 , 5 * 2, 6.1, 6.4, 7.3, 8.2, 8.4, 9.5, 10.5, 10.8. Note that both A and B each occupy 17 squares at the end of the game. It is an important part of the educational strategy that with luck the player with poorer skill can still win. (Copyright: T. Stonier, 1982.)
Equivalent Fraction Pelmanism forms part of an introductory program on fractions. The idea here is based on the old card game in which a pack of playing cards are placed face downwards. O n e player turns over two cards. If they m a k e a pair, they count towards that player's score, who then has another turn. If the two cards do not match, the cards are replaced face downwards and the next player takes a turn. The
147
TRENDS AND PROSPECTS
FIG. 2. "Equivalent Fraction Pelmanism".
twist in the computer game is that the pupil has to not only try to remember any "cards" previously displayed (and then hidden) but also has to recognize that (say) 3/5 matches with 6/10. Both the above games allow for one to four players although experience seems to indicate that when there are more than three pupils to one micro, there may be some alienation. In the next few years, while micros are relatively scarce in most U.K. schools, it will be necessary to concentrate on devising educational programs which allow for two or three pupils per micro. Many computer games on the present-day market have an appreciable educational content. Less hapilly, many of them indulge aggressive fantasies. Unrestricted playing of such games may conceivably have undesirable psychological conditioning effects. Computer programs should be preferably based on a mixture of competition and co-operation designed to promote social skills as well as practice in the educational materials studied individually. It is therefore with some relief that one notes a steady rise in more imaginative games and simulations such as "The Spanish Main" written by Barry Holmes, a Cambridgeshire teacher. The documentation of this program refers to, "group discussion and co-operation which, although it may be monitored, should be allowed to develop without the participation of the t e a c h e r . . , the children's ideas for solving the p r o b l e m . . , are of paramount importance". The Spanish Main is a game involving two groups taking the roles of Spaniards and Pirates. The Spaniards must sail to at least three ports, collect treasure and sail off the (given) map while the Pirates seek to capture them. Many computer simulations, usually for one person, have been developed by the Minnesota Educational Computing Consortium (Ahl, 1981), an organization with a budget exceeding $5 million per year! Particularly impressive is their "CELL MEMB R A N E " which requires one to role-play a single-cell organism with the aim of allowing it to survive to maturity. This is a good example of a simulation which can instruct at several different levels (from elementary biology/chemistry up to first-year University). Another important use for computers--to stimulate creativity--is still in its infancy, but some of the possible directions have been indicated by Seymour Papert in his
148
G. M. MILLS AND
T. T. S T O N I E R
book Mindstorms (Papert, 1981). This describes his thoughts and experiences in developing "turtle geometry" as a tool to enhancing children's numeracy skills. More importantly, Papert's " L O G O environment" develops a whole range of attitudes towards the learning process itself. Mistakes no longer become a source of embarrassment but rather appear as "bugs" to be found and fixed. Learning becomes exploration and fun--with the child in control of the process.
Strategies for the next 5 years Even in the fast-moving microcomputing field, most of the major developments of the next 5 years are already in train. Only the timing is uncertain. On hardware, the 8-bit micros are likely to continue with their dominance of the cheaper end of the market but the 16-bit machines will gradually encroach. There will be a gradual increase in networking arrangements, via the telephone system. By 1986, many micros will have colour, high-resolution graphics and fast storage devices. The demand for educational software is already here. At present, the supply is very patchy and of uneven quality. However, as the field develops, there should emerge good quality programs. The main problem to be overcome is incompatability between the many different micro systems, even when they all use "BASIC". Standards are urgently required. Some have been suggested by MUSE (Microcomputer USers in Education), but not followed up (Sweeten, 1980). One of the authors has developed the MUSE suggestions to the point at which the same "BASIC" program can be used on several popular educational micros. This can be achieved by the use of standard subroutines which will be different for each machine. It is initially planned to support the Commodore PET, Apple II, Tandy TRS80, Sharp MZ80K, and the B.B.C. Microcomputer. There are some limitations to this approach, particularly regarding graphics. But many good educational programs only require a minimum of graphics, such as the Fractions program described above. Finally, it must be emphasized that one should not confuse the false dawn of the 1960s teaching machines, or the 1970s main-frame computer systems, with the reality of the microcomputers. The accelerating pace of hardware and software developments heralds a genuine revolution in education, probably the most significant one in the last hundred years.
References AHL, D. H. (1981). Minnesota Educational Computing Consortium. Creative Computing 7 (3), 115-128. HOWE, J. A. M & DU BOULAY, B (1979). Microprocessor assisted learning: turning the clock back? Programmed Learning & Educational Technology, 16 (3), 240-246. PAPERT, S. (1981). Mindstorms. Brighton: Harvester Press. SWEETEN, C. (1980), MUSE program standards version 1.1. Microcomputer Users in Education. Bromsgrove, Worts. STONIER, T. (1979). Changes in western society: educational implications. In SCHULLER,T. & MEGARRY, J., Eds, World Yearbook of Education 1979. London: Kogan Page.