Turks in Bulgaria and the Netherlands: A comparative study of their acculturation orientations and outcomes

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Turks in Bulgaria and the Netherlands: A comparative study of their acculturation orientations and outcomes Radosveta Dimitrova a,∗ , Athanasios Chasiotis a , Michael Bender a , Fons J.R. van de Vijver a,b,c a b c

Tilburg University, The Netherlands North-West University, South Africa University of Queensland, Australia

a r t i c l e

i n f o

Article history: Received 14 December 2012 Received in revised form 3 January 2014 Accepted 6 January 2014 Keywords: Acculturation Psychological and sociocultural outcomes Turkish-Bulgarian Turkish-Dutch

a b s t r a c t This study compared Turkish ethnic minority groups in Bulgaria and the Netherlands by examining (a) differences in acculturation orientations (mainstream culture adoption and heritage culture maintenance) as well as psychological and sociocultural outcomes and (b) the relation of acculturation orientations and outcomes in a group that is involved in acculturation for a long term (Turkish-Bulgarian) as compared to a group that is more recently involved in acculturation (Turkish-Dutch). Participants were 391 Turkish adults (280 in Bulgaria and 111 in the Netherlands). Results showed that Turkish-Bulgarians were more strongly oriented toward their mainstream culture, whereas Turkish-Dutch showed a stronger orientation toward their Turkish heritage culture. Turkish-Bulgarians reported a lower degree of life satisfaction. A good fit was found for a multigroup path model in which mainstream culture adoption was related to life satisfaction for both groups in the same way. The more stigmatized Turkish-Bulgarian group was more focused on the mainstream culture than the less stigmatized Turkish-Dutch group, contrary to expectations. We conclude that extant acculturation models need to pay more systematic attention to local issues, such as the history of the immigrant group. © 2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

This study addresses the question of whether minority groups of the same ethnic heritage, but living in different countries, differ in their acculturation orientations and outcomes. In so doing, the study adds to the literature in several ways. First, we add to knowledge of acculturation by conducting a comparative study, thereby providing insight into the role of context in acculturation in an Eastern European postcommunist country. Second, there is much interest in understanding acculturation in Turkish minority groups in Europe as they represent one of the largest immigrant groups (Council of Europe, 2007). Third, both Bulgaria and the Netherlands represent contrasting acculturating contexts for bicultural Turkish groups. TurkishBulgarians have lived in Bulgaria for many more generations than Turkish-Dutch in the Netherlands. Turkish Bulgarians have repeatedly experienced extensive assimilation campaigns in the late 1980s which forced nearly one million people to change their names (Dimitrov, 2000), whereas Turkish-Dutch have been exposed to conditions that are more conducive for cultural maintenance due to the Dutch multicultural approach to diversity. Although studies have been conducted with TurkishBulgarian (Dimitrova, Bender, Chasiotis, & Van de Vijver, 2012) and Turkish-Dutch groups (Arends-Tóth & Van de Vijver, 2003), no research so far has compared the acculturation process and outcomes of bicultural Turkish groups in Bulgaria

∗ Corresponding author at: Department of Cross-Cultural Psychology, Tilburg University, P.O. Box 90153, 5000 LE Tilburg, The Netherlands. Tel.: +31 13 466 2526; fax: +31 13 4662067. E-mail address: [email protected] (R. Dimitrova). 0147-1767/$ – see front matter © 2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ijintrel.2014.01.001

Please cite this article in press as: Dimitrova, R., et al. Turks in Bulgaria and the Netherlands: A comparative study of their acculturation orientations and outcomes. International Journal of Intercultural Relations (2014), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ijintrel.2014.01.001

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and the Netherlands. We were particularly concerned with the local conditions of long-term acculturating groups such as Turkish-Bulgarians in comparison to the Turkish-Dutch who have been exposed to different contextual influence in their acculturation and adaptation. 1. Acculturation Theory and research have identified two major acculturation dimensions: cultural maintenance and adoption. Cultural maintenance refers to the extent to which cultural characteristics of the heritage culture of immigrants are retained, whereas cultural adoption deals with the extent to which characteristics of the mainstream culture become part of the behavior and attitudes of acculturating individuals. On the basis of these dimensions, four prototypical acculturation strategies have been proposed: integration (simultaneous maintenance of heritage and adoption of mainstream cultures), separation (maintenance of heritage and rejection of mainstream), assimilation (devaluation of heritage and strong identification with the mainstream culture), and marginalization (rejection of both heritage and mainstream cultures) (Berry, 1997). This bidimensional model is the successor of unidimensional models that assume the complete absorption into the mainstream culture across generations (Gordon, 1964); bidimensional models hold that long-term biculturalism by retaining both heritage and mainstream cultures is possible (Berry, 1997). The conceptual framework that guided our study integrates insights from two specific areas of research and theory on ethnic minority groups. First, acculturation research shows that endorsement of both the heritage culture and mainstream culture leads to more positive developmental outcomes, whereas disengagement from both cultures is associated with mental health problems among immigrants (Berry, 1997). Research has also shown that well-being of minority groups relates to challenges of reconciling multiple cultural systems as well as to experienced stress due to one’s minority status (LaFromboise, Coleman, & Gerton, 1993). Second, we draw on the Interactive Acculturation Model (IAM; Bourhis, Moïse, Perreault, & Senécal, 1997). We use the premise of the IAM that the strength of both heritage and mainstream culture identifications of minority members depends on, among other things, the acculturation climate in a society, including indirect threats posed by multiculturalism policies and attitudinal climate in the society at large. Another central assumption of the IAM is that the combination of the acculturation attitudes by the immigrant and mainstream group yields relational outcomes, which can be consensual, problematic, or conflictual. Lack of support and acceptance of cultural diversity in the society and the minority group’s heritage culture maintenance could lead to conflictual outcomes and threaten the minority’s identity. Findings in support of Bourhis et al.’s (1997) ideological model suggest that immigrants show high levels of identification with the mainstream culture in countries with more pluralistic policies compared to societies with less pluralistic policies, where immigrants have the lowest level of sociocultural adjustment and the highest level of heritage culture orientation (Yagmur & Van de Vijver, 2012). In order to refine the investigation of acculturation outcomes, scholars have differentiated psychological and sociocultural adjustment outcomes (Searle & Ward, 1990). Psychological adjustment includes psychological well-being and satisfaction with life, whereas sociocultural adjustment refers to competencies signifying the ability to adapt to the new cultural context or achievements in that domain. Much research has been devoted to how acculturation strategies impact on acculturation outcomes. Whereas research has established a positive relation between heritage culture maintenance and psychological well-being (Schwartz, Zamboanga, Weisskirch, & Rodriguez, 2009; Smith & Silva, 2011), mainstream culture adoption has been found to enhance sociocultural outcomes (Ward, 2001). It has been argued repeatedly that maintaining one’s heritage culture, while at the same time adopting the mainstream culture (Berry, 1997) is the most adaptive acculturation orientation (see Berry, Phinney, Sam, & Vedder, 2006; Sam & Berry, 2006). In the present study we are interested in abilities and achievements in the mainstream domain (sociocultural adjustment) as well as abilities and achievements in the ethnic domain, such as the skill to speak the ethnic language and having friends from the ethnic group. We refer to these features as sociocultural outcomes in the mainstream and heritage domain, respectively. 2. Acculturation and adaptation in context Extant studies have addressed the relationship between acculturation and adaptation of different acculturating groups across national contexts (Berry et al., 2006; Chiu, Feldman, & Rosenthal, 1992; Feldman, Mont-Reynolds, & Rosenthal, 1992; Wiking, Johansson, & Sundquist, 2004). Overall, there is evidence that immigrant groups that endorse integration rather than assimilation have the best psychological and sociocultural adaptation outcomes (Berry et al., 2006; Jasinskaja-Lahti, Liebkind, Horenczyk, & Schmitz, 2003; Piontkowski, Florack, Hoelker, & Obdrzálek, 2000; Vedder, Sam, & Liebkind, 2007). However, the context specificity in acculturation and adaptation of immigrant groups also needs to be taken into account. For example, the relationship of acculturation orientations and adaptation may be time-specific with an adaptive value only at earlier stages of the acculturation process (Jasinskaja-Lahti, Horenczyk, & Kinunen, 2011; Liebkind & JasinskajaLahti, 2000). Related to that, Titzmann, Silbereisen, Mesch, and Schmitt-Rodermund (2011) examined acculturation-related hassles (minor negative experiences originating from being an immigrant) by comparing immigrant groups from the former Soviet Union, ethnic Germans in Germany, and Russian Jews in Israel. The results showed important country differences in terms of necessity and opportunities to integration such that immigrants in the former Soviet Union and Israel reported fewer acculturation-related hassles after being in the country for a longer period of time than those in Germany. Please cite this article in press as: Dimitrova, R., et al. Turks in Bulgaria and the Netherlands: A comparative study of their acculturation orientations and outcomes. International Journal of Intercultural Relations (2014), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ijintrel.2014.01.001

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Yagmur and Van de Vijver (2012) also found support for context-specificity in a four-country comparison of Turkish immigrants. Immigrants in the country with the most assimilation pressure (France) revealed relatively high scores on sociocultural adjustment to the mainstream culture, combined with low scores on well-being compared to immigrants of countries with less assimilation pressure (Australia, the Netherlands, and Germany). Additional support for the contextspecificity comes from the study by Vedder and Virta (2005) with Turkish groups in Sweden and the Netherlands. Overall support was found for culture maintenance in the Swedish sample and for language assimilation in the Netherlands, but weak support emerged for the integration strategy in the Swedish sample. The authors conclude that acculturation may vary by context and that there is no preferred acculturation strategy that is always associated with the best acculturation outcomes. The importance of the context for immigrants’ acculturation has also been addressed by Vedder, Sam, and Liebkind (2007) in a sample of Turkish adolescents living in six North-Western European countries. The results showed that Turkish youth living in Finland had a stronger culture adoption and a weaker ethnic maintenance than Turkish youth in the other countries, whereas the bicultural orientation was weakest for Turkish youth in Germany. Additionally, strong ethnic identity and integration were found to be relevant predictors of good adaptation, whereas poor adaptation was related to marginalization for all Turkish immigrant groups (Virta, Sam, & Westin, 2004; Verkuyten, 2008). Acculturation and adaptation are also subjected to cultural transmission from one generation to the next. In a cross-cultural comparative study of Turkish and Moroccan parent–child dyads in Germany and the Netherlands, Phalet and Schönpflug (2001) found that across ethnic cultures and national contexts, parents with strong collectivistic values of family relatedness tend to have more collectivistic children. Interestingly, the transmission of relatedness was stronger in Turkish than Moroccan parent–child dyads, due to a closer link between parental collectivism and conformity pressure. In summary, research has provided that acculturation preferences vary across social contexts as a function of various moderators, including actual opportunities for immigrants in diverse acculturative contexts. This is also in line with the general agreement on the need to provide a better acknowledgment of contextual influences on immigrant acculturation and adaptation. In this study we sought to investigate acculturation orientations and outcomes of Turkish-Bulgarian in comparison to Turkish-Dutch groups. 3. The Turkish minority in Bulgaria and the Netherlands Turkish groups in Bulgaria and the Netherlands belong to the largest, most prominent ethnic communities in their countries, characterized by a strong social cohesion and adherence to Turkish cultural traditions (Arends-Tóth & Van de Vijver, 2009; Crul & Doomernik, 2003; Petkova, 2002). Additionally, Turkish groups in Bulgaria and the Netherlands have lower education levels and a lower socioeconomic standing compared to the mainstream population (Bosakov, 2006; Rooduijn & Latten, 1986; Vasta, 2007), a situation which may conceivably affect their life in the mainstream societies. Finally, both minorities have been and continue to be subjected to discrimination by the mainstream population (Boog, Dinsbach, Van Donselaar, & Rodrigues, 2010; Maeva, 2005). Despite the Dutch official policy aiming at stimulating the adjustment of immigrant groups into Dutch society and the preservation of their cultural identity (Aldeba et al., 1989), intolerance toward ethnic minority and immigrant groups, notably Muslim groups, is widespread (Boog et al., 2010; Vermeulen & Penninx, 2000). Such discrimination attitudes are present in the Bulgarian context, which is also characterized by much more aggravated long-term interethnic conflicts and negative attitudes toward the Turkish ethnic minority (Maeva, 2005). The immigration history of Turkish immigrants in Bulgaria and the Netherlands also has important differences. In Bulgaria, the situation of the Turkish minority was historically accompanied by more assimilation pressure. Good examples are several renaming campaigns in the late 1980s, which forced nearly one million people with Turkish surnames to adopt Bulgarian names (Dimitrov, 2000). Turkish labor immigration into the Netherlands was initially assumed to be temporary; therefore, the maintenance of the heritage culture was stimulated by the government and efforts by immigrants to learn the Dutch language were minimal. Another important distinction among the two Turkish groups regards the duration of acculturation. The Turkish minority in Bulgaria has been in the country for centuries, unlike Turkish immigrants who arrived in the last decades in the Netherlands. Turkish-Bulgarians remained in Bulgarian territory after the end of the Ottoman Empire (1299–1932) and thus are familiar with the national language and culture to which they have been constantly exposed over many centuries. At the end of the 14th century the Ottoman Turks occupied and ruled the Balkans, including what is Bulgaria today. The present Balkan states became Ottoman provinces and remained under Ottoman rule until the end of the 19th century. Large numbers of Turks moved to these provinces and settled there. This period was followed by the Balkan Wars of 1912–1913, which caused a massive exodus of Turkish-Bulgarians into Turkey (McCarthy, 1995). Descendants of Turks who remained in Bulgaria (mostly peasants with very limited resources) nowadays represent the Turkish-Bulgarian community (Petkova, 2002). Historically, the Bulgarian national policy has downplayed the importance of ethnic differences, therefore making the issue of the ethnic origins of the Turks and generally of ethnic minority groups in the country almost irrelevant in the eyes of the national population (Maeva, 2005; Petkova, 2002). In summary, despite commonalities in cultural values and social disadvantages compared to the mainstream population, the Turkish minorities in Bulgaria and the Netherlands differ in acculturation experiences and immigration policies they are exposed to. Whereas Turkish-Dutch are labor immigrants, Turkish-Bulgarians belong to an indigenous minority group which has been subjected to severe oppression, social and cultural disadvantage. The above presented similarities and differences may be particularly interesting in the context of these two Turkish ethnic communities and presumably affect Please cite this article in press as: Dimitrova, R., et al. Turks in Bulgaria and the Netherlands: A comparative study of their acculturation orientations and outcomes. International Journal of Intercultural Relations (2014), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ijintrel.2014.01.001

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Table 1 Description of Samples in Bulgaria and the Netherlands.

Age Range Mean (SD) Gender, n (%) Men Women Education (in years) Range Mean (SD) Acculturation orientations Maintenance Cronbach’s ˛ Adoption Cronbach’s ␣ Acculturation outcomes Mainstream culture Cronbach’s ˛ Heritage culture Cronbach’s ˛ Well-being SWLS Cronbach’s ˛

Turkish-Bulgarian (n = 280)

Turkish-Dutch (n = 111)

20–70 38.07 (12.85)

16–70 27.63 (9.94)

148 (53%) 132 (47%)

58 (54%) 50 (46%)

2–20 12.98 (2.99)

2–25 14.19 (4.06)

3.44 (1.00) .96 3.63 (.72) .90

4.01 (.69) .91 3.06 (.71) .89

Group comparisons F(1, 342) = 56.51***

2 (1, n = 388) = .22

F(1, 342) = 9.05***

F(1, 297) = 35.65*** F(1, 297) = 43.77***

F(1, 297) = 10.91***

3.96 (.70) .94 3.70 (.90) .97

– – – –

3.81 (.67) .91 4.17 (.58) .92

– – –

4.27 (1.17) .75

4.58 (1.35) .81

4.77 (1.17) .76

5.29 (.91) .79

F(1, 297) = 23.46***

F(1, 297) = 9.16***

SWLS: Satisfaction with Life Scale. *** p < .001.

their acculturation orientations and outcomes, which may also be influenced by migration history, receiving policies and general acceptance and tolerance of diversity within the dominant culture. For example, the recent debate in the Netherlands assumes identification with both heritage and mainstream cultures to be the preferred strategy (Arends-Tóth & Van de Vijver, 2003; Mahnig & Wimmer, 2000), despite some pressure for immigrants to adapt to the mainstream society (Crul, 2000). A similar situation is less likely in Bulgaria because of the larger assimilation pressure, although research on Turkish-Bulgarian acculturation orientations is scarce. 4. The present study This study addresses two research questions: (1) Do participants with a Turkish background in Bulgaria and the Netherlands differ from each other with respect to their acculturation orientations and sociocultural and psychological outcomes? Three specific hypotheses address this question. First, we suppose that there is a relation between the acculturation climate of receiving societies and acculturation patterns of Turkish groups. In line with the IAM and severely assimilative policies in Bulgaria, we predict stronger Turkish heritage culture maintenance in Turkish-Bulgarian than Turkish-Dutch participants (Hypothesis 1a). Second, due to an increasing absorption into the mainstream culture across generations (Gordon, 1964) and our own work on longterm acculturating Turkish-Bulgarian minority showing their bicultural orientation toward heritage and mainstream cultures (Dimitrova et al., 2012), this group is expected to show good sociocultural functioning in both the heritage and mainstream culture domain compared to Turkish-Dutch (Hypothesis 1b). Third, because of their marginalized conditions, Turkish-Bulgarians are hypothesized to report lower levels of psychological well-being than their Turkish-Dutch counterparts (Hypothesis 1c) (Ganev, 2004; Verkuyten, 2005). (2) To what extent do acculturation orientations relate to psychological and sociocultural outcomes among participants with Turkish background in the two countries? Consistent with the acculturation framework by Berry (Berry et al., 2006; Sam & Berry, 2006), we use a model to test how Turkish adults’ psychological and sociocultural outcomes are related to their acculturation orientations toward the culture of origin and the mainstream culture. In line with the hypothesized model and previous research (Dimitrova et al., 2012), we expect direct positive relations between (a) cultural maintenance and adoption to the Turkish culture; (b) cultural adoption and adjustment to the mainstream culture; and (c) acculturation orientations and psychological well-being (Hypothesis 2). 5. Method 5.1. Participants The Turkish samples consisted of 280 adults in Bulgaria and 111 adults in the Netherlands, with a mean age of 32.85 years, and a balanced gender distribution (see Table 1). The two samples differed with respect to birth country; 4% of the Please cite this article in press as: Dimitrova, R., et al. Turks in Bulgaria and the Netherlands: A comparative study of their acculturation orientations and outcomes. International Journal of Intercultural Relations (2014), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ijintrel.2014.01.001

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Turks in Bulgaria and 44% of the Turks in the Netherlands were foreign born. The groups differed in educational level, with Turkish-Bulgarians having spent two years less in education than Turkish-Dutch participants, F(1, 342) = 9.05, p < .001. The samples differed in age (with the Turkish-Dutch having a lower mean age than Turkish-Bulgarians, F(1, 373) = 56.51, p < .001; see Table 1). 5.2. Measures 5.2.1. Demographic characteristics Information about participant’s age, gender, ethnicity, and level of education (primary, secondary education, and university degree) was collected. 5.2.2. Acculturation orientations A scale to measure acculturation orientations was developed for this study to assess heritage Turkish culture maintenance and mainstream (Bulgarian or Dutch) culture adoption. Items were presented according to the two-statement measurement method employing questions about both countries of origin and of settlement (see Arends-Tóth and Van de Vijver, 2006; Galchenko & Van de Vijver, 2007). The orientation on heritage culture maintenance was measured by 13 items, such as “I live according to the Turkish culture”, “I have Turkish friends”, “I feel Turkish”, and “I celebrate Turkish holidays”. The mainstream culture adoption was measured with 15 items, such as “I live according to the Bulgarian/Dutch culture”, “I have Bulgarian/Dutch friends”, “I feel Bulgarian/Dutch”, and “I celebrate Bulgarian/Dutch holidays”. Cronbach’s alpha coefficients for both scales ranged from .89 to .96 (see Table 1). 5.2.3. Sociocultural outcomes A scale to measure sociocultural outcomes in both heritage and mainstream culture was developed for the purposes of this study. The scale consisted of 36 items about both the Turkish and mainstream culture (18 items each), again using the two-statement format. Participants were asked to indicate the degree of difficulty they experience in daily situations, using a 5-point scale ranging from 1 (very difficult) to 5 (very easy). Sample items included “Asking advice of Turkish [Bulgarian/Dutch] friends”, “Reading books in Turkish [Bulgarian/Dutch]”, “Making yourself understood by Turkish [Bulgarian/Dutch] people”, and “Eating Turkish [Bulgarian/Dutch] food” with internal consistencies ranging from ˛ = .91 to .97 across cultural groups. 5.2.4. Psychological outcomes The Satisfaction with Life Scale (SWLS) developed by Diener, Emmons, Larsen, and Griffin (1985) was used to assess psychological outcomes. The scale consists of 5 items evaluated on a 7-point scale, ranging from strongly disagree to strongly agree. Sample items were “In most ways my life is close to my ideal”, “I am satisfied with life”, and “If I could live my life over, I would change almost nothing”. Average scores and internal consistency coefficients for well-being as well as all measures1 are displayed in Table 1. 5.3. Procedure In a pilot study, the three language versions of the measures (Turkish, Bulgarian, and Dutch) were administered to a total of 123 participants. The pilot revealed fair psychometric properties of the applied measures with internal consistencies ranging from ˛ = .60 to .93. In the subsequent data collection, measures for the Turkish-Bulgarian group were presented only in Bulgarian, because all participants in the pilot study chose the Bulgarian language version, most likely due to the fact

1 Measurement invariance was confirmed via multigroup confirmatory factor analysis for all measures across cultural groups following the procedure established by Cheung and Rensvold (2002). Accordingly, we determined the model fit indices using the likelihood ration test, also known as the chi-square difference test (Bollen, 1989). We applied the suggested procedure to the fit statistics of the unconstrained (configural invariance), measurement weights, and the measurement intercepts models for all measures. The unconstrained models showed a good fit for all measures: Bulgarian sociocultural adjustment, 2 (246, n = 391) = 568.620, p < .001, CFI = .922, TLI = .903, RMSEA = .058; Turkish sociocultural adjustment, 2 (250, n = 391) = 608.303, p < .001, CFI = .921, TLI = .903, RMSEA = .061; Bulgarian culture adoption, 2 (94, n = 391) = 195.186, p < .001, CFI = .955, TLI = .925, RMSEA = .053; Turkish culture maintenance, 2 (120, n = 391) = 378.231, p < .001, CFI = .926, TLI = .904, RMSEA = .074 and life satisfaction, 2 (4, n = 391) = 7.83, p = .098, CFI = .992, TLI = .960, RMSEA = .050. Furthermore, the measurement weights model showed a good fit for Bulgarian sociocultural adjustment, 2 (263, n = 391) = 608.372, p < .001, CFI = .917, TLI = .903, RMSEA = .058; Turkish sociocultural adjustment, 2 (267, n = 391) = 626.390, p < .001, CFI = .920, TLI = .909, RMSEA = .059; Bulgarian culture adoption, 2 (106, N = 391) = 216.023, p < .001, CFI = .951, TLI = .927, RMSEA = .052; Turkish culture maintenance, 2 (132, n = 391) = 408.110, p < .001, CFI = .921, TLI = .906, RMSEA = .073 and life satisfaction, 2 (8, n = 391) = 10.442, p = .235, CFI = .995, TLI = .987, RMSEA = .028. It can be concluded that measurement invariance was supported for all measures. Finally, the measurement intercept invariance showed a good fit for Bulgarian sociocultural adjustment, 2 (281, n = 391) = 681.376, p < .001, CFI = .903, TLI = .895, RMSEA = .061; Turkish sociocultural adjustment, 2 (258, n = 391) = 729.489, p < .001, CFI = .901, TLI = .890, RMSEA = .063; Bulgarian culture adoption, 2 (116, n = 391) = 303.485, p < .001, CFI = .916, TLI = .911, RMSEA = .064; Turkish culture maintenance, 2 (145, N = 391) = 475.287, p < .001, CFI = .905, TLI = .898, RMSEA = .077 and life satisfaction, 2 (13, n = 391) = 38.507, p < .001, CFI = .947, TLI = .918, RMSEA = .071. Analyses of the incremental fit statistics revealed that the 2 differences were significant for all measurement and intercept invariance models. Increments of CFI pointed in the same direction. Finally, the incremental fit statistics of the measurement intercept (IFI) invariance models were acceptable for Bulgarian sociocultural adjustment (.904), Turkish sociocultural adjustment (.902), Bulgarian culture adoption (.917), Turkish culture maintenance (.905), and life satisfaction (.948). We computed partial intercept invariance models as well as item parceling and found that the size of the cross-cultural differences was not much affected by the noninvariance. Therefore, we retained all items and concluded that the scale scores could be compared across groups.

Please cite this article in press as: Dimitrova, R., et al. Turks in Bulgaria and the Netherlands: A comparative study of their acculturation orientations and outcomes. International Journal of Intercultural Relations (2014), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ijintrel.2014.01.001

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that Turkish-Bulgarians acquire literacy skills exclusively in Bulgarian (Rudin & Eminov, 1993). The Turkish-Dutch group was presented with both language versions. The Turkish language version was chosen by 45% of the participants, while 55% chose the Dutch version. Participants for the main study were recruited from the Bulgarian capital (Sofia), three towns in Southern Bulgaria with a high concentration of Turkish-Bulgarian inhabitants (Kardjali, Krumovgrad, and Haskovo), and three large Dutch cities (Eindhoven, Rotterdam, and Tilburg) with a relatively high concentration of Turkish-Dutch families. Data collection was undertaken via community and cultural organizations by a team made up by the first author and local, bilingual research assistants. Participants were informed that participation was voluntary and that responses were confidential. They were offered pens and pencils for their participation. Since the samples differed in education and age, the effects of these demographic variables on acculturation and outcomes were examined to test the need to control for them in consequent comparative analyses. Years of formal education were found to be positively related to satisfaction with life (r(320) = .15, p < .001), and sociocultural outcomes in the mainstream (r(329) = .28, p < .001) and heritage culture (r(328) = .12, p < .05). Age was negatively associated with satisfaction with life (r(349) = −.13, p < .01) and sociocultural outcomes in the mainstream culture, r(358) = −.11, p < .001. Therefore, education and age were statistically controlled for in subsequent analyses. 6. Results Before addressing our hypotheses, descriptive statistics were computed for two ethnic groups (see Table 1). We then examined differences in acculturation orientations (Hypotheses 1a), sociocultural (Hypotheses 1b) and psychological (Hypotheses 1c) outcomes between Turkish-Bulgarian and Turkish-Dutch groups, using multivariate analyses of covariance (MANCOVA). Furthermore, we examined the relations of acculturation orientations and sociocultural and psychological outcomes in the bicultural Turkish groups in Bulgaria and the Netherlands (Hypothesis 2), using a multigroup path analysis (Arbuckle, 2009). Fit indices adopted to interpret the model fit were the 2 test, the root mean square error of approximation (RMSEA; recommended value ≤.08) and the comparative fit index (CFI; recommended value ≥.90) (Browne & Cudeck, 1993; Marsh, Hau, & Grayson, 2005). 6.1. Comparisons on acculturation orientations and outcomes We conducted a MANCOVA with group (2 levels) as independent variable, acculturation orientation measures (Turkish culture maintenance and mainstream culture adoption), sociocultural outcomes (toward Turkish and mainstream cultures) and psychological outcomes (SWLS scores) as dependent variables and education and age as covariates. The multivariate test was significant, Wilks’ Lambda = .81, F(1, 297) = 13.63, p < .001, (partial) 2 = .190. The analyses revealed a significant group effect for each acculturation domain. Specifically, Turkish-Bulgarians reported higher scores on mainstream culture adoption than Turkish-Dutch (F(1, 297) = 43.77, p < .001, 2 = .130), whereas, contrary to expectations, Turkish-Bulgarians showed a less pronounced tendency to maintain their heritage Turkish culture compared to their Turkish counterparts in the Netherlands (F(1, 297) = 35.65, p < .001, 2 = .108). So, Turkish-Bulgarians scored higher on cultural adoption and lower on cultural maintenance than Turkish-Dutch (Table 1). Significant group effects also emerged in both sociocultural domains (heritage culture: F(1, 297) = 23.46, p < .001, 2 = .074; mainstream culture: F(1, 297) = 10.91, p < .001, 2 = .036). In line with what we found for acculturation orientations, Turkish-Bulgarians reported higher scores on mainstream culture outcomes and lower scores on heritage Turkish culture outcomes compared to Turkish-Dutch. Furthermore, the analyses revealed significant group differences for satisfaction with life, F(1, 297) = 9.16, p < .001, 2 = .030. As expected, Turkish-Bulgarians scored significantly lower on life satisfaction compared to Turkish-Dutch consistent with the view that stigmatized ethnic minority groups show compromised well-being. 6.2. Association of acculturation orientations, sociocultural and psychological outcomes We tested our second hypothesis via multigroup analyses examining direct relations among acculturation orientations, sociocultural outcomes (toward mainstream and heritage cultures) and psychological outcomes (SWLS). The structural weights model showed a good fit (2 (10, n = 391) = 31.34, p < .001, RMSEA = .074 and CFI = .963). The associations of acculturation orientations and outcomes within the Turkish-Bulgarian and Turkish-Dutch groups were statistically significant, indicating that both maintenance and adoption predict sociocultural outcomes in mainstream and Turkish contexts (Table 2). In addition, the direct link between ethnic culture adoption and well-being was not significant in both groups. It is also of interest that the parameters between mainstream culture adoption and heritage culture maintenance were different in the two groups. While the two domains of acculturation orientations were significantly and negatively related for the Turkish-Bulgarian group, they were significantly positively related in the Turkish-Dutch group (Fig. 1). It could be speculated that the stronger negative relationship in the Turkish-Bulgarian samples could be due to the stronger incompatibility between ethnic and mainstream orientations in Bulgaria as compared to the Netherlands; Yagmur and Van de Vijver (2012) also found the strongest negative correlation between both orientations in the context with the most assimilation pressure. Please cite this article in press as: Dimitrova, R., et al. Turks in Bulgaria and the Netherlands: A comparative study of their acculturation orientations and outcomes. International Journal of Intercultural Relations (2014), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ijintrel.2014.01.001

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Table 2 Fit indices of acculturation orientations and outcomes path model for Turkish-Bulgarian and Turkish-Dutch adults. Model

2 (df)

2 (df)

AGFI

RMSEA

CFI

Configural invariance Structural weights Structural covariances Structural residuals

13.39 (6) 31.34*** (10) 75.09*** (14) 101.01*** (18)

– 17.95*** (4) 43.75*** (4) 25.92*** (4)

.933 .913 .866 .864

.056 .074 .106 .109

.987 .963 .894 .855

Note: Most restrictive model with a good fit is printed in italics. *** p < .001.

.72***/.79*** Mainstream Culture Orientation

Mainstream Culture Outcomes

.16***/.16*** -.35***/.18*

Heritage Culture Outcomes

.66***/.65*** Heritage Culture Orientation

Well-Being .06/.05

Fig. 1. Path model of acculturation orientations and outcomes of Turkish-Bulgarian and Turkish-Dutch Adults. Note: The parameters represent standardized coefficients. First parameter next to an arrow is the coefficient in the Turkish-Bulgarian sample, the second coefficient refers to the Turkish-Dutch sample. *p < .05, ***p < .001.

7. Discussion Whereas most research on acculturation has dealt with immigrant groups in Western Europe or the US, our primary objective in this study was to compare heritage culture maintenance and mainstream culture adoption of a Turkish-Dutch and a Turkish-Bulgarian minority. There are two main differences between the two immigrant groups: Compared to TurkishDutch, Turkish-Bulgarians have a much longer immigration history, and have been exposed to much assimilation pressure. In order to understand how acculturation is associated to outcomes in these two groups, we also examined direct relations between cultural maintenance and adoption on sociocultural and psychological outcomes. 7.1. Group differences in acculturation Acculturation orientations differed significantly between the Turkish groups in two aspects. The first regards the cultural adoption of the mainstream culture, which was more important for Turkish-Bulgarians than for their Turkish-Dutch counterparts. For the Turkish-Dutch participants, cultural maintenance was a key issue in their acculturation, a result replicating previous findings of heritage culture salience in these groups (Arends-Tóth & Van de Vijver, 2003; Piontkowski et al., 2000). The emphasis on cultural maintenance may be related to the current Dutch situation and attitudes toward immigrants. Dutch mainstreamers consider the strong heritage culture maintenance of immigrants a threat to the Dutch culture and the national unity (Van Oudenhoven, Prins, & Buunk, 1998) and deem the cultural maintenance of the Turkish minority in particular as undesirable for the society at large (Arends-Tóth & Van de Vijver, 2003). As a reaction to these negative attitudes, TurkishDutch immigrants may be more supportive of their culture of origin since maintaining a positive distinctiveness when facing adversity might offer beneficial psychological and social resources. This appears not to be the case for Turkish-Bulgarians, who despite a long history of settlement accompanied by severe assimilation policies toward their minority, show a strong endorsement of the mainstream Bulgarian culture. This finding is of particular relevance in light of potent contextual factors, most importantly assimilation pressures in Bulgaria, where members of the Turkish minority are most likely to lack any other choice than endorse the mainstream culture. Intriguingly, these findings are contrary to expectations derived from the IAM. The IAM would predict that appreciation for the diversity of minority groups in pluralistic societies is associated with a high endorsement of mainstream culture domains. The model may be able to adequately predict ethnic culture maintenance and mainstream culture adoption within a single ethnic group or between ethnic groups within a single country. However, acculturation orientations could be moderated by contextual factors that become prominent if comparisons of mainstream endorsement across groups in different national contexts are made. The much longer time frame of acculturation and historical resentment of centuries of Turkish-Bulgarian as compared to Turkish-Dutch is probably a relevant moderator not considered in the IAM. The long-term sustainability of a low endorsement of the mainstream culture is questionable if the Please cite this article in press as: Dimitrova, R., et al. Turks in Bulgaria and the Netherlands: A comparative study of their acculturation orientations and outcomes. International Journal of Intercultural Relations (2014), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ijintrel.2014.01.001

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immigrant group has to deal with the mainstream group in essential life domains, such as jobs and education. The daily necessities of living in the mainstream culture could prompt the immigrant to increasingly adopt the mainstream culture and to identify with the ethnic group less. This pattern would be different for the short-term acculturation process which characterizes the Turkish-Dutch minority. It may also be that situational characteristics are responsible for the strong mainstream Bulgarian identification in TurkishBulgarian adults. For example, Turkish-Bulgarian youth have been reported to identify with their ethnic group more strongly than with the mainstream group by reporting high Turkish heritage and low Bulgarian mainstream identity (Dimitrova et al., 2012). When they are young adolescents, Turkish-Bulgarians live in cohesive ethnic enclaves, where strict norms about adherence to Turkish culture and traditions are kept. During later transitions in life, once they leave the safety of their community, they move to new environments in search of better employment and educational opportunities. It may well be that when faced with persons from the mainstream culture and options for better life opportunities, Turkish-Bulgarians choose to identify more strongly with the Bulgarian society as a way to get out of their marginalized position. Additionally, researchers have argued that cultural maintenance and adoption may coexist relatively independent from each other (Berry et al., 2006). This may also suggest that adopting the Bulgarian culture and maintaining the ethnic culture could be important for our Turkish-Bulgarian participants as it might reflect the benefits of their bicultural everyday context (Stephenson, 2000). Alternatively, it may also be that by adopting the Bulgarian culture, Turkish-Bulgarians give in to the continuous pressure exerted on them and reduce feelings of discomfort that result from maintaining their heritage Turkish culture in a mainstream Bulgarian context. Our findings suggest that, contrary to what the IAM would predict, in a highly oppressive mainstream society minority groups may prefer some form of adjustment to the mainstream society. Our findings point out the importance of context-specificity in acculturation and adaptation processes of Turkish groups in line with prior research that clearly shows that these processes may be time-specific and assume adaptive salience at different stages of the acculturation process (Jasinskaja-Lahti et al., 2011; Liebkind & Jasinskaja-Lahti, 2000; Titzmann et al., 2011). Therefore, aspects like the duration of the acculturation experience may also be important such that minority groups residing the longest in the mainstream society (Turkish-Bulgarian), show stronger preferences for and similarities with the mainstream culture than immigrant groups who have spent less time in their receiving society (Turkish-Dutch). Acknowledging the IAM premises regarding policies adopted by receiving countries, our findings also point out to the need to consider broader context factors within these countries, which may differentially affect acculturation orientations and outcomes of ethnic minority groups. The above reported group differences in acculturation orientations between Turkish-Bulgarian and Turkish-Dutch groups were also reflected in their sociocultural outcomes. Turkish-Bulgarians reported higher scores on outcomes of both mainstream and heritage cultures, whereas Turkish-Dutch showed a more pronounced tendency to maintain their heritage Turkish culture. Regarding psychological outcomes, Turkish-Dutch and Turkish-Bulgarian minority showed lower life satisfaction than Bulgarian and Dutch mainstreamers. Turkish-Bulgarians, as expected, scored significantly lower on well-being compared to their Turkish-Dutch counterparts. As previously reported, members of oppressed ethnic minorities typically experience less psychological well-being (Verkuyten, 2005). We can extend these findings to our sample of Turkish-Bulgarian adults who report lower life satisfaction than their Turkish-Dutch counterparts. Another potential explanation for differences in well-being between Turkish-Bulgarian and Turkish-Dutch adults may be found in national policies toward immigrant and ethnic minority groups. Despite the fact that diversity is officially supported as a policy in both countries, attempts of pressure on cultural minorities to adjust to the mainstream culture have been dominant in Bulgaria, whereas Dutch acculturation policies are characterized by a stronger endorsement of multiculturalism (Evan & Need, 2002; Vink, 2007; Weldon, 2006). Yagmur and Van de Vijver (2012) also report that immigrants in more assimilative compared to those in less assimilative contexts had high scores on sociocultural adjustment to the mainstream culture, and low scores on well-being. Therefore, strong mainstream culture sociocultural adjustment and low well-being may reflect a lack of multiculturalism policies. Additionally, differences in life satisfaction between Turkish-Bulgarian and Turkish-Dutch groups may mirror differences between Dutch and Bulgarian mainstreamers. For example, findings from large multicountry comparisons show that the Netherlands score substantially higher than Bulgaria regarding overall well-being and satisfaction with life (Veenhoven, 2013). Also according to other sources, levels of life satisfaction of the general Dutch population are far higher than those in Bulgaria (Marks, Abdallah, Simms, & Thompson, 2006). Moreover, the relationship between wealth and life satisfaction may also be impacting our findings. We found that Turkish-Bulgarians score lower than the Turkish-Dutch on life satisfaction, which may also be due contextual differences, such as a greater affluence in the Netherlands than Bulgaria. Results from a meta-analysis reveal that there is an effect of poverty on levels of subjective well-being across nations. Comparisons on well-being with access to education (UNESCO, 2006), health (United Nations, 2005), and poverty (CIA, 2006) showed that well-being correlated most strongly with health, followed by access to basic education (Marks et al., 2006). This adds to the evidence that the strongest correlates of well-being are poverty and associated variables. 7.2. Relationship between acculturation orientations and outcomes Our final set of results focused on the relation between acculturation orientations and outcomes in Turkish-Bulgarian and Turkish-Dutch groups. Findings provide additional evidence to prior work on the relation between acculturation and sociocultural and psychological outcomes by replicating these in a sample of Turkish-Bulgarian and Turkish-Dutch adults (Arends-Tóth & Van de Vijver, 2004; Berry, 1997). Our model suggests that both Turkish culture maintenance and mainstream Please cite this article in press as: Dimitrova, R., et al. Turks in Bulgaria and the Netherlands: A comparative study of their acculturation orientations and outcomes. International Journal of Intercultural Relations (2014), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ijintrel.2014.01.001

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culture adoption foster acculturation outcomes. In both Turkish minority groups, cultural maintenance was associated with sociocultural outcomes in the heritage culture, whereas mainstream culture adoption was conducive to better sociocultural outcomes in the mainstream culture. These findings also underscore an important similarity with respect to acculturation and outcomes of Turkish minority groups living in two different countries: feelings of belonging to the mainstream culture promote a greater sense of well-being. However, acculturation orientations toward host culture and well-being were unrelated in both cultures. Similar results are reported by Beirens and Fontaine (2011) in a sample of Turkish immigrants in Belgium: No significant relationships were observed between acculturation orientations and well-being indices of somatic complaints, sadness, anxiety, and anger. 8. Limitations and future research Although this study provides the first comparative perspective on acculturation of Turkish minority groups in Bulgaria and the Netherlands, some limitations need to be acknowledged. One limitation involves the need to verify our results in a more representative sample of immigrants, including larger Turkish groups in other contexts. Our study was concerned with two Turkish samples, thereby limiting our ability to generalize any observed effects in Turkish groups to other receiving countries. For example, a replication of this study including bicultural Turkish groups in other contexts will increase confidence in the current findings. Further studies should include samples representing a broader historical perspective (short vs. longterm) and more conditions of acculturation (favorable vs. unfavorable). Studying minority groups prototypical for all four constellations would greatly increase the insight into the relevance of important contextual conditions. Additionally, our Turkish samples were recruited via snowballing and the results from such samples must be interpreted carefully. A replication of these results with a random sampling approach is necessary. Turkish-Bulgarians were representative of provincial areas, whereas the Turkish-Dutch were recruited from three major cities. Nevertheless, our Turkish participants may still be characteristic of each country as they were recruited in community areas that Turkish-Bulgarian and Turkish-Dutch usually inhabit. Another limitation involves the domain specificity of acculturation orientations. For example, Turkish minority groups have been found to favor cultural maintenance in the private domain including their family, child-rearing practices, and ethnic community, whereas preferring cultural adoption in the public domain of life due to tangible social benefits (ArendsTóth & Van de Vijver, 2003). With regards to Bulgarian and Dutch contexts, a domain specificity of acculturation orientations may reflect the pressure to adapt to the mainstream society accompanied with desire of Turkish immigrants to maintain their culture in the private domain. To adequately address the influence of multiple factors on cultural maintenance and adoption, future studies need to consider the role of life domains with respect to the acculturation of minority groups. Finally, to fully understand the multifaceted processes that affect acculturation orientations and outcomes, studies including further potential moderating and mediating variables should be conducted. Factors such as cultural distance from the mainstream community, ethnic vitality of the Turkish minority groups, as well as perceived and experienced discrimination may also be linked to acculturation processes. 9. Conclusion This study tested whether acculturation orientations would be associated with stronger maintenance and less sociocultural adjustment to the mainstream culture in heavily stigmatized Turkish-Bulgarians compared to Turkish-Dutch. Results clearly show that acculturation processes can differ among Turkish minorities within Europe. We found overall group differences as well as different relational patterns between acculturation and well-being. Regarding group differences, Turkish-Bulgarians showed higher mainstream culture adoption and lower heritage culture maintenance compared to the Turkish-Dutch. It seems as if the Turkish-Dutch can more afford to maintain their culture within the Dutch multicultural context, whereas for the Turkish-Bulgarians, adoption and adjustment to the mainstream culture are more important, possibly due to their historical experiences and specific status as a long-term acculturating minority group. We found that the mainstream identification was stronger in the more stigmatized Turkish-Bulgarian group than in the less stigmatized Turkish-Dutch. Our results emphasize the role of Turkish minority groups’ receiving context such that the link between acculturation orientations and outcomes of Turkish minorities might result in a stronger identification with the mainstream culture among long-term compared to short-term acculturating groups. In conclusion, this study adds to the increasingly important comparative acculturation studies by enabling a more systematic research on the role of context in affecting long-terms versus short-term acculturating ethnic minority groups. Based on this evidence, future research should pay more attention to the investigation and measurement of context factors associated with acculturation orientations and outcomes of ethnic minority groups across and within diverse societies of settlement. Acknowledgements The authors are extremely grateful to Mr. Velichko Valchev and Mrs. Yana Avramova for their linguistic help and Mrs. Arzu Aydinli, Mrs. Neli Filipova, Mr. Terziev, Mr. Petkov, Mr. Chobanov, Mrs. Gospova, Mrs. Rafet for their help in carrying out the study. Please cite this article in press as: Dimitrova, R., et al. Turks in Bulgaria and the Netherlands: A comparative study of their acculturation orientations and outcomes. International Journal of Intercultural Relations (2014), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ijintrel.2014.01.001

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