Two-dimensional nanosheets as building blocks to construct three-dimensional structures for lithium storage

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Review

Two-dimensional nanosheets as building blocks to construct three-dimensional structures for lithium storage Di Zhang, Shuai Wang, Yang Ma, Shubin Yang∗

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Key Laboratory of Aerospace Advanced Materials and Performance of Ministry of Education, School of Materials Science & Engineering, Beihang University, Beijing 100191, China

a r t i c l e

i n f o

Article history: Received 22 November 2017 Revised 27 November 2017 Accepted 29 November 2017 Available online xxx Keywords: Nanosheets Atomic layers Graphene Three-dimensional structures Lithium ion batteries

a b s t r a c t 2D nanosheets such as graphene, silicene, phosphorene, metal dichalcogenides and MXenes are emerging and promising for lithium storage due to their ultrathin nature and corresponding chemical/physical properties. However, the serious restacking and aggregation of the 2D nanosheets are still hampering their applications. To circumvent the issues of 2D nanosheets, one efficient strategy is to construct 3D structures with hierarchical porous structures, good chemical/mechanical stabilities and tunable electrical conductivities. In this review, we firstly focus on the available synthetic approaches of 3D structures from 2D nanosheets, and then summarize the relationships between the microstructures of 3D structures built from 2D nanosheets and their electrochemical behaviors for lithium storage. On the basis of above results, some challenges are briefly discussed in the perspective of the development of various functional 3D structures. © 2017 Published by Elsevier B.V. and Science Press.

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Di Zhang received his M.S. degree in Beijing University of Chemical Technology in 2015. He is pursuing his Ph.D. degree in School of Material Science at Beihang University under the supervision of Prof. Shubin Yang. He research interests focused on 2D nanosheets and electrochemical energy storage technology, including MXenes, LIBs, metallic lithium anodes and metallic sodium anodes.

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Miss. Shuai Wang received her B.S. degree in School of Material Science and Technology at Beijing Forestry University in 2014. She is pursuing her Ph.D. degree in School of Materials Science and Engineering at Beihang University. Her research interests focused on electrochemical energy storage technology, including phosphorus anode design and fabrication, phosphide anode design and fabrication, and energy storage electrochemistry.

Yang Ma is a Post doctor at the College of Beihang University. He received his Ph.D. degree from Université Paris-Saclay in 2016 under the supervision of Prof. Jinbo Bai, and continues his research in School of Materials Science and Engineering, Beihang University. His research focuses on the design and preparation of two-dimensional materials by chemical vapor deposition.

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Shubin Yang is a Professor in School of Materials Science and Engineering, Beihang University. He received his Ph.D. from Beijing University of Chemical Technology in 2008 after carrying out a thesis on high-performance lithium ion batteries under the guidance of Prof. Huaihe Song. And then he pursued postdoctoral research with Prof. K. Muellen and P.M. Ajayan at MaxPlanck Institute for Polymer Research and Rice University, respectively. His current research interests involve in graphene, MXenes and other two-dimensional materials for energy storage and conversions.

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1. Introduction

∗

Corresponding author. E-mail address: [email protected] (S. Yang).

Lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) have been widely utilized as power sources for various portable electronic devices due to their high energy density and environmental friendliness [1–3]. However, the power density and cycle life are still needed to be further improved when LIBs are employed in electric-vehicles (EV), station-

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ary electricity storage and other large-scale applications. To improve the electrochemical performances of LIBs, three-dimensional (3D) electrode materials are highly desired as they are easy to access the electrolyte and have short ion diffusion lengths. According to the equation of τ = L2 ion /Dion [4,5], where τ is ionic diffusion time in the host material, Lion is the ionic diffusion length, and Dion is the ionic diffusion coefficient, it is known that lithium-ion diffusion time is in direct proportion to the square of ionic diffusion length. Thus, designing and fabricating 3D structured electrode materials with short ionic diffusion lengths are becoming an efficient strategy to dramatically reduce the diffusion time of lithium ions and meanwhile enhance their electrochemical performances especially at high current densities. Although 3D nanostructures can be realized via various approaches, those built from 2D nanosheets have recently attracted much attention owing to their high surface-to-volume ratio, good mechanical properties, tunable active materials and fully exposed active surfaces based on the large family of emerging 2D nanosheets or atomic layers. To date, various 2D nanosheets including graphene and graphene analogies (hexagonal boron nitride (h-BN) [6,7], graphitic carbon nitride (g-C3 N4 ) [8,9], transition metal dichalcogenides (TMDs) [10,11], black phosphorus (BP) [12,13] and MXenes [14–17]) have been widely explored via some manners such as mechanical exfoliation, liquid-phase exfoliation, chemical vapor deposition and hydrothermal approaches. These free-standing 2D nanosheets can be further employed as building blocks to construct various

3D structures with hierarchical porous structure and tunable components. In this review, we focus on recent advances in the controlled synthesis of 3D structures by ultrathin 2D nanosheets and their potential for lithium storage. This review is divided into three major categories based on the types of employed 2D nanosheets: 3D structures built from graphene nanosheets, 3D structures built from graphene and graphene analogies, and 3D structures built from graphene analogies. We firstly highlight their available synthetic methods, and then summarize the relationships between the microstructures of 3D structures built from 2D nanosheets and their electrochemical behaviors for lithium storage. On the basis of above results, we give potential directions to produce 3D structures and identify some of the remaining challenges.

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2. Synthetic approaches of 3D structures based on 2D nanosheets

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2.1. Solvothermal/hydrothermal approaches

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Generally, free-standing 2D nanosheets such as graphene, graphene oxide (GO), reduced graphene oxide (rGO), MoS2 and MXenes can be facilely dispersed in some solvents such as water, isopropanol (IPA), N-methyl pyrrolidone (NMP) and/or N,Ndimethylformamide (DMF) [4,18–23]. The homogeneous dispersions usually keep a stabilized state in equilibrium due to the balance between attractive and repulsive forces [24]. For instance, in

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Fig. 1. (a) Photographs of a 2 mg/mL homogeneous GO aqueous dispersion before and after hydrothermal reduction at 180 °C for 12 h; (b and c) Photographs and SEM image of the SGH interior microstructures; (d and e) Photographs of the products prepared by hydrothermal reduction of GO dispersions under different conditions; (f and g) Photographs and HRTEM image of MoS2 -graphene architectures. Reprinted from Refs. [25,31] with permission of American Chemical Society and Wiley.

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the case of GO aqueous dispersion, there are electrostatic repulsion and hydrogen bonding forces, arising from a plenty of functional groups such as hydroxyl, epoxy groups and carboxyl moieties on edges and basal planes of GO. Once the dispersions composed of 2D nanosheets are treated in autoclaves with high temperatures and high pressures, i.e., solvothermal or hydrothermal treatments, the stable equilibrium of the dispersions would be destroyed, which triggers the gelation of the nanosheets, becoming a potential manner to assemble the 2D nanosheets to 3D structures. For example, by hydrothermal treatment of homogeneous GO aqueous dispersions with concentrations of above 1 mg mL−1 under 180 °C, GO nanosheets would be self-assembled into porous 3D reduced graphene oxide hydrogels (Fig. 1a–e) owing to the overlapping and coalescing of the nanosheets driven by strengthened hydrophobicity forces and π –π stacking interactions [25]. The synthesized interconnected 3D rGO hydrogels hold 97.4 wt% of water with 2.6 wt% of graphene sheets. After removing the water in rGO hydrogels by supercritical drying or freeze-drying procedures, rGO aerogels with hierarchical structure can be obtained.

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These 3D rGO hydrogels exhibit robust structures, high electrical conductivities (>5 S cm−1 ) and high storage modulus of 450– 490 kPa as increasing the concentration of GO dispersion to more than 2 mg mL−1 , and hydrothermal treating time to more than 6 h. In addition, 3D rGO aerogels can be also achieved as employing GO dispersions in other solvents such as propylene carbonate (PC) [26], methanol [27], DMF [28], dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO) [29] and NMP [30] during solvothermal treatment process. Based on the simple solvothermal treatment approaches, 3D hybrid aerogels can be further generated by adding foreign elements (N, P and B) [32–39], salts or other available nanosheets such as MoS2 [40], WS2 [41–43], Co3 O4 [44], SnO2 [45,46] or C3 N4 [47] into GO dispersions. For example, 3D hybrid structures can be facilely fabricated by introducing 2D nanosheets such as MoS2 , WS2 , MoO3 or their corresponding precursors ((NH4 )2 MoS4 , (NH4 )2 WS4 , (NH4 )2 MoO4 )) into GO dispersions during hydrothermal treatment processes [31,48,49]. As shown in Fig. 1(f and g), the resultant MoS2 -rGO aerogels possess large specific surface areas (205 m2 g−1 ), high electrical conductivities and abundant pores

Fig. 2. (a) Schematic illustration of the synthesis route of 3D G–Si network. Photographs of (b) commercial sponge and (c) 3D graphene network. SEM images of (d and e) 3D graphene networks and (f and g) 3D G–Si network. Reprinted from Ref. [51] with permission of Wiley.

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ranging from sub-micrometers to micrometers, which are favorable for the fast lithium storage [31]. 3D rGO or rGO-containing structures can be widely fabricated via the solvothermal/hydrothermal treatments not only without templates, but also with assistance of 3D templates. For instance, 3D rGO foams with duplicated structures can be obtained via hydrothermal treatment of GO dispersions in the presence of templates such as Ni, Cu foams and commercial sponges [50,51]. As illustrated in Fig. 2, 3D rGO structures have been synthesized by mixing GO dispersions with a commercial sponge with arbitrary shape (even ∼5 cm, shown in Fig. 2(b and c)) followed by hydrothermal treatment at 160 °C for 12 h [51]. After a simple annealing treatment, 3D foams composed of rGO nanosheets with the same structure to sponges were obtained, which exhibited a low density of 1.6 mg mL−1 . The use of inexpensive commercial sponges not only could serve as the templates to guide the restacking of rGO nanosheets, but also could largely decrease the synthetic costs. Although solvothermal/hydrothermal approaches can be used to produce various 3D rGO or rGO-containing structures including hydrogels, aerogels, foams, formworks and architectures, they are difficult to be employed to construct 3D structures from pure 2D nanosheets without any functional groups due to the lack of interconnected forces among the nanosheets. Thus, it is inevitable to use binder additives to assist the formation of 3D structures from 2D nanosheets such as BN, MoS2 , BP layers during solvothermal/hydrothermal treatments. Moreover, the nanosheets in the re-

sultant 3D structures are highly disordered, and their assembly is difficult to be precisely controlled in the autoclaves with high temperatures and high pressures.

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2.2. Chemical vapor deposition

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2D nanosheets or atomic layers of graphene, MoS2 , WS2 and ReS2 have been widely grown onto the surface of various substrates such as Cu and Ni foils via chemical vapor deposition (CVD) approach at high temperatures (60 0−10 0 0 °C) [52,53]. As one change the planner substrate to 3D foams, 3D structures could be also fabricated by the growth of atomic layers on the walls of 3D templates during the CVD process. After removing the templates, 3D structures built form 2D atomic layers or nanosheets were obtained. As shown in Fig. 3, 3D graphene foams with macroscopic structures could be grown onto the surface of the walls of Ni foam at 10 0 0 °C by employing CH4 as carbon source [54]. After removing Ni templates by FeCl3 /HCl aqueous dispersion with the protection of polymethyl methacrylate (PMMA), 3D graphene foams with perfect duplication of Ni foams were obtained, exhibiting ultrahigh electrical conductivity (10 S m−1 ) and large surface areas (up to 850 m2 g−1 ) which enabled their wide applications. Due to the replicated feature, 3D graphene foams with different structures could be also synthesized by tuning the structures of corresponding templates. For example, 3D graphene foams with lightweight (0.75 mg cm−2 ), highly electrical conductivity (55 S m−1 ) and good flexibility (bending angle from 0 to 180°) could be also fabricated

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Fig. 3. (Panel A) Synthesis of a GF and integration with PDMS. (Panel B) (a) Digital photographs of Ni foams with (1) and without (2) pressed and graphene-coated Ni foams before (3) and after (4) removal of the Ni networks. (b) Digital photograph of a 3D graphene network prepared from pressed Ni foam. (c) SEM image and (d) TEM image of 3D graphene networks after removing Ni foam. Reprinted from Refs. [54,55] with permission of Nature and American Chemical Society.

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by employing pre-pressed Ni template during the CVD approach [55]. Similar to solvothermal/hydrothermal approaches, 3D graphene structures doped with heteroatoms (N, B and P) can be further fabricated by adding their corresponding element sources (such as NH3 , ethylene diamine, ammonium phosphate and triphenylphosphine) during the CVD approaches [56–58]. For instance, 3D nitrogen-doped graphene foam with a nitrogen level of 3.1% was generated by introducing NH3 into an oven during the growth of graphene foam [56]. Certainly, if one use the precursors including both carbon and nitrogen sources such as ethylene diamine, 3D nitrogen-doped foams performed with tunable nitrogen contents can be also one-step afforded [58]. Based on above 3D graphene foams, various hybrids composed of graphene and its analogies such as MoS2 , WS2 and MoO3 could be further two-step fabricated via CVD approach with corresponding precursors [59–63]. Although various 3D structures with high qualities have been fabricated by CVD approaches, there are still some disadvantages: 1) low production yield, originated from the ultrathin walls of the resultant 3D structures; 2) high cost, resulted from the use of sacrificial templates which are indispensable for the growth of 3D structures; and 3) limited applications, since the high temperature for the growth of atomic layers prevent the simultaneous introduction of additional unstable materials such as graphitic carbon nitrides.

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2.3. Laminated assembly Laminated assembly approach refers to the parallel assembly of 2D nanosheets or atomic layers into a laminated paper-like film with tunable interspace. Due to the thin nature and good mechanical properties, 2D nanosheets such as graphene, MoS2 and MXenes can be employed as building blocks to construct well-designed films. In this regard, various films including graphene oxide papers, reduced graphene oxide films, MXene and C3 N4 films have been gained via the controllable assembly of their nanosheets under vacuum filtration [64–71]. For instance, Ruoff and his coworkers initially reported graphene oxide films by vacuum filtrating of the GO aqueous dispersions, where water served as a filler between GO nanosheets [71]. After direct dryness in oven, GO nanosheets would restack and aggregate seriously, leading to highly shrunken and compacted GO films. To handle this problem, Li and his coworkers applied a miscible mixture of volatile (water) and nonvolatile liquids (sulfuric, 1-ethyl-3-methylimidazolium tetrafluoroborate (EMIMBF4)) instead of pure water as the solvents during assembly of rGO nanosheets, and found that water was selectively removed under vacuum evaporation while nonvolatile liquids had been left in the films [72]. Thus, the aggregation of reduced graphene oxide was largely alleviated by using the soft templates, leading to rGO films with tunable interspace and porous structure.

Fig. 4. (a) Digital image of Ti3 C2 Tx film. (b) TGA curves of pure PMMA spheres and a Ti3 C2 Tx /PMMA hybrid film under Ar. (c) Cross-sectional, (d) top-view SEM images and (g) TEM image of the 3D macroporous Ti3 C2 Tx film. Water contact angles of the (e) 3D macroporous Ti3 C2 Tx film and (f) compact Ti3 C2 Tx film. Cross-sectional SEM image of the 3D macroporous (h) V2 CTx and (i) Mo2 CTx films. (j) Comparison of XRD patterns of a compact Ti3 C2 Tx film and the 3D macroporous MXene films. Reprinted from Ref. [73] with permission of Wiley.

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Fig. 5. (a) Schematic illustration of porous MXene foam. (b) XRD patterns of Ti3 AlC2 , unexfoliated Ti3 C2 Tx , and the Ti3 C2 Tx film. (c) Top view SEM image and (d and e) cross-sectional view SEM images of the (c–e) Ti3 C2 Tx films and (f and g) Ti3 C2 Tx foams. Reprinted from Ref. [76] with permission of Wiley.

Fig. 6. (a) Schematic of 3D printing hierarchical porous frameworks. (b–d) SEM images of 3D printed cubic-lattice frameworks. Reprinted from Ref. [87] with permission of American Chemical Society.

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To further adjust the porous structure of the films built from graphene oxide, reduced graphene oxide/graphene and its analogies (MXenes), some hard templates such as polystyrene (PS) and polymethyl methacrylate spheres were employed during the laminated assembly approach [73,74]. For instance, assembly of rGO naosheets and PS spheres with diameters of ∼2 μm in an aqueous dispersion and subsequent removal of template afforded rGO films with 3D macroporous structure (pore size = ∼2 μm) and high electrical conductivity of 1204 S m−1 [74]. Similarly, MXene films (Ti3 C2 Tx , V2 CTx , and Mo2 CTx ) with tunable pore sizes (0.2–3 μm), good flexibility (bending angel more than 120°), tunable packing densities (0.4–3.8 g cm−3 ) and high electrical conductivities (∼20,0 0 0 S m−1 ) could be also formed by adjusting the sizes (0.2– 3 μm) of PMMA spheres and the ratios between PMMA spheres and MXene during the assembly process [73]. As shown in Fig. 4, the obtained Ti3 C2 Tx film performed a high hydrophobic property with a water contact angle of 135°, which was nearly four times larger than that of compact MXene films (35°) due to the lotus effect, arising from the porous surface of the films. Except for the usage of soft and hard templates, another efficient strategy to tune the porous structure of the films built from 2D nanosheets is the leavening technology, where chemical or biochemical agents such as NH2 NH2 were firstly intercalated into the gaps of the films and then decomposed to a large amount of gases to expand the interspace of the films [75,76]. For example, Chen and his coworkers firstly immersed a piece of graphene oxide film

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into NH2 NH2 aqueous solution and heated to 90 °C for 10 h in an autoclave [75]. Owing to the reduction of NH2 NH2 , GO was turned into rGO nanosheets accompanied by rapid generation of large amounts of N2 and CO2 , which could expand the gaps of the nanosheets to more than 50 times. The obtained free-standing rGO films showed improved porosities with continuous cross-links and open pores ranged from sub-micrometers to several micrometers, leading to enhanced mechanical properties with a tensile strength of 3.2 MPa and a tensile strain of 10%. Similarly, Ti3 C2 Tx films with expanded porous structure could be also fabricated by the addition of NH2 NH2 into Ti3 C2 Tx compact films followed by thermal treatment at 90 °C for 3 h [76] (Fig. 5). The resultant Ti3 C2 Tx films with porous structures showed ultra-hydrophobic feature due to the porous and rough surfaces as well as the eliminations of large amounts of hydroxide radical functional groups. Based on the laminated assembly approach, multiple nanosheets could be employed as building blocks to co-construct hybrid films with tunable interspace and special functions. In this regard, some hybrid films such as MoS2 /graphene [77], C3 N4 /graphene [78,79], Ti3 C2 Tx /graphene [80], MoO3 /graphene [81], Co3 O4 /graphene [82], Al/graphene [83], Sb/graphene [84], and C3 N4 /MXenes [85] have been widely fabricated by laminated assembly approach and given rise to new synergic effects for energy storage. As using the multiple nanosheets to construct hybrid films, the self-stacking of single nanosheets should be avoided.

Fig. 7. (a) Schematic of synthesis approach of 3D HPG from polymer framework. (b) Schematic of sugar blowing approach. (c) Schematic of synthesis approach of 3D WS2 and MoS2 aerogels from ATT and ATM. Reprinted from Refs. [91–93] with permission of American Chemical Society and Nature.

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2.4. 3D printing

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3D printing, especially extrusion-type 3D printing, is also a promising method to construct 3D structure from 2D nanosheets since they are potential to form suitable inks with high viscosities and shear-thinning features. To date, it has been demonstrated that highly concentrated GO dispersions (13.35 mg mL−1 ) behaved like gels, exhibiting a high storage (elastic) modulus of 350–490 Pa compared with a low loss (viscous) modulus of 50–200 Pa at a frequency range of 0.01–100 Hz, performing a high viscosity (∼700 Pa s at a shear rate of 0 0.01 s−1 ), with a shear-thinning features at a high yield stress value (larger than 10 Pa) [86]. The shear-thinning effect could largely decrease the ratio of elastic modulus between loss modulus under high strains (∼10–103 Pa), resulting in a liquidlike inks. Based on these properties, high concentrated gel-like GO dispersions could be easily extruded onto the substrates from needle tubes due to the high strain at the nozzle area, and turned into elastic GO inks with a stable printed structure, exhibiting a solidlike response after the extrusion from nozzle. This makes them promising for printing 3D GO architectures with various structures such as patterns, nanowires and scaffolds. Based on the gel-like feature of GO, electrochemical active materials such as Na3 V2 (PO4 )3 , LiFePO4 , Li4 Ti5 O12 , and sulfur copolymer could be further added into GO aqueous dispersions with different concentrations to give rise to suitable inks for 3D printing [87,88]. For instance, GO ink (20 mg mL−1 ) with the addition of Na3 V2 (PO4 )3 not only exhibited increased viscosity (∼105 Pa s−1

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at a shear rate of 1 s−1 , 10 times larger than pure GO ink), but also showed similar shear-thinning behaviors compared with pure GO ink, which endowed it a suitable ink for 3D printing [87]. Based on this ink, various structures (cubic-lattice frameworks, staggered grids, square coils, mosquito coils and circular arrays) with tunable pore sizes ranging from 1 to 30 μm are printed by adjusting the ratio between Na3 V2 (PO4 )3 and GO nanosheets with a nozzle of 200 μm (Fig. 6). As shown in Fig. 6(b and c), in the 3D printed cubic-lattice framework, filaments with a diameter of 200 μm were continuous and closely stacked, possessing a hierarchical porous structure composed of GO nanosheets, which were reduced to rGO under a thermal treatment. Similarly, 3D periodic graphene microlattices combined with sulfur copolymer were also 3D printed by utilizing an ink composed of graphene oxide (50 mg mL−1 ), sulfur and 1,3-diisopropenylbenzene (DIB) (viscosity: ∼105 Pa s at a shear rate of 0.1 s−1 ) followed by thermal treatment, during which GO nanosheets were reduced to rGO nanosheets and homogeneously distributed sulfur copolymer was generated by the reaction between sulfur and DIB [88]. Although various 3D structures have been achieved via 3D printing, it is still a big challenge to produce suitable inks with 2D nanosheets beyond graphene oxide since they lack gel-like features. Thus, it is inevitable to add some additives such as polyactide-co-glycolide and resorcinol formaldehyde (R-F) solution into the inks with 2D nanosheets to largely improve the viscosities and enhance their shear-thinning behaviors [89,90].

Fig. 8. (Panel A) Illustration of the synthesis approach of CVE process for rGO aerogels and rGO films. (Panel B) Illustration of the synthesis approach of the electrochemical assembly strategy. Reprinted from Refs. [98,99] with permission of Wiley and American Chemical Society.

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2.5. Other approaches 3D structures built from 2D nanosheets such as MoS2 and WS2 aerogels, graphene frameworks and Co3 O4 nanoflowers can be also fabricated by precursor-self-templated approaches, utilizing the carbonizations or decompositions of the pre-made 3D precursors (ammonium thiomolybdate (ATM) aerogels, ammonium thiotungstate (ATT) aerogels, polymer frameworks and CO(OH)2 nanoflowers) by thermal treatments [91–97]. For example, 3D porous graphitic carbon structures with large specific surface area (4073 m2 g−1 ), high electrical conductivity (∼300 S m−1 ) and large pore volumes (2.26 cm3 g−1 ) can be fabricated by the carbonization of 3D polyaniline frameworks at 800 °C (Fig. 7a) [91]. When mixing the precursors with phytic acid before the carbonation process, N and P doped 3D structures can be obtained after annealing [94]. In addition, 3D porous graphene structures can be also fabricated by the carbonization of polymer bubbles generated by the sugar blowing approach, with molten sugar, glucose or sucrose serving as the start materials, which are illustrated in Fig. 7(b) [92,97]. The 3D graphene structures after graphitization possess at 1350 °C possess large specific surface area (1005 m2 g−1 ), porous structures and good electrical conductivities (20,0 0 0 S m−1 ). Similarly, 3D structures based MoS2 and WS2 can be also fabricated by the decomposition of ATM and ATT aerogels at 450 °C under H2 /Ar atmosphere [93]. As shown in Fig. 7(c), the fabricated 3D struc-

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tures showed largely decreased densities (22 and 34 mg cm−3 for MoS2 and WS2 aerogels, respectively). Centrifugal vacuum evaporation (CVE) is an effective approach to make 3D rGO aerogels or rGO films by promoting the solvent evaporation of GO dispersions with vacuum and centrifugation forces at different temperatures (40–80 °C) followed by the thermal treatment reduction at 800 °C under H2 /Ar flow for 12 h (Fig. 8a) [98]. During the CVE process, GO nanosheets in the dispersion tended to assemble layer-by-layer, leading to the construction of GO films at a high temperature of 80 °C, while GO sponges were obtained at a low temperature of 40 °C, when GO nanosheets tended to assemble in a disordered manner. Different from hydrothermal approach, electrochemical assembly strategy such as turning cyclic voltammetry (CV) is another way to change the state of repulsion and attraction in the nanosheets dispersions, which will induce the ordered assembly of GO nanosheets into orientated 3D structures and are illustrated in Fig. 8(B). The homogeneous dispersion of sulfur nanoparticles in each individual GO nanowalls and vertically aligned GO structures facilitate the fast transportations of both lithium ion and electron for lithium storage [99]. Another simple approach to direct synthesis of 3D graphene structures has been reported by electrochemical leavening (ECL) method with graphite paper other than GO nanosheets [100]. ECL process is a one-step process of intercalation of SO4 2−

Fig. 9. (a) SEM images and (b) corresponding illustration of N-doping reduced graphene aerogels. (c–e) Electrochemical performances of reduced graphene aerogels with and without N-doping. Reprinted from Ref. [103] with permission of Royal Society of Chemistry.

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Fig. 10. Schematic illustration of the benefits of the 3D structures based on 2D nanosheets.

Fig. 11. Electrochemical performance of R-MoS2 -rGO with different loading of MoS2 . Reprinted from Ref. [49] with permission of Wiley.

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from Na2 SO4 into the graphene layers, forming self-supported 3D graphene with a specific surface area of 110 m2 g−1 . This process is similar with the method that expanded the GO or Ti3 C2 Tx films with NH2 NH2 at 90 °C. The difference between them is that the ions are used in this ECL process, while NH2 NH2 is utilized to generate gases for the expansion of films.

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3. 3D structures built from graphene for lithium storage

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Since graphene is the single layer of carbon atoms with each atom bound to three neighbors in a honeycomb form, it enables to store lithium on both sides, corresponding to a high theoretical capacity of 744 mAh g−1 for lithium storage [101,102]. Although this value is twice higher than that of graphite, pure graphene nanosheets are prone to re-stack and aggregate seriously, which

would not only result in few exposed active sites and low reversible capacity for lithium storage, but also largely enhance the energy barriers of lithium ion transportation. Thus, constructing 3D structures from 2D graphene nanosheets is highly desired for the purpose of exposing the active surface and promoting the transportation pathways for lithium ions. Based on this principle, we fabricated a 3D graphene foam with multi-porous structure (Fig. 9) by hydrothermal treatment of GO aqueous dispersion at 180 °C and subsequently annealing at 10 0 0 °C [103]. This graphene foam performed largely enhanced electrochemical performances, including a high reversible capacity of 500 mAh g−1 at 74.4 mA g−1 and a high rate capability (200 mAh g−1 at 3720 mA g−1 ). To further improve the reversible capacities of 3D graphene foams, many research groups have devoted to introduce abundant defect sites or heteroatoms (N, B, P, S and O) onto graphene via

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Fig. 12. (a) Schematic illustration and structure of the P-MoS2 -rGO. (b) TEM image and (c) HRTEM image of P-MoS2 -rGO. (d–g) electrochemical performances of P-MoS2 -rGO. Reprinted from Ref. [49] with permission of Wiley.

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CVD, ball milling or hydrothermal approaches, strengthening the binding energy between heteroatoms-doped graphene and lithium ions [104–113]. For example, N-doped graphene foams with the N level of 3.4 wt% could be gained by annealing the GO foam at 10 0 0 °C in ammonia gas [103]. As shown in Fig. 9, the N-doped graphene foam exhibits a very high reversible capacity up to 1150 mAh g−1 at 0.1 C. The capacity is even higher than theoretical capacity of graphene nanosheets and can be attributed to the introduction of N doping with high contents of pyridinic and pyrrolic N which are efficient to improve the lithium storage due to their higher binding energy with Li than graphitic N. Moreover, defect sites on the graphene films resulted from the introduction of N doping are also effective on the improvement of their lithium storage. Despite of the high reversible capacity of heteroatom-doped graphene foam, their cycle performance and coulombic efficiency are still needed to be improved in the future. 4. 3D structures built from graphene and its analogies for lithium storage Based on above 3D structures built from graphene/reduced graphene oxide nanosheets, one is anticipated to extend the assembly strategy to construct various 3D structures from graphene and its analogies for lithium storage. To date, many research groups have designed and fabricated a series of 3D structures from graphene and its analogies with high activities and demonstrated that their significantly enhanced electrochemical performances were ascribed to their favorable structures for lithium

storage: 1) the continuous graphene backbones could maintain the high conductivities for overall electrodes; 2) the hierarchical porous structure enabled to easy access of electrolytes, facilitating the fast transportation of lithium ions; 3) abundant interspaces in the hybrids could efficiently accommodate the volume change of the active materials during cycle processes; 4) the stable interconnected 3D structures could hinder the aggregation and restacking issues of the 2D nanosheets. Based on the orientations between the active nanosheets and graphene, 3D structures built from graphene and its analogies can be classified into three categories: 1) random assembly by graphene and its analogies, 2) parallel assembly by graphene and its analogies, 3) vertical assembly by graphene and its analogies (Fig. 10).

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4.1. Random assembly by graphene and its analogies

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Generally, assembly of graphene and its analogies to form 3D structures is in an uncontrollable and random manner owing to their high specific surface areas, weak van der Waals force and mismatching crystalline structures. For instance, 3D hybrid architectures composed of randomly assembled rGO nanosheets and MoS2 nanosheets (R-MoS2 -rGO) could be achieved by hydrothermal approaches in our group [31]. Due to rigid nature of ultrathin MoS2 nanosheets (thickness: ∼2 nm), the 3D structures were constructed by the overlapping or coalescing of rGO nanosheets (thickness: ∼2 nm), while MoS2 nanosheets dispersed in the 3D structures in a random but homogeneously manner. Based on the large specific surface area (202 m2 g−1 ), multi-level porous structures

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Fig. 13. (a) Digital photograph and (b–g) SEM images of Al layer-graphene films. Reprinted from Ref. [83] with permission of Wiley.

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(ranging from several nanometers to micrometers) and ultrathin building blocks (2 nm), the 3D architectures showed much reduced contact and charge-transfer resistances for lithium storage, as confirmed by AC impedance spectra. As is shown in Fig. 11, the 3D structures built from rGO nanosheets and MoS2 nanosheets exhibited a high reversible capacity of 1220 mAh g−1 at 74 mA g−1 , nearly 100% capacity retention after 30 cycles and good high-rate performances (939 and 711 mAh g−1 at 744 and 1860 mA g−1 , respectively). Such simple synthetic protocol could be extended to further fabricate a series of 3D structures built from graphene and its analogies such as 3D graphene/WS2 [114–116], CoS2 [117,118], MoO3 [119], VO2 [120]. Such random assembly by graphene and its analogies is very simple since one can directly use their mixed dispersions, and easy to be popularized in industries. Moreover, these 3D structures built form graphene and its analogies are favorable for the fast diffusions of both lithium ion and electron, meeting the kinetics requirements of high-power lithium ion batteries. Unfortunately,

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owing to ultrahigh surface areas of these 3D structures, the first coulombic efficiencies are commonly lower than 60%, and the volumetric capacities are also much lower than the commercial electrode materials. These two issues have recently attracted much attention and the efficient strategies such as pre-lithiation treatment and high compact assembly are becoming hot topics in the field of lithium ion batteries.

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4.2. Parallel assembly by graphene and its analogies

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Compared with random assembly by graphene and its analogies, parallel assembly is highly desired for lithium storage because such assembly would provide enough contact surfaces between two different nanosheets, facilitating the fast transportation of electrons. As shown in Fig. 12, 3D structures composed of rGO nanosheets and atomic MoS2 layers which are parallelly aligned on rGO surfaces (P-MoS2 -rGO) are fabricated by the gelation of rGO nanosheets accompanied with the in-situ formation of MoS2

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Fig. 14. Electrochemical performance of Al layer-graphene films. Reprinted from Ref. [83] with permission of Wiley.

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Fig. 15. SEM images of (a–c, e) V-ReS2 /3DG and (d) L-ReS2 /3DG. (f) Electrochemical performances and (g) corresponding illustration of L-ReS2 /3DG and V-ReS2 /3DG. Reprinted from Ref. [121] with permission of Wiley.

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layers utilizing the reduction of (NH4 )2 MoS4 with NH2 NH2 during the hydrothermal treatment at 180 °C [49]. Although P-MoS2 rGO exhibited similar physical properties with R-MoS2 -rGO, such as large specific surface area (∼280 m2 g−1 ) and low volume densities (∼50 mg cm−3 ), P-MoS2 -rGO exhibited much improved electrochemical performance than that of R-MoS2 -rGO, exhibiting a high reversible capacity of 120 0 mAh g−1 at 60 0 mA g−1 , performing good high rate capacities of 620 and 270 mAh g−1 at current densities of 7.2 A g−1 and 84 A g−1 . The good performance of PMoS2 -rGO at high current densities can be attributed to the parallelly aligned structures which provide sufficient pathways and contact areas for fast Li+ and electron transportations. More importantly, parallel assembly by graphene and its analogies is becoming an efficient strategy to dramatically promote the volumetric capacities of 2D nanosheets and their 3D structures owing to their high densities. For examples, uniform and compact films constructed by graphene and atomic Al layers (Al layergraphene, Fig. 13) have been synthesized by filtering the mixed dispersion of graphene oxide and Al layers and subsequent chemical reduction, where the atomic Al layers were fabricated by folding/rolling method [83]. Such hybrid films with a high density of ∼2.4 g cm−3 could effectively alleviate the volume change of metallic Al during cycles. As a result, the hybrid films showed a high volume capacity around 400 mAh cm−3 and ultra-long cycle life even after 20,0 0 0 cycles as shown in Fig. 14. To date, many hybrid films composed of graphene and its analogies such as MoS2 , Ti3 C2 Tx , black phosphorous, Sb, MoO2 , C3 N4 have been generated

and could be directly used as binder-free and flexible electrodes for various energy storage. With the rapid development of the laminated assembly of 2D nanosheets, we believe that various hybrid films with tunable interspaces would be built from graphene and its analogies and give rise to new electrodes with high volumetric capacities and high coulombic efficiencies.

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4.3. Vertical assembly by graphene and its analogies

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Another assembly between graphene and its analogies is the vertical assembly, which not only can efficiently avoid their compact assembly and aggregation, but also can facilitate the fast transportation of both lithium ion and electron as their assembled 3D structures are used for lithium storage. For example, a vertically aligned ReS2 nanosheets on the nanowalls of graphene foam have been realized via chemical vapor deposition approach under H2 S atmosphere, in which ammonium perrhenate (NH4 ReO4 ) was adopted as the Re source [121]. The vertically aligned structure could not only render the direct connection between graphene surfaces and Re–Re sites, but also deliver more active sulfur edge sites benefiting the fast electron and ion transportations. As illustrated in Fig. 15, the vertical ReS2 nanosheets on graphene delivered a high reversible capacity of 200 mAh g−1 even after 500 cycles at 1 A g−1 . In addition, the vertical structures with sufficient sulfur edges can largely alleviate the volume change of the ReS2 nanosheets during Li+ intercalation and de-intercalations. On the

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contrary, layered ReS2 nanosheets with fewer exposed active sulfur sites show slow kinetics for the diffusion of lithium ions. Similarly, we fabricate a 3D graphene structures composed of rGO nanosheets with vertically aligned MoO3 nanosheets (VMoO3 -rGO) by hydrothermal approach and subsequent thermal annealing treatment. There are abundant Mo–C bonds between vertically oriented MoO3 nanosheets and rGO surfaces which can serve as junctions to keep a stable connection between the two nanosheets, leading to a stable electrochemical performance in lithium storage. Benefiting from the vertical oriented structures and conductive reduced graphene oxide backbones, V-MoO3 -rGO not only exhibited a high reversible specific capacity of 1533 mAh g−1 at 50 mA g−1 , but also showed a high volumetric capacity of ∼750 mAh cm−3 (0.1 mA cm−2 ) with a stable cycle life more than 10 0 0 cycles, obtaining the highest volumetric capacity among all the reported MoO3 -graphene composites before this paper. Based on above results, it is known that the vertical assembly by graphene and its analogies is a promising strategy to gain

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new 3D structures with tunable densities and interspaces, which can overcome the compact assembly issue of parallel assembly, facilitating the fast diffusion of lithium ions and electrons for lithium storage. However, such vertical assembly by graphene and its analogies are highly challenging since they need to in-situ form heterogeneous conjunctions between two nanosheets. 5. 3D structures built from graphene analogies for lithium storage Inspired by the graphene, various graphene analogies such as silicene, phosphorene, and MXenes are emerging and can be also employed as building blocks to construct 3D structures. In this regard, various 3D structures built from 2D graphene analogies such as MoS2 , MoO3 , Co3 O4 and Si nanoflowers have been fabricated via hydrothermal treatments [96,122–124]. Such flower-like structures could not only exhibit the unique properties of the individual nanosheet, but also could prevent the severe aggregation and

Fig. 16. (a) SEM image of Si nanoflowers. (b) Digital photograph of a hydrangea flower. (c–d) MoS2 nanoflowers and (e–f) Co3 O4 nanoflowers. Reprinted from Refs. [122– 124] with permission of American Chemical Society, Royal Society of Chemistry and Wiley.

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Fig. 17. Electrochemical performances of Si nanoflowers. Reprinted from Ref. [122] with permission of American Chemical Society.

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re-stacking of 2D nanohseets. For example, 3D silicene flowers (Fig. 16a) were fabricated by magnesiothermic reduction of silica fume at a temperature of 850 °C [122]. The 3D silicene flower has three advantages as electrode materials for lithium storage: 1) each silicene nanosheet in this silicene flower performs similar behavior, which largely decreases the influence of the volume change during charging and discharging processes; 2) 2D structure of the silicene nanosheets and 3D structure of the silicene flower render shortened ion diffusion length and sufficient electron transport paths, which are beneficial for their electrochemical performance at high current densities; 3) the flower-like configuration of silicene contributes to higher tap density. When applied for lithium storage, as shown in Fig. 17, 3D silicene flower exhibited a high gravimetric capacity of 20 0 0 mAh g−1 and a very high volumetric capacity (1799 mAh cm−3 ). Similarly, some nanoflowers made of Co3 O4 and MoS2 have been proved efficient for lithium storage. The flower-like Co3 O4 hierarchical structures (Fig. 16b) fabricated by precursor-self-template method displayed a high reversible capacity of 1103 mAh g−1 at 500 mA g−1 [124]. The flower-like MoS2 architecture (Fig. 16c) synthesized by hydrothermal method performed a high specific capacity of 900 mAh g−1 at a current density of 100 mA g−1 [123]. Although some achievements have been made in the field of 3D structures built from graphene analogies for lithium storage, their first coulombic efficiencies are commonly lower than 70%, which are still hampering their practical applications

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6. Conclusions and outlook

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We summarized the recent progress on 3D structures built from 2D nanosheets, including their synthetic methods, unique structures and corresponding electrochemical performances for lithium storage. In particular, the 3D structures built from graphene and its analogies possess many favorable features for lithium storage: 1) continuous internetwork with high electrical conductivities facilitates the fast transportation of electrons; 2) multi-porous structure are favorable for the fast diffusion of lithium ions; 3) enough space to accommodate the volume change during cycle processes; 4) some parallel assembled films render binder-free and flexible electrodes with high volumetric capacities. Unfortunately, in the most cases, 3D structures built from 2D nanosheets suffer from low coulombic efficiencies and volumetric capacities due to their large surface areas and low densities.

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To dramatically improve the electrochemical performances and solve above concerns of 3D structures built from 2D nanosheets, the controllable and precise assembly manners of 2D nanosheets need to be further investigated systematically and deeply. It is highly desirable to achieve a compact film with tunable interspaces via soft or hard templates or vertical assembly approaches, affording new electrode material with high volumetric capacities. Moreover, it is necessary to pay more attention to the mechanical properties of 3D structures, which is another key to the flexible, rollable and twistable lithium ion batteries for wearable electronic devices.

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Conflict of interest

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The authors declare no competing financial interest.

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Acknowledgment

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This work was financially supported by National Science Foundation of China (Nos. 51572007 and 51622203), “Recruitment Program of Global Experts”

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Supplementary materials

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Supplementary material associated with this article can be found, in the online version, at doi:10.1016/j.jechem.2017.11.031.

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References

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