Type A behavior and reminiscence in college undergraduates

JOURNAL

OF RESEARCH

IN PERSONALITY

25,

418-433 (1991)

Type A Behavior and Reminiscence in College Undergraduates FRED B. BRYANT Loyola University of Chicago PAUL R. YARNOLD Northwestern University Medical School and University of Illinois at Chicago AND LYNN MORGAN Loyola Universiry of Chicago This study represents the first empirical test of Friedman and Ulmer’s (1984. Treatirzg Type A behavior and your heart. New York: Fawcett) clinical observation that deficits in the capacity to reminisce about pleasant past events are among the most pervasive and dysfunctional correlates of Type A behavior. Type A (N = 79) and B (N = 109) college undergraduates completed a questionnaire assessing the frequency, content, style, and consequences of their reminiscence about positive past experiences. Findings supported two hypotheses: relative to Type Bs, Type As were less likely to report that they consciously look back on positive events after these events are over in order to store details for later recall, and were more likely to report that they typically reminisce about past achievements. Contradicting Friedman and Ulmer’s observations, however, there were no significant A/B differences in the reported frequency, style, or consequences of recalling positive memories. The findings are discussed in terms of components of Type A behavior, such as competitive achievement-striving and self-esteem enhancement, that may make Type As (a) less likely to store, but not to recall, positive memories and (b) particularly likely to reminisce about personal accomplishments. Plausible reasons for the relative lack of support for Friedman and Portions of this paper were presented at the Annual Meeting of the Society of Behavioral Medicine, San Francisco, CA, March-April, 1989. Appreciation is extended to the computer center of the University of Illinois at Chicago, for computer resources used in this research; and to Linda Perloff, Tricia Tenpenny, and Gene Zechmeister, for helpful comments on an earlier version of the manuscript. Correspondence and reprint requests should be addressed to: Fred B. Bryant, Ph.D., Department of Psychology, Loyola University of Chicago, 6525 N. Sheridan Road, Chicago, IL 68626. 418 0092-6566/91 $3.00 Copyright All rights

0 1991 by Academic Press, Inc. of reproduction in any form reserved.

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Ulmer’s hypotheses are discussed in the context of directions for future research. 0 1991 Academic

Press. Inc.

Since Type A behavior (TAB) was proposed as a possible risk factor for coronary heart disease (CHD), an enormous empirical literature has arisen: a literature search we conducted in 1988 resulted in over 600 article citations. Despite this abundance of research, there have been few methodologically rigorous prospective investigations of the link between TAB and CHD. Friedman, Thorenson, Gill, Ulmer, Powell, et al. (1986) reported the most rigorous intervention study-involving sustained comprehensive individual and group counseling of 1035 CHD patients for 4.5 years-and reported that successful reduction in TAB is related to significantly fewer recurrent episodes of CHD and to greater survival. Friedman et al.% study is especially important because it offers rare insights into the etiology and ontogenesis of TAB. Much is to be gained from a clearer understanding of exactly which components of the treatment protocol were effective in reducing TAB and the reasons for their effectiveness. In the most comprehensive explication of the constructs underlying the intervention, Friedman and Ulmer (1984) discussed in detail the targets, processes, and outcomes of the interventions employed in their research and thereby underscore the critical psychological aspects of TAB that they believe are most destructive. They argued that one of the most pervasive and dysfunctional deficits accompanying TAB is a generalized dissociation of oneself from one’s past: Type As are characterized as being either unable or unwilling to reminisce about the past, and as being deprived of both pleasure and a sense of growth as a consequence. To date, however, there have been no empirical studies of the relationship between TAB and reminiscence. Accordingly, this study explores differences between Type As and Type Bs with respect to several theoretical facets of reminiscence. A Definition of Reminiscence No single, universally accepted definition of reminiscence exists in the social science literature. Instead, past investigators have defined and explored a wide variety of different types of retrospection, primarily among older adults (for reviews, see: Merriam, 1980; Molinari & Reichlin, 1985; Thornton & Brotchie, 1987). For example, Butler (1963) described the process of life review, whereby people contemplate their life as a whole and strive to integrate past and present. Lo Gerfo (1980) discussed informative (i.e., retelling past events to others), evaluative (i.e., making subjective judgements about past actions), and obsessive (i.e., ruminating about unpleasant past experiences) forms of reminiscence. Other theorists have distinguished between individual versus group (Butler & Lewis, 1982;

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Perotta & Meacham, 1981), silent versus vocal (Castelnuovo-Tedesco, 1978; Havighurst & Glasser, 1972), cognitive/intrapersonal versus conversational/interpersonal (Romaniuk & Romaniuk, 1981), and purposive versus spontaneous (Havighurst & Glasser, 1972) reminiscence. The present study focused exclusively on “positive reminiscence,” in which individuals recall pleasant memories in either a public or private fashion (Hedgepeth & Hale, 1983; Lewis, 1973). This definition of reminiscence was adopted because it represents a specific arena in which Type As are presumed to show deficits-that is, reliving pleasant experiences from the past. Characteristics of Reminiscence Running throughout the reminiscence literature is an implicit theoretical framework for understanding the basic dimensions that underlie positive reminiscence. Within this conceptual framework, certain antecedent conditions (e.g., negative affect, solitude) are assumed to elicit reminiscence about particular past experiences (e.g., personal relationships, achievements) that are, in turn, assumed to result in various consequences (e.g., positive affect, self-insight). People are also assumed to have different styles of reminiscing-ways in which they store or retrieve memories, for example-that may be associated with different consequences (cf. Bower & Gilligan, 1979; Thornton & Brotchie, 1987). For example, some theorists consider reminiscence to be a mechanism for coping with negative experience that can be either (a) adaptive, if it reduces distress (Butler, 1963; Butler & Lewis, 1982) or helps one solve unresolved problems (Coleman, 1974; Lieberman & Falk, 1971), or (b) maladaptive, if it reflects an attempt to avoid the present by escaping into the past and withdrawing from the world (Fink, 1957). In contrast, others view reminiscence as a means of bolstering self-esteem (Lewis, 1971; McMahon & Rhudick, 1967) or of generating positive affect for its own sake (Hughston & Merriam, 1982; Thornton & Brotchie, 1987). Still others argue that the primary role of reminiscence is to establish and maintain personal identity (Erikson, 1963) by affirming one’s sense of growth and uniqueness (Revere & Tobin, 1980). A theoretical framework thus exists for studying when, why, how, and about what people reminisce. In addition to these implicit dimensions of reminiscence, there is explicit empirical evidence that demographic characteristics, such as gender (Bryant & Morgan, 1986) and age (Romaniuk & Romaniuk, 1981), predict how often people recall pleasant memories, which in turn correlates positively with reported levels of positive affect (Havighurst & Glasser, 1972) and with the perceived ability to enjoy life (Bryant & Morgan, 1986). The present study employed both implicit and explicit dimensions of reminiscence in an integrated nomological net

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(Cronbach & Meehl, 1955) within which to frame research questions about the association between TAB and reminiscence. Clinical Observations Regarding TAB and Reminiscence Friedman and Ulmer (1984) observed that individuals showing greatest reduction in TAB in response to treatment “were those who most readily accepted that memory should be greatly valued and frequently used to recall and relive pleasant or joyous events of the past” (pp. 278-279). Whereas Type As are primarily concerned with achievement-related problems perceived as requiring immediate personal attention, Type Bs, in contrast, “generally indulge in periods of contemplation. This may range from sheer cerebration to spiritual musing or meditation. The Type B person has learned to value and enjoy himself as much or more for what he has already done or experienced as for what he may accomplish in the future” (p. 79). Friedman and Ulmer consider Type As’ failure to reminisce to be a symptom of “spiritual weakening” (p. 253) and suggest that self-induction of pleasant thoughts during moments of crisis might serve an adaptive function as an effective coping mechanism for hostile Type As (p. 245). Finally, Friedman and Ulmer describe the clinical context of their intervention for enhancing reminiscence: The first step is to recognize that . your sense of time urgency has prevented you from using your memory to recall the past, thus depriving you of the pleasure and the spiritual growth that reading one’s life backward can provide. . The second step is to make a conscious and systematic effort to recall, on a daily basis . . the important events of your past. . . The third step involves looking back across the events of each day in a deliberate search for things worth remembering. The fourth step is to compare your past and your future critically with one another. (pp. 186-187)

Related but less elaborate discussions concerning the association between TAB and reminiscence have noted that, relative to Type Bs, Type As are unreflective and lack insight into their own behavior or their effect on others (Jenkins, 1975; Price, 1982). Systematic reminiscence has also been suggested by physicians to facilitate relaxation (Diethrich, 1983) and to clarify personal values (Eliot & Breo, 1984) as part of “anti-stress” programs designed to reduce risk for CHD. Measuring TAB Just as no universally accepted definition of reminiscence exists, there is no single, agreed-upon method for measuring TAB. Although at least 15 different approaches are currently in use (Yamold & Bryant, 1988), it has been proposed (e.g., Davis & Cowles, 1988) that researchers exclusively employ the structured interview (SI), which has been studied

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prospectively and shown to predict disease endpoints.’ As noted by Yarnold and Bryant (1988), however, exclusive reliance on the SI would dramatically limit our ability to specify the meaning and generality of the TAB construct; the use of multiple operational definitions better enables us to refine our understanding of both what TAB is (convergent validity) and what TAB is not (divergent validity). Hypotheses tested in the present research are based upon Friedman and Ulmer’s clinical observations of As and Bs classified using the SI. In contrast, we assessed TAB using a self-report questionnaire, as a test of the limits of the generalizability of Friedman and Ulmer’s observations. Hypotheses for the Present Research Friedman and Ulmer’s clinical observations suggest the following hypotheses concerning the relationship between TAB and reminiscence. 1. Frequency. As should reminisce less often than Bs about pleasant memories. 2. Content. As should be more likely than Bs to reminisce about personal achievements. 3. Style. Concerning memory storage, As should be less likely than Bs to look back after a pleasant event in order to store its details for later recall. Concerning memory recall, As should be less likely than Bs to have specific strategies that they consciously use to stimulate the recall of positive memories. 4. Consequences. As should be less likely than Bs to gain pleasure and a sense of self-insight from positive reminiscence. METHOD Subjects and Procedure A random sample of 348 college undergraduates voluntarily completed questionnaires described below, in exchange for class credit, during several mass-testing sessions conducted over a one-week period. Assessing TAB TAB was assessed using the short form of the student version of the Jenkins Activity Survey (SJAS; Bryant & Yarnold, 1989; Yarnold, Bryant, ’ Questionnaire measures of TAB have also been prospectively studied and shown to be significantly related to disease endpoints (e.g., Booth-Kewley & Friedman, 1987; Friedman & Booth-Kewley, 1988; Linden, 1988; Matthews, 1988). Regardless of whether or not A/B measures other than the SI are predictive of disease, the wealth of empirical evidence reporting strong differences between questionnaire-defined As and Bs (Matthews, 1982) suggests that this construct is worthy of study in its own right.

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& Grimm, 1987; Yarnold, Bryant, & Litsas, 1989). Subjects with SJAS scores at least one standard deviation from the population mean (A > 11, B < 5; see Yarnold, 1987) were included in analysis (use of extreme scores increases concordance with the structured interview; Yamold & Mueser, 1989).* The final sample (N = 188) consisted of 109 Type Bs (48 males, 61 females) and 79 Type As (45 males, 34 females). Assessing Reminiscence Measures of reminiscence developed by Bryant and Morgan (1986) were used to assess characteristics of positive reminiscence. Two closed-ended items (1 = very little, 7 = a great deal) tapped the reported frequency of positive reminiscence: (a) how much respondents actively think about pleasant memories in order to get a sense of happiness or satisfaction in the present; and (b) how much time respondents spend thinking about good memories from their past. Open-ended questions assessed other characteristics of positive reminiscence. As a measure of the confent of reminiscence, respondents were asked to describe some of the memories that make them feel good when they recall them. Two items were used to assess reminiscing style: as a measure of memory-coding strategies, respondents were asked to describe anything they consciously do or think to store pleasant memories for later recall; as a measure of memory-retrieval strategies, respondents were asked to describe anything they do or think to simulate reminiscence or to make the recall of pleasant memories more intense. As a measure of consequences of reminiscence, respondents were asked to explain what recalling memories of good times from their past does for them. Coding Scheme Detailed coding schemes developed by Bryant and Morgan (1986) were used to categorize first-mentioned responses to the open-ended questions about reminiscence. The following dependent variables were coded from the open-ended items: (a) the content of positive reminiscence (personal relationships and recreational outings; personal achievements); (b) the time at which pleasant memories are consciously stored (during the event; after the event; never); (c) the kinds of cognitive (conjuring up mental images) or behavioral (looking at memorabilia; re-enacting the event) strategies used to stimulate or intensify the recall of memories; and (d) * Although the use of extreme scores increases our confidence in the accuracy of our classifications of As and Bs, it also limits our ability to generalize our results to the entire population (cf. Alf & Abrahams, 1975). By using extreme scores, one thus decides to emphasize construct validity over external validity. Because only SJAS total scores were recorded, analysis of SJAS subscales (Bryant & Yarnold, 1989) was impossible.

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the primary consequences of positive reminiscence (new perspective and self-insight; positive affect; escape from the present; none). Two coders were employed, and systematic training procedures were used to maximize inter-coder reliability. Analyses indicated that coders agreed on over 95% of all coding judgements, with the few disagreements resolved by discussion to eventual consensus. RESULTS Frequency of Reminiscence A 2 (A/B Type) x 2 (Gender) multivariate analysis of variance was used to contrast mean scores on the two continuous measures of frequency of reminiscence: (a) how much respondents actively reminisce to get a sense of happiness or satisfaction; and (b) how much time respondents spend engaging in positive reminiscence. Contrary to expectations, neither the main effects nor the interaction were statistically significant (p’s > 0.21). Thus, there appear to be no differences in the reported frequency of reminiscence as a function of A/B Type, Gender, or their interaction. Content of Reminiscence Because all remaining measures were categorical, we used log-linear analysis to test the remaining hypotheses (Kleinbaum, Kupper, & Mullet-, 1988; Knoke & Burke, 1980; Reynolds, 1977). In this approach one first solves all main effect models, and all models involving main effects and interaction terms. The second step involves eliminating from further consideration all models with a statistically significant badness-of--fit (i.e., models which generate a predicted frequency distribution that is significantly different (p < 0.05) than the observed frequency distribution). The third step involves statistical contrasts of the remaining (nested) models, accomplished by subtracting corresponding chi square values and degrees of freedom. Finally, if more than one model remains, the final selection may be made on the basis of either parsimony (in exploratory research) or a priori theory (in confirmatory research). In the first log-linear analysis, the categorical variables included content of reminiscence (personal relationships and recreation; personal achievements), A/B Type, and Gender. Results suggested that the interaction between reminiscence content and A/B Type (see Table 1) represented a statistically satisfactory model: x2 = 3.9, df = 4, p < 0.43. Consistent with the a priori hypothesis, Type As were more likely, and Bs less likely, than expected given chance to reminisce about past achievements. In contrast, As and Bs differed only marginally from chance expectations in their likelihood of reminiscing about non-achievement related areas.

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TYPE A AND REMINISCENCE TABLE CONTENT

OF POSITIVE

1

REMINNENCE

CLASSIFIED

BY

A/B

TYPE

Content of positive reminiscence Achievement A/B type

hlsmsd

A B

19 (29.2%) 17 (16.3%)

Nonachievement n expected

%hcrved

13.8 22.2

nsrpcnsd

46 (70.8%) 87 (83.7%)

51.2 81.8

Note. These data represent categorized responses to an open-ended question assessing the typical content of positive reminiscence. A log-linear analysis including reminiscence content, A/B Type, and Gender led to selection of the above model. nobvncdis the number of subjects falling in each cell, and nelpcted is the number of subjects expected in each cell, under the assumptions of a Pearson 2 (A/B) x 2 (Achievement/Nonachievement) x*(df = 1, n = 169) = 3.95, p < 0.05. Provided in parentheses is the percentage of the sample falling into the achievement versus nonachievement cell, separately by A/B Type.

Style of Reminiscence Two different aspects of reminiscence style were examined: (a) the time at which pleasant memories were stored; and (b) the type of strategy used to recall pleasant memories. Analysis of the first “style” variable included the time of memory storage (during the pleasant event; after the pleasant event; or no conscious effort to store pleasant memories), A/B Type, and Gender. Results suggested that the interaction between time of memory storage and A/B Type (see Table 2) represented a statistically acTABLE TIME

AT WHICH

PLEASANT

MEMORIES

ARE

2 STORED

CLASSIFIED

BY

A/B

TYPE

Time at which pleasant memories are stored

A/B Type

&bwvsd

A B

26 (35.6%) 26 (26.3%)

No conscious storage strategy

After event

During event nexpestsd

22.1 29.9

bsrvsd

14 (19.2%) 40 (40.4%)

kxpencd

22.9 31.1

%bsmed

33 (45.2%) 33 (33.3%)

nexpclsd

28.0 38.0

Note. These data represent categorized responses to an open-ended question assessing strategies used to store memories of pleasant events. A log-linear analysis including time of memory storage, A/B Type, and Gender led to selection of the above model. nobscned is the number of subjects falling in each cell, and nelpncd is the number of subjects expected in each cell, under the assumptions of a 2 (A/B) x 3 (During/After/No Strategy) Pearson x*(df = 2, n = 172) = 8.79, p < 0.05. Provided in parentheses is the percentage of the sample falling into the during, after, and no strategy cells, separately by A/B Type.

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ceptable model: x2 = 6.7, df = 6, p < 0.35. Consistent with the a priori hypothesis, Type As were less likely, and Bs more likely, than expected given chance to store memories after pleasant events. As and Bs differed only marginally from chance expectations in their likelihood of storing memories during pleasant events or in their likelihood of not having a conscious strategy for storing pleasant memories. Analysis of the second “style” variable included the type of memory recall strategy (cognitive; behavioral; or no conscious recall strategy), A/B Type, and Gender. Failing to support the a priori hypothesis, models involving A/B Type reflected significant badness-of-fit (p’s < 0.05), suggesting that TAB is unrelated to specific strategies for recalling pleasant memories. Consequencesof Reminiscence

The final analysis included reminiscence consequences (new perspective and self-insight; positive affect; escape; or no consequence), A/B Type, and Gender. Failing to support the a priori hypothesis, models involving A/B Type reflected significant badness-of-fit Cp’s < 0.05), suggesting that TAB is unrelated to the primary consequences of positive reminiscence. DISCUSSION In their conceptual analysis of the treatment components responsible for successfully reducing TAB, Friedman and Ulmer argued that profound deficits in the capacity to reminisce about pleasant past events are among the most widespread and psychologically debilitating correlates of TAB. The present study is the first to explore systematically the validity of this assertion about the relationship between TAB and reminiscence. Considered together, the results suggest that, for young age groups, Type As differ from Type Bs in the storage and content of their positive memories, but recall these memories in the same ways, with the same frequency and consequences. Supporting Friedman and Ulmer’s clinical observations, Type As were less likely to report that they consciously look back on positive events afterwards to memorize details for later recall; Bs, in contrast, were more likely to report that they consciously memorize details of pleasant events after these events have transpired. Although As appear just as likely as Bs to store memories during positive events, As are less likely to actively store details afterwards. This reluctance to review past positive events for details worth remembering makes the scope and richness of Type As’ memories especially dependent on their ability to effectively encode details during positive experiences. Indeed, this postevent storage deficit might well reduce the level and breadth of detail of Type As’ pleasant memories, particularly for positive events that happen so quickly (e.g., a steep down-

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hill ski run), that are so absorbing (e.g., the public exchange of wedding vows), or that require so much undivided attention (e.g., successfully performing a medical operation) as to prohibit memorizing details during their occurrence. Why might Type As be less predisposed than Type Bs to look back on positive events in order to store memories? One possibility is that the speed and impatience that typifies TAB (Glass, 1977; Mueser, Yarnold, & Bryant, 1987) makes Type As more eager than Bs to move on to new situations and less eager to take time to memorize details of past events once they are over. Another possibility is that the competitive achievement orientation underlying TAB (Friedman & Rosenman, 1974; Price, 1982) makes Type As hesitant to spend time actively building memories of past successes at the expense of striving toward future accomplishments. Type As, however, appear no less willing than Type Bs to look back on past positive events in order to recall memories, perhaps because such retrospection may actually help one achieve personal goals by providing a sense of motivation and confidence in the present (cf. Bryant & Morgan, 1986). The present study also found differences between As and Bs in the content of positive reminiscence. Consistent with the a priori hypothesis, Type As were more likely to report reminiscing about personal achievements, whereas Type Bs were less likely to do so. Assuming that the content of a person’s memories reflects the characteristics and life-style of the particular individual (cf. Adcock & Ross, 1983; Adler, 1927), this finding is consistent with the notion that competitive achievement-striving is central to TAB. Moreover, Type As may attain greater achievement than Type Bs, as measured in such terms as academic success (Glass, 1977; Waldron, Hickey, McPherson, Butensky, Gruss, et al., 1980), occupational status (Mettlin, 1976; Waldron, 1978), and scientific distinction (Matthews, Helmreich, Beane, & Luther, 1980) which may simply give them a greater number of personal achievements to recall. Alternatively, the present pattern of results may be a product of Type As’ greater tendency to process self-relevant information in ways that bolster self-esteem (cf. Furnham, Bonovoy, & Henley, 1986; Strube, Boland, Manfredo, & Al-Falaij, 1987). Recalling past achievements can help one overcome self-doubts (Lewis, 1971; McMahon & Rhudick, 1967), and Type As may be more motivated to look back on the past to gain these immediate self-esteem benefits than to identify specific details of past experiences worth storing for future recall. Moreover, reminiscing to enhance self-esteem may well give Type As a sense of control over their positive feelings (cf. Bryant, 1989) further satisfying their need for control. The A/B differences that did not emerge, however, are as noteworthy

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as those that did. Contrary to Friedman and Ulmer’s clinical observations, Type As reported reminiscing about pleasant memories no less often than did Type Bs. In addition, As were no less likely than Bs to report consciously using a cognitive or behavioral strategy to facilitate their recall of pleasant memories. Thus, contrary to the a priori hypothesis, the present. study found no evidence of deficits in Type As’ willingness or ability to relive positive events from the past. Although As are less apt than Bs to look back at positive events afterwards in order to store details, they appear to recall details of positive events just as often and to do so in the same ways. Furthermore, there were no significant A/B differences in the primary consequences of positive reminiscence. The finding that As were no less likely than Bs to gain positive affect or self-insight from positive reminiscence contradicts Friedman and Ulmer’s clinical observation that As do not use memory adaptively. There are several plausible explanations for the modest TAB-related deficits in positive reminiscence noted in the present data, that should be the focus of future research. First, although there is little evidence that age per se is associated with differences in reminiscing (cf. Thornton & Brotchie, 1987) the college-aged sample of Type As in this study may not have been old enough to have developed the full range of decrements posited by Friedman and Ulmer. Supporting this notion, previous research has found that young Type As report greater subjective adjustment than do older Type As (Strube, Berry, Goza, & Fennimore, 1985). Also, Type A undergraduates report higher levels of happiness, gratification, selfconfidence, and psychological vigor than Type Bs (Bryant & Yamold, 1990). Perhaps the devaluation and avoidance of positive reminiscence discussed by Friedman and Ulmer holds true for older Type As, for whom psychological well-being also declines. A related issue is that the intervention data on which Friedman and Ulmer based their observations about TAB and reminiscence were from subjects who had previously experienced a myocardial infarction. It may well be that inferences drawn from this type of clinical population do not generalize to healthy populations of Type As (cf. Bryant & Yarnold, 1990; Miller, Turner, Tindale, & Posavac, 1988; Yamold & Martin, 1988). It is also possible that TAB-related deficits in positive reminiscence may only surface when Type As are immersed in stressful circumstances (cf. Bryant & Yamold, 1990; Glass, 1977; Rhodewalt, Hays, Chemers, & Wysocki, 1984). That is, Type As may indeed reminisce less often and with less benefit than Type Bs, but only when they are experiencing meaningful stressors that challenge their sense of personal control. This context-specific view of TAB-related deficits suggests that researchers should study naturally occurring reminiscence in stressful real world settings.

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Along these lines, Kuhl (1981; Beckman & Kuhl, 1984) has proposed a theory of action control in which the performance of an intended action is viewed as affected by two mutually exclusive states: action orientation, in which one focuses on plans of action aimed at attaining a desired future state (e.g., actively forming hypotheses while trying to solve a task); and state orientation, in which one focuses on one’s past, present, or future state without attending to action plans (e.g., ruminating about past failures while trying to concentrate on a new task). The concept of action orientation is highly reminiscent3 of Glass’ (1977) notion of TAB as an active attempt to regain personal control over important outcomes. Indeed, it seems plausible that (a) control threats elicit a greater action orientation in Type As than in Type Bs, and (b) the process of reminiscing represents a kind of state orientation that is incompatible with an action orientation. In the context of the present study, asking subjects to reflect on their experiences with reminiscence and on how reminiscing makes them feel may well have produced a state orientation, thereby obscuring A/B differences that might have emerged had subjects adopted an action orientation. This reasoning suggests that future researchers should employ methodologies that do not evoke a state orientation, such as “process tracing” paradigms for analyzing free-form verbal protocols (Ericcson & Simon, 1980; Payne, Braunstein, & Carroll, 1978), to compare As’ and Bs’ use of reminiscence when confronted with real-world control challenges. Future researchers should also expand the narrow scope of dependent measures that we employed: clearly, a more highly focused set of measures is needed to test Friedman and Ulmer’s clinical observations more thoroughly. For example, the present study’s open-ended questions require the respondent to identify and report the presence of relevant affects, behaviors, and cognitions, but provide little information about the intensity of these phenomena. Thus, although As and Bs were equally likely to report experiencing positive affect as a consequence of reminiscing, we do not know whether the levels of their positive affect were equivalent. Future research should also include additional measures of several reminiscence-related variables on which As and Bs may differ, such as items assessing the typical duration of an episode of positive reminiscence, the value/utility that respondents place on positive reminiscence, and the degree to which respondents base their self-esteem on past versus future accomplishments. Also, we did not directly test Friedman and Ulmer’s observation that Type Bs experience a greater “sense of spiritual growth” from reminiscence than do Type As, although exactly what is meant by this term and how it should be measured is unclear (cf. Moberg & Brusek, 3 No pun intended.

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1978). More generally, future research should include measures of relevant psychological outcomes, such as happiness, life satisfaction, and depression (Bryant & Veroff, 1984), that are presumed to vary as a function of positive reminiscence. Finally, this study focused on positive reminiscence and ignored respondents’ recall of unpleasant memories. Some evidence, however, suggests that Type As spend more time reviewing negative, rather than positive, self-relevant information than do Type Bs (Cooney & Zeichner, 1985). Perhaps Type As do not actively avoid recalling positive memories as much as they prefer to recall negative memories, which may actually enhance the subjective quality of the present through “contrast effects” (Strack, Schwarz, & Gschneidinger, 1985). Indeed, it may well be the balance between the frequency of positive and negative reminiscence that distinguishes Type As and Type Bs. REFERENCES Adcock, N. V., & Ross, M. W. (1983). Early memories, early experiences and personality. Social

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