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Type D personality, stress coping strategies and self-efficacy as predictors of Facebook intrusion
Psychiatry Research 253 (2017) 33–37
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Type D personality, stress coping strategies and self-efficacy as predictors of Facebook intrusion
MARK
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Agata Błachnioa, , Aneta Przepiorkaa, Stanisław Jerzy Czuczwarb,c a b c
The John Paul II Catholic University of Lublin, Poland Department of Pathophysiology, Medical University of Lublin, Jaczewskiego 8, 20-090 Lublin, Poland Department of Physiopathology, Institute of Rural Health, Lublin, Poland
A R T I C L E I N F O
A BS T RAC T
Keywords: Facebook intensity Facebook intrusion Type D personality Coping with stress Self-efficacy
Recently, Facebook has become one of the most popular social networking sites. People use it more and more often. A number of studies have recently addressed the issue of excessive Facebook use, showing this phenomenon to be a spreading problem. The main aim of the present study was to examine whether Type D personality, self-efficacy and coping strategies are related to Facebook intrusion. The participants were 882 students of Polish universities, all of them Facebook users (72% women, mean age: 22.25 years, SD =2.06). We used the Facebook Intrusion Questionnaire, the Facebook Intensity Scale, the General Self-Efficacy Scale, the Coping Inventory for Stressful Situations, and the Type D Scale. We applied the pen-and-paper procedure. Our results indicate that emotion-oriented and avoidance-oriented strategies of coping in stressful situations are predictors of Facebook intrusion and Facebook intensity. The relations between both Facebook intrusion and intensity and social inhibition are significant only when emotion-oriented coping strategy is controlled. The knowledge of whether coping strategies in stressful situations, such as focus on emotions or avoidance, are related to Facebook intrusion might be useful for clinical purposes.
1. Introduction Facebook is one of the most popular social networking sites. The number of its users reached 1 billion in 2014 and keeps increasing (Facebook, 2014). People use Facebook more and more, but only some of them have or will have a problem connected with using it. Intensive Facebook usage results in a new kind of behavioral disturbance. In the context of technological addiction, Elphinston and Noller (2011) defined Facebook intrusion as excessive involvement in Facebook that interferes with day-to-day activities and relationships. They distinguished three symptoms of this disorder: withdrawal, relapse and reinstatement, and euphoria. The concept of Facebook intrusion covers the state of distress and discomfort in situations of no access to Facebook. It is also related to aimless efforts to reduce Facebook use and positive feelings about being connected to the site. Facebook intrusion refers to a lack of control over Facebook use and to persistence in using Facebook despite experiencing its negative consequences. Given the frequency of Facebook use and its powerful effect on social life, excessive attachment to Facebook can become a serious mental health condition (e.g., Błachnio et al., 2015). Facebook addiction or Facebook intrusion (or, more broadly, social
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media addiction) has not been included in the recent disease classification manuals: the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-5) or the International Classification of Diseases and Health Problems (ICD-10). There is, however, strong consensus among specialists representing various disciplines – including psychologists and psychiatrists – that it is highly important to study problematic Facebook use in order to learn more about its nature and comorbidity. Research on determining the potential risk factors for this mental disorder is gaining in importance. According to some researchers, excessive behaviors should be distinguished from addiction (see Griffiths, 2009; Griffiths et al., 2014), and excessive Facebook use is not the same as Facebook addiction (Dantlgraber et al., 2016). Dantlgraber et al. (2016) adapted the Internet Addiction Test to the Facebook context. They concluded that Facebook addiction, though similar to the construct of Internet addiction, is narrower and more specific. This means that problematic Facebook use is a case of problematic Internet use, whereas problematic Internet use does not necessarily imply problematic Facebook use. The authors identified two factors in the Facebook Addiction Test (FAT): (1) Loss of Control and Interference With Daily Life and (2) Emotional and Cognitive Preoccupation With Facebook (Dantlgraber et al., 2016).
Correspondence to: Institute of Psychology, The John Paul II Catholic University of Lublin, Al. Racławickie 14, 20-950 Lublin, Poland. E-mail address: [email protected] (A. Błachnio).
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.psychres.2017.03.022 Received 7 June 2016; Received in revised form 2 March 2017; Accepted 11 March 2017 Available online 14 March 2017 0165-1781/ © 2017 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
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strategies. Al-Gamal et al. (2016) found a link between a high level of mental distress and Internet addiction in a student sample. Another study revealed that people who are addicted to social media tend to have lower mindfulness and choose emotion-oriented strategies in stressful situations (Sriwilai and Charoensukmongkol, 2015). A study devoted to Internet addiction and coping with stress indicated that avoidance coping style was related to generalized problematic Internet use (Li et al., 2008). It is therefore reasonable to predict that people who use Facebook intensively will choose coping strategies based on emotion and avoidance. A study of Chinese adolescents showed that, in their case, negative coping style was a mediator between stressful life events and the risk of IA (Tang et al., 2014). Additionally, people differ in how they perceive their own efficacy in coping with difficulties in life (Jerusalem and Schwarzer, 1981). Chiu (2014) pointed out that self-efficacy was a mediator between academic stress and smartphone addiction. Jeong and Kim (2011) indicated that social self-efficacy in real life was negatively linked with game addiction, while self-efficacy in cyber life was positively related to it. Poor coping and cognitive expectations were mediators between generalized Internet addiction and other factors, such as low self-efficacy and high stress vulnerability (Brand et al., 2014). We therefore expected that lower self-efficacy would be related to higher Facebook addiction. The main aim of the study was to examine whether Type D personality and strategies of coping with stress are related to Facebook intrusion. We considered stress-related variables, such as self-efficacy, coping with stress, and distressed personality. The present study aims to fill the gap in research by identifying the determinants of Facebook intrusion. It helps to understand the addictive mechanisms of this type of social media. So far, there has been scant research on the relation between stress and excessive Facebook use. To the best of our knowledge, there has been only one study examining this relation (Sriwilai and Charoensukmongkol, 2015). Its authors tested a sample of employees in Thailand and found that addiction to social media was positively related to the use of emotion-focused coping in dealing with stress at work. What distinguished our study from theirs was the different cultural context and the fact that the sample represented the general population of Facebook users rather than a specific group. A body of recent studies (e.g. Błachnio et al., 2016a, 2016b) showed that cultural aspect of Facebook intrusion may play an important explanatory role, and therefore it should be controlled in future research. Moreover, Sriwilai and Charoensukmongkol (2015) used a different scale to measure coping strategies – namely, the one developed by Lewin and Sager (2008). The present study was extended to include Type D personality, which is linked with a tendency to experience negative emotions in different situations (Denollet, 2005). We formulated the following hypotheses. In Hypothesis 1, we predicted that Type D personality would be related to Facebook intensity and Facebook intrusion:
Some scholars (e.g., Koc and Gulyagci, 2013) report a relation between a high level of Facebook use and Facebook addiction. Excessive Internet use and Internet addiction are interchangeably used terms (e.g., Weinstein and Lejoyeux, 2010). Although it is not always the case that those who spend much time on Facebook are addicted, there are some indications that among heavy Facebook users there are those who are already addicted to Facebook or are at risk of developing this kind of addiction. Facebook has changed social life and the way people – especially the young generations – communicate; it has changed the way they share information and pictures, the way they promote themselves, and where they set the privacy border (Kezer et al., 2016; Kim and Gweon, 2016; Steijn et al., 2016). It is therefore of paramount importance to investigate this phenomenon in various countries. There are studies showing cultural differences in Facebook use. These differences are visible in sharing photos (Günsoy et al., 2015; Huang and Park, 2013), in self-disclosure behavior (Reed et al., 2016), in self-presentation (Lee-Won et al., 2014), and in posting information (Nadkarni and Hofmann, 2012). Another study showed that Facebook intrusion is slightly related to Internet penetration in different countries (Błachnio et al., 2016a, 2016b). Our previous study revealed that cultural variables such as uniqueness and low context are predictors of Facebook intrusion (Błachnio et al., 2016b). In Poland, where the present study was conducted, about 80% of Internet users have Facebook accounts (Gemius, 2015). Due to the large population of users and a wide range of technological applications that enable engaging in various activities, the phenomenon of Facebook has been a subject of extensive research around the globe (e.g., Błachnio et al., 2013; Wilson et al., 2012). In Poland, Facebook is the most popular SNS. In June 2014, it was the second most often visited site after Google (Gemius, 2015). Stress is defined as a “nonspecific response of the body to noxious stimuli” (Selye, 1956, p. 12). Denollet (2005) introduced the construct of distressed personality, known as Type D personality, characterized by vulnerability to chronic distress. Type D personality consists of two factors: negative affectivity and social inhibition. People with a high level of negative affectivity have a tendency to feel negative emotions such as irritation, fear, or anger. At the same time, they score high on social inhibition and tend not to express negative emotions in social situations (Denollet, 2005). Some results indicate that Type D personality is related to alcohol addiction (Bruce et al., 2013). Other findings show that there is a positive link between Type D personality and depression, anxiety, posttraumatic stress disorder, mental distress, passive coping, and low social support (Mols and Denollet, 2010). Amichai-Hamburger and Hayat (2013) discussed the beneficial effect of the Internet on users with social inhibition, for whom it is easier to socialize online. On the other hand, some studies report that Facebook users scored somewhat higher on extraversion (Wilson et al., 2010). Moreover, Facebook intensity is positively associated with extraversion (Błachnio and Przepiorka, 2016). Consequently, as for social inhibition aspect of Type D personality, it is difficult to predict the direction of the relation. Previous findings showing the association between excessive Internet use and Type D personality inspired our search in this direction. What is more, in a recent study, Holdoš (2016) found positive correlations between Internet addiction and Type D personality. In view of the above, it can be supposed that there is a relationship between different addictions and Type D personality. We suppose that the tendency to feel more stress in different situations may be a predictor of maladaptive behavioral symptoms, such as excessive Facebook involvement. Apart from distressed personality, coping strategies should be taken into consideration. To the best of our knowledge, there is scarce research on Facebook intrusion and coping with stress. One of the pieces of evidence in favor of this link comes from a study on the relationship between Internet addiction and coping strategies. Wölfling et al. (2011) showed that Internet addiction was related to dysfunctional (maladaptive) coping
H1.1. Social exhibition is related to Facebook intensity and Facebook intrusion. H2.2. Negative affectivity is related to Facebook intensity and Facebook intrusion. Hypothesis 2,. it was postulated that maladaptive coping strategies would be associated with Facebook intensity and intrusion: H2.1. Avoidance coping is positively related to Facebook intensity and intrusion. H2.2. Emotion coping strategy is positively related to Facebook intensity and intrusion. Hypothesis 3,. it was predicted that self-efficacy would be negatively related to Facebook intensity and intrusion. All these hypotheses were tested in a cross-sectional study on a sample of Polish students who were Facebook users. 34
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2. Method
3. Results
2.1. Participants and Procedure
The descriptive statistics (means and standard deviations for all the variables) and Pearson's r correlations between the variables are presented in Table 1. Facebook intrusion and intensity were related to emotion-oriented coping strategies, avoidance in stressful situations, and negative affectivity. There is no correlation between self-efficacy and Facebook intrusion and intensity; we therefore decided not to include this variable in further analyses. Next, we performed hierarchical multiple regression analyses in order to assess the impact of Type D personality and coping with stress variables on Facebook intrusion and intensity. In the first step, Type D personality (negative affectivity and social inhibition) were entered as traits, and in the second step each strategy of coping with stress was entered as a skill. Table 2 presents the results of regression analyses for Facebook intrusion and intensity. The results indicated that Type D personality variables accounted for a statistically significant proportion of variance in Facebook intrusion (R2 =0.05, p < 0.01; F(2, 878) =23.19; ΔR2 =0.05, p < 0.001) and Facebook intensity (R2 =0.05, p < 0.01; F(2, 875) =22.99, ΔR2 =0.05; p < 0.001). Entering the coping with stress variables in Step 2 resulted in a statistically significant level of explained variance in Facebook intrusion (R2 =0.12, p < 0.001; F(3, 875) =23.40; ΔR2 =0.07, p < 0.001) and Facebook intensity (R2 =0.10, p < 0.001; F(3, 875) =15.66; ΔR2 =0.05, p < 0.001). Model 2, with both stress as a trait (Dtype personality) and coping strategies, explained 10% of variance in
The participants were 882 Polish university students who used Facebook; 72% of them were women. The participants’ mean age was 22.25 years (SD =2.06; range: 18–45), and the mean time they spent online was 24.74 min per day (SD =16.68). We used the ad hoc sampling and pen-and-paper procedures. The participants were approached in their classrooms and asked to complete a paper booklet of questionnaires. They volunteered for the study and received no monetary reward for participation. They were informed about the confidentiality of their responses. We chose widely used instruments with good reliability and high validity. Both measures of Facebook use had been used successfully before, in other Polish studies; we applied the back transition procedure, which is described in previous papers (e.g., Błachnio et al., 2015a, 2015b). 2.2. Instruments The Facebook Intrusion Questionnaire, developed by Elphinston and Noller (2011), is based on behavioral addiction components and on a scale measuring phone involvement. It consists of eight items (e.g., I have been unable to reduce my Facebook use) measuring the relations between Facebook involvement and eight aspects of behavioral addiction, namely: cognitive salience, behavioral salience, interpersonal conflict, conflict with other activities, euphoria, loss of control, withdrawal, as well as relapse and reinstatement. The items are rated on a 7-point Likert scale from 1 (strongly disagree) to 7 (strongly agree). The mean of item scores was computed. Cronbach's α in the current study was 0.84. The Facebook Intensity Scale (Ellison et al., 2007) measures the intensity and frequency of Facebook usage. Additionally, emotional attitude to the site and its impact on daily activities are measured (e.g., I feel I am part of the Facebook community; Facebook has become part of my daily routine). This scale consists of 8 items. Responses are indicated on a Likert scale from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree). Each person also has to indicate how many Facebook friends they have and how many minutes per day they spend using Facebook. In the present study, we used the Polish version of the scale as translated by Błachnio and Przepiorka. Cronbach's α in the current study was 0.82. The items were standardized and then the mean score was computed. Coping Inventory for Stressful Situations (CISS; Endler and Parker, 1990) measures the strategies used in situations of stress. We used the Polish version of the instrument, adapted by Strelau, Jaworowka, Wrześniewski, and Szczepaniak. The questionnaire comprises three factors: task-oriented coping (e.g., I organize my time better; in current study, Cronbach's α=0.89), emotion-oriented coping (e.g., I blame myself that I procrastinate things; α=0.89), and avoidance-oriented coping (e.g., I try to sleep; α=0.83). We calculated the sum score for each factor. Type D Scale (DS14; Denollet, 2005) measures Type D personality. It consists of 14 items rated on a 5-point Likert scale from 0 (false) to 4 (true). Two factors are distinguished in it: negative affectivity (e.g., I often feel unhappy) and social inhibition (e.g., I am a closed kind of person). We applied the back-translation procedure in order to adapt the instrument into Polish. Cronbach's α in current study was 0.88 for negative affectivity and 0.87 for social inhibition. We calculated the sum score for each factor. The General Self-Efficacy Scale by Jerusalem and Schwarzer (1995) as adapted into Polish by Juczynski, measures optimistic self-beliefs about coping with a variety of difficult tasks in life. It consists of 10 items (e.g., I can solve most problems if I invest the necessary effort). The items are rated on a 4-point Likert scale from 1 (not at all true) to 4 (exactly true). Cronbach's α in current study was 0.85.
Table 1 Means and Standard Deviations for the Variables and the Correlations of Facebook Intrusion and Intensity With Personality and Coping With Stress Variables. M
SD
Facebook intrusion Facebook intensity
3.13 0.01
1.32 0.67
0.71***
D type Negative affectivity Social inhibition
13.42 11.97
6.71 6.75
0.20*** −0.01
0.16*** −0.06
56.39 47.24
9.82 11.67
−0.01 0.29***
−0.03 0.22***
43.09
10.31
0.25***
0.23***
30.04
4.97
−0.06
−0.01
CISS Task-oriented coping Emotion-oriented coping Avoidance-oriented coping Self-efficacy
Facebook intrusion
Facebook intensity
*p < 0 0.05. **p < 0.01. *** p < 0.001. Table 2 Regression Analysis Results for the Prediction of Facebook Intrusion and Intensity.
Negative affectivity Social inhibition Task-oriented coping Emotion-oriented coping Avoidance-oriented coping R2 0.05 R2 change 0.05***
Facebook intrusion
Facebook intensity
Step 1
Step 1
Step 2
***
0.26 −0.13***
0.12 0.07***
***
0.08 0.24 −0.11*** −0.18*** 0.01 0.23*** 0.16*** 0.05 0.05***
Step 2 0.11* −0.16*** −0.04 0.14** 0.17*** 0.10*** 0.05***
Note. All beta weights are standardized; all R2 values presented in the table are adjusted R2 values. * p < 0.05. ** p < 0 0.01. *** p < 0.001.
35
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ingly, that negative affectivity as a factor of Type D personality was positively related to Facebook intensity and to Facebook intrusion. This means that people who have a tendency to experience negative emotions such as depression, anxiety, and anger more often engage in Facebook activities and use the site in a more excessive way. Other studies (Coskunpinar et al., 2013) showed that negative affectivity is related to problematic alcohol use and attentional biases. Negative affectivity has also been found to be characteristic for substance abusers with a gambling problem (McCormick, 1993). This finding is consistent with other studies, showing that negative affectivity is associated with a higher tendency for frequent risk-taking (Desrichard and Denarié, 2005). Some people use Facebook in an intense way in order to disrupt negative emotional states. Moreover, we found that social inhibition negatively predicts both Facebook intensity and intrusion. In other words, people who feel at ease in contacts with others and are open in social interactions have a tendency to use Facebook intensively and problematically. Elsewhere, Facebook use has been found to be positively associated with extraversion (Correa et al., 2010; Gosling et al., 2011; Jenkins-Guarnieri et al., 2012). Our study indicated that using emotion and avoidance strategies in stress situations is associated with Facebook intrusion and intensity and that higher negative affectivity is linked with Facebook intensity. Similarly, Sriwilai and Charoensukmongkol (2015) demonstrated that people who are addicted to social media have a tendency to use emotion-oriented strategies in stressful situations and that people who use Facebook in an excessive way in such situations often use avoidance strategies; for example, they engage in substitute activities such as sleeping or eating (distraction) and seek social life (social diversion). Moreover, a previous study revealed that negative affectivity is related to Internet addiction (Wölfling et al., 2011). This can be explained as showing that those who are not capable of emotion regulation are more prone to develop Facebook addiction. Our findings are in line with the previous ones, showing that avoidant coping styles and, less so, problem-solving styles such as self-blame, fantasy, withdrawal, or rationalization are usually characteristic for problematic Internet users (Li et al., 2008). These findings generally confirm the compensatory perspective on Internet addiction proposed by KardefeltWinther (2014), who stated that excessive online activity is people's escape from everyday problems. According to this approach, it is a result rather than a cause of other problems. Another study by Kardefelt-Winther (2014) also showed that escapism was a mediator of the relationship between stress and excessive online gaming. We can say that social openness is connected with both Facebook intrusion and intensity, but only in people who use emotion-oriented coping strategies in stress situations. Ease in social contacts can protect a person against excessive involvement in Facebook. However, people who have a tendency to focus on their own emotions, such as tension, blame, or anger, may use Facebook in problematic ways in stressful situations. In other words, this strategy may become maladaptive. Certain limitations of the current study must be acknowledged. The main limitation is the fact that a majority of the sample were women. In future research, a more equal proportion between genders should be ensured. Moreover, the study was based on self-report data, which is also a considerable limitation. The current results cannot be generalized to the whole population also because a majority of the sample were young people, even if it is young people who use Facebook the most intensively. The presented study has provided some indications for future research on Facebook intrusion. Research should investigate the relationship between Facebook intrusion and stress in greater depth in terms of the potential mediators of this relationship, such as perceived social support or satisfaction with life. In spite of these limitations, the findings of our study have a number of salient implications for therapists, teachers, psychologists, and psychiatrists. Its results can be applied in practice. An effective
Fig. 1. Suppression analyses.
Emotion-oriented coping
.35***
.22*** -.06
Social inhibition
Facebook intensity
-.15*** Fig. 2. Suppression analyses.
Facebook intrusion and 12% of variance in Facebook intensity. Model 2 is statistically better than Model 1, which includes only Type D personality. In the case of Facebook intrusion, social inhibition (β=−0.11, p=0.003), emotion-oriented coping (β=0.23, p=0.001), and avoidance-oriented coping (β=0.17, p=0.001) were found to have significant beta weights. In the case of Facebook intensity, the variables with positive beta weights were negative affectivity (β=0.11, p=0.016), emotion-oriented coping (β=0.14, p=0.002), avoidance-oriented coping (β=0.17, p=0.001), and the variable with negative beta weight was social inhibition (β=−0.16, p=0.001). Because social inhibition was significantly correlated neither with Facebook intrusion nor with Facebook intensity, we performed a posthoc suppression analysis. We checked if the strategies used in situations of stress are a suppressor variable. As we can see on the Fig. 1, with the emotional-oriented coping variable controlled, the direct effect between social inhibition and Facebook intrusion is significant (the Sobel test was Z =6.58, p < 0.001). Similarly, with emotional-oriented coping variable controlled, the direct effect between social inhibition and Facebook intensity is significant (the Sobel test was Z =5.58, p < 0.001). Other strategies of coping with stress turned out not to be significant (Fig. 2). 4. Discussion The aim of the present study was to examine whether Type D personality, self-efficacy, and strategies of coping with stress are related to Facebook intensity and intrusion. The instruments used in the present study measure behavioral indicators of excessive Facebook use as well as emotional attitude toward Facebook. The results revealed several predictors of Facebook use. Type D personality and strategies based on emotions and avoidance in stressful situations were predictors of Facebook intrusion and intensity. This means that people with a specific type of personality, who have a tendency to experience negative affect, as well as people focusing on emotions and avoiding problems in stressful situations are likely to become intensive Facebook users. We predicted that people who were vulnerable to chronic distress – namely, people characterized as representing Type D personality – would more often develop Facebook intrusion. It turned out, interest36
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strategy of coping with stress may become a goal of some workshops designed for people at risk of Facebook addiction. Strategies that are not effective responses to stress make stress worse and do not solve the problem. Facebook use as an avoidance strategy may only cause other problems. To sum up, problematic strategies of coping in stressful situations, such as focus on emotions or avoidance, are centrally relevant to Facebook intrusion and Facebook use. People who cannot cope with everyday problems productively are probably the ones who more often use Facebook in an excessive way. More research is still needed to provide a better understanding of the Facebook phenomenon, but our findings add to the mounting evidence on Facebook intrusion and shed light on some factors playing a role in excessive Facebook use. Acknowledgments This study was funded by Grant no. 2014/15/B/HS6/03129 from the National Science Center (NCN), Poland. 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Błachnio, A., Przepiorka, A., Benvenuti, M., Cannata, D., Ciobanu, A., Senol-Durak, E., Durak, M., Giannakos, M.N., Mazzoni, E., Papas, I., Popa, C., Seidman, G., Yu, S., Wu, A., Ben-Ezra, M., 2016a. An international perspective on Facebook intrusion. Psychiatry Res. 242, 385–387. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.psychres.2016.06.015. Błachnio, A., Przepiorka, A., Benvenuti, M., Cannata, D., Ciobanu, A., Senol-Durak, E., Durak, M., Giannakos, M.N., Mazzoni, E., Papas, I., Popa, C., Seidman, G., Yu, S., Wu, A., Ben-Ezra, M., 2016b. cultural and personality predictors of Facebook intrusion: a cross-cultural study. Front. Psychol. 7 (February 2004), 1895. http:// dx.doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2016.01895. Błachnio, A., Przepiorka, A., Pantic, I., 2015. Internet use, Facebook intrusion, and depression: results of a cross-sectional study. Eur. Psychiatry, 2–5. http:// dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.eurpsy.2015.04.002. Błachnio, A., Przepiorka, A., Rudnicka, P., 2013. Psychological determinants of using Facebook: a research review. Int. J. Hum.-Comput. Interact. 29 (11), 775–787. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/10447318.2013.780868. Brand, M., Laier, C., Young, K.S., 2014. Internet addiction: coping styles, expectancies, and treatment implications. Front. Psychol. 5. Bruce, G., Curren, C., Williams, L., 2013. Type D personality, alcohol dependence, and drinking motives in the general population. J. Stud. Alcohol Drugs 74 (1), 120–124. Chiu, S.-I., 2014. The relationship between life stress and smartphone addiction on taiwanese university student: a mediation model of learning self-efficacy and social self-efficacy. Comput. Hum. Behav. 34, 49–57. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/ j.chb.2014.01.024. Correa, T., Hinsley, A.W., de Zúñiga, H.G., 2010. Who interacts on the Web?: the intersection of users' personality and social media use. Comput. Hum. Behav. 26 (2), 247–253. Coskunpinar, A., Dir, A.L., Karyadi, K.A., Koo, C., Cyders, M.A., 2013. Mechanisms underlying the relationship between negative affectivity and problematic alcohol use. J. Exp. Psychopathol. 4 (3), 263–278. http://dx.doi.org/10.5127/jep.029612. Dantlgraber, M., Wetzel, E., Schützenberger, P., Stieger, S., Reips, U.-D., 2016. Simple construct evaluation with latent class analysis: an investigation of Facebook addiction and the development of a short form of the Facebook addiction Test (FAT). Behav. Res. Methods 48 (3), 869–879. http://dx.doi.org/10.3758/s13428-0160716-2. Denollet, J., 2005. DS14: standard assessment of negative affectivity, social inhibition, and Type D personality. Psychosom. Med. 67 (1), 89–97. http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/ 01.psy.0000149256.81953.49. Desrichard, O., Denarié, V., 2005. Sensation seeking and negative affectivity as predictors of risky behaviors: a distinction between occasional versus frequent risk-taking. Addict. Behav. 30 (7), 1449–1453. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/ j.addbeh.2005.01.011. Ellison, N.B., Steinfield, C., Lampe, C., 2007. The benefits of Facebook “friends:” social capital and college students' use of online social network sites. J. Comput.-Mediat. Commun. 12 (4), 1143–1168. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.10836101.2007.00367.x. Elphinston, R.A., Noller, P., 2011. Time to face it! Facebook intrusion and the implications for romantic jealousy and relationship satisfaction. Cyber., Behav. Soc. Netw. 14 (11), 631–635. http://dx.doi.org/10.1089/cyber.2010.0318.
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Psychiatry Research journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/psychres
Type D personality, stress coping strategies and self-efficacy as predictors of Facebook intrusion
MARK
⁎
Agata Błachnioa, , Aneta Przepiorkaa, Stanisław Jerzy Czuczwarb,c a b c
The John Paul II Catholic University of Lublin, Poland Department of Pathophysiology, Medical University of Lublin, Jaczewskiego 8, 20-090 Lublin, Poland Department of Physiopathology, Institute of Rural Health, Lublin, Poland
A R T I C L E I N F O
A BS T RAC T
Keywords: Facebook intensity Facebook intrusion Type D personality Coping with stress Self-efficacy
Recently, Facebook has become one of the most popular social networking sites. People use it more and more often. A number of studies have recently addressed the issue of excessive Facebook use, showing this phenomenon to be a spreading problem. The main aim of the present study was to examine whether Type D personality, self-efficacy and coping strategies are related to Facebook intrusion. The participants were 882 students of Polish universities, all of them Facebook users (72% women, mean age: 22.25 years, SD =2.06). We used the Facebook Intrusion Questionnaire, the Facebook Intensity Scale, the General Self-Efficacy Scale, the Coping Inventory for Stressful Situations, and the Type D Scale. We applied the pen-and-paper procedure. Our results indicate that emotion-oriented and avoidance-oriented strategies of coping in stressful situations are predictors of Facebook intrusion and Facebook intensity. The relations between both Facebook intrusion and intensity and social inhibition are significant only when emotion-oriented coping strategy is controlled. The knowledge of whether coping strategies in stressful situations, such as focus on emotions or avoidance, are related to Facebook intrusion might be useful for clinical purposes.
1. Introduction Facebook is one of the most popular social networking sites. The number of its users reached 1 billion in 2014 and keeps increasing (Facebook, 2014). People use Facebook more and more, but only some of them have or will have a problem connected with using it. Intensive Facebook usage results in a new kind of behavioral disturbance. In the context of technological addiction, Elphinston and Noller (2011) defined Facebook intrusion as excessive involvement in Facebook that interferes with day-to-day activities and relationships. They distinguished three symptoms of this disorder: withdrawal, relapse and reinstatement, and euphoria. The concept of Facebook intrusion covers the state of distress and discomfort in situations of no access to Facebook. It is also related to aimless efforts to reduce Facebook use and positive feelings about being connected to the site. Facebook intrusion refers to a lack of control over Facebook use and to persistence in using Facebook despite experiencing its negative consequences. Given the frequency of Facebook use and its powerful effect on social life, excessive attachment to Facebook can become a serious mental health condition (e.g., Błachnio et al., 2015). Facebook addiction or Facebook intrusion (or, more broadly, social
⁎
media addiction) has not been included in the recent disease classification manuals: the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-5) or the International Classification of Diseases and Health Problems (ICD-10). There is, however, strong consensus among specialists representing various disciplines – including psychologists and psychiatrists – that it is highly important to study problematic Facebook use in order to learn more about its nature and comorbidity. Research on determining the potential risk factors for this mental disorder is gaining in importance. According to some researchers, excessive behaviors should be distinguished from addiction (see Griffiths, 2009; Griffiths et al., 2014), and excessive Facebook use is not the same as Facebook addiction (Dantlgraber et al., 2016). Dantlgraber et al. (2016) adapted the Internet Addiction Test to the Facebook context. They concluded that Facebook addiction, though similar to the construct of Internet addiction, is narrower and more specific. This means that problematic Facebook use is a case of problematic Internet use, whereas problematic Internet use does not necessarily imply problematic Facebook use. The authors identified two factors in the Facebook Addiction Test (FAT): (1) Loss of Control and Interference With Daily Life and (2) Emotional and Cognitive Preoccupation With Facebook (Dantlgraber et al., 2016).
Correspondence to: Institute of Psychology, The John Paul II Catholic University of Lublin, Al. Racławickie 14, 20-950 Lublin, Poland. E-mail address: [email protected] (A. Błachnio).
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.psychres.2017.03.022 Received 7 June 2016; Received in revised form 2 March 2017; Accepted 11 March 2017 Available online 14 March 2017 0165-1781/ © 2017 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
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strategies. Al-Gamal et al. (2016) found a link between a high level of mental distress and Internet addiction in a student sample. Another study revealed that people who are addicted to social media tend to have lower mindfulness and choose emotion-oriented strategies in stressful situations (Sriwilai and Charoensukmongkol, 2015). A study devoted to Internet addiction and coping with stress indicated that avoidance coping style was related to generalized problematic Internet use (Li et al., 2008). It is therefore reasonable to predict that people who use Facebook intensively will choose coping strategies based on emotion and avoidance. A study of Chinese adolescents showed that, in their case, negative coping style was a mediator between stressful life events and the risk of IA (Tang et al., 2014). Additionally, people differ in how they perceive their own efficacy in coping with difficulties in life (Jerusalem and Schwarzer, 1981). Chiu (2014) pointed out that self-efficacy was a mediator between academic stress and smartphone addiction. Jeong and Kim (2011) indicated that social self-efficacy in real life was negatively linked with game addiction, while self-efficacy in cyber life was positively related to it. Poor coping and cognitive expectations were mediators between generalized Internet addiction and other factors, such as low self-efficacy and high stress vulnerability (Brand et al., 2014). We therefore expected that lower self-efficacy would be related to higher Facebook addiction. The main aim of the study was to examine whether Type D personality and strategies of coping with stress are related to Facebook intrusion. We considered stress-related variables, such as self-efficacy, coping with stress, and distressed personality. The present study aims to fill the gap in research by identifying the determinants of Facebook intrusion. It helps to understand the addictive mechanisms of this type of social media. So far, there has been scant research on the relation between stress and excessive Facebook use. To the best of our knowledge, there has been only one study examining this relation (Sriwilai and Charoensukmongkol, 2015). Its authors tested a sample of employees in Thailand and found that addiction to social media was positively related to the use of emotion-focused coping in dealing with stress at work. What distinguished our study from theirs was the different cultural context and the fact that the sample represented the general population of Facebook users rather than a specific group. A body of recent studies (e.g. Błachnio et al., 2016a, 2016b) showed that cultural aspect of Facebook intrusion may play an important explanatory role, and therefore it should be controlled in future research. Moreover, Sriwilai and Charoensukmongkol (2015) used a different scale to measure coping strategies – namely, the one developed by Lewin and Sager (2008). The present study was extended to include Type D personality, which is linked with a tendency to experience negative emotions in different situations (Denollet, 2005). We formulated the following hypotheses. In Hypothesis 1, we predicted that Type D personality would be related to Facebook intensity and Facebook intrusion:
Some scholars (e.g., Koc and Gulyagci, 2013) report a relation between a high level of Facebook use and Facebook addiction. Excessive Internet use and Internet addiction are interchangeably used terms (e.g., Weinstein and Lejoyeux, 2010). Although it is not always the case that those who spend much time on Facebook are addicted, there are some indications that among heavy Facebook users there are those who are already addicted to Facebook or are at risk of developing this kind of addiction. Facebook has changed social life and the way people – especially the young generations – communicate; it has changed the way they share information and pictures, the way they promote themselves, and where they set the privacy border (Kezer et al., 2016; Kim and Gweon, 2016; Steijn et al., 2016). It is therefore of paramount importance to investigate this phenomenon in various countries. There are studies showing cultural differences in Facebook use. These differences are visible in sharing photos (Günsoy et al., 2015; Huang and Park, 2013), in self-disclosure behavior (Reed et al., 2016), in self-presentation (Lee-Won et al., 2014), and in posting information (Nadkarni and Hofmann, 2012). Another study showed that Facebook intrusion is slightly related to Internet penetration in different countries (Błachnio et al., 2016a, 2016b). Our previous study revealed that cultural variables such as uniqueness and low context are predictors of Facebook intrusion (Błachnio et al., 2016b). In Poland, where the present study was conducted, about 80% of Internet users have Facebook accounts (Gemius, 2015). Due to the large population of users and a wide range of technological applications that enable engaging in various activities, the phenomenon of Facebook has been a subject of extensive research around the globe (e.g., Błachnio et al., 2013; Wilson et al., 2012). In Poland, Facebook is the most popular SNS. In June 2014, it was the second most often visited site after Google (Gemius, 2015). Stress is defined as a “nonspecific response of the body to noxious stimuli” (Selye, 1956, p. 12). Denollet (2005) introduced the construct of distressed personality, known as Type D personality, characterized by vulnerability to chronic distress. Type D personality consists of two factors: negative affectivity and social inhibition. People with a high level of negative affectivity have a tendency to feel negative emotions such as irritation, fear, or anger. At the same time, they score high on social inhibition and tend not to express negative emotions in social situations (Denollet, 2005). Some results indicate that Type D personality is related to alcohol addiction (Bruce et al., 2013). Other findings show that there is a positive link between Type D personality and depression, anxiety, posttraumatic stress disorder, mental distress, passive coping, and low social support (Mols and Denollet, 2010). Amichai-Hamburger and Hayat (2013) discussed the beneficial effect of the Internet on users with social inhibition, for whom it is easier to socialize online. On the other hand, some studies report that Facebook users scored somewhat higher on extraversion (Wilson et al., 2010). Moreover, Facebook intensity is positively associated with extraversion (Błachnio and Przepiorka, 2016). Consequently, as for social inhibition aspect of Type D personality, it is difficult to predict the direction of the relation. Previous findings showing the association between excessive Internet use and Type D personality inspired our search in this direction. What is more, in a recent study, Holdoš (2016) found positive correlations between Internet addiction and Type D personality. In view of the above, it can be supposed that there is a relationship between different addictions and Type D personality. We suppose that the tendency to feel more stress in different situations may be a predictor of maladaptive behavioral symptoms, such as excessive Facebook involvement. Apart from distressed personality, coping strategies should be taken into consideration. To the best of our knowledge, there is scarce research on Facebook intrusion and coping with stress. One of the pieces of evidence in favor of this link comes from a study on the relationship between Internet addiction and coping strategies. Wölfling et al. (2011) showed that Internet addiction was related to dysfunctional (maladaptive) coping
H1.1. Social exhibition is related to Facebook intensity and Facebook intrusion. H2.2. Negative affectivity is related to Facebook intensity and Facebook intrusion. Hypothesis 2,. it was postulated that maladaptive coping strategies would be associated with Facebook intensity and intrusion: H2.1. Avoidance coping is positively related to Facebook intensity and intrusion. H2.2. Emotion coping strategy is positively related to Facebook intensity and intrusion. Hypothesis 3,. it was predicted that self-efficacy would be negatively related to Facebook intensity and intrusion. All these hypotheses were tested in a cross-sectional study on a sample of Polish students who were Facebook users. 34
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2. Method
3. Results
2.1. Participants and Procedure
The descriptive statistics (means and standard deviations for all the variables) and Pearson's r correlations between the variables are presented in Table 1. Facebook intrusion and intensity were related to emotion-oriented coping strategies, avoidance in stressful situations, and negative affectivity. There is no correlation between self-efficacy and Facebook intrusion and intensity; we therefore decided not to include this variable in further analyses. Next, we performed hierarchical multiple regression analyses in order to assess the impact of Type D personality and coping with stress variables on Facebook intrusion and intensity. In the first step, Type D personality (negative affectivity and social inhibition) were entered as traits, and in the second step each strategy of coping with stress was entered as a skill. Table 2 presents the results of regression analyses for Facebook intrusion and intensity. The results indicated that Type D personality variables accounted for a statistically significant proportion of variance in Facebook intrusion (R2 =0.05, p < 0.01; F(2, 878) =23.19; ΔR2 =0.05, p < 0.001) and Facebook intensity (R2 =0.05, p < 0.01; F(2, 875) =22.99, ΔR2 =0.05; p < 0.001). Entering the coping with stress variables in Step 2 resulted in a statistically significant level of explained variance in Facebook intrusion (R2 =0.12, p < 0.001; F(3, 875) =23.40; ΔR2 =0.07, p < 0.001) and Facebook intensity (R2 =0.10, p < 0.001; F(3, 875) =15.66; ΔR2 =0.05, p < 0.001). Model 2, with both stress as a trait (Dtype personality) and coping strategies, explained 10% of variance in
The participants were 882 Polish university students who used Facebook; 72% of them were women. The participants’ mean age was 22.25 years (SD =2.06; range: 18–45), and the mean time they spent online was 24.74 min per day (SD =16.68). We used the ad hoc sampling and pen-and-paper procedures. The participants were approached in their classrooms and asked to complete a paper booklet of questionnaires. They volunteered for the study and received no monetary reward for participation. They were informed about the confidentiality of their responses. We chose widely used instruments with good reliability and high validity. Both measures of Facebook use had been used successfully before, in other Polish studies; we applied the back transition procedure, which is described in previous papers (e.g., Błachnio et al., 2015a, 2015b). 2.2. Instruments The Facebook Intrusion Questionnaire, developed by Elphinston and Noller (2011), is based on behavioral addiction components and on a scale measuring phone involvement. It consists of eight items (e.g., I have been unable to reduce my Facebook use) measuring the relations between Facebook involvement and eight aspects of behavioral addiction, namely: cognitive salience, behavioral salience, interpersonal conflict, conflict with other activities, euphoria, loss of control, withdrawal, as well as relapse and reinstatement. The items are rated on a 7-point Likert scale from 1 (strongly disagree) to 7 (strongly agree). The mean of item scores was computed. Cronbach's α in the current study was 0.84. The Facebook Intensity Scale (Ellison et al., 2007) measures the intensity and frequency of Facebook usage. Additionally, emotional attitude to the site and its impact on daily activities are measured (e.g., I feel I am part of the Facebook community; Facebook has become part of my daily routine). This scale consists of 8 items. Responses are indicated on a Likert scale from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree). Each person also has to indicate how many Facebook friends they have and how many minutes per day they spend using Facebook. In the present study, we used the Polish version of the scale as translated by Błachnio and Przepiorka. Cronbach's α in the current study was 0.82. The items were standardized and then the mean score was computed. Coping Inventory for Stressful Situations (CISS; Endler and Parker, 1990) measures the strategies used in situations of stress. We used the Polish version of the instrument, adapted by Strelau, Jaworowka, Wrześniewski, and Szczepaniak. The questionnaire comprises three factors: task-oriented coping (e.g., I organize my time better; in current study, Cronbach's α=0.89), emotion-oriented coping (e.g., I blame myself that I procrastinate things; α=0.89), and avoidance-oriented coping (e.g., I try to sleep; α=0.83). We calculated the sum score for each factor. Type D Scale (DS14; Denollet, 2005) measures Type D personality. It consists of 14 items rated on a 5-point Likert scale from 0 (false) to 4 (true). Two factors are distinguished in it: negative affectivity (e.g., I often feel unhappy) and social inhibition (e.g., I am a closed kind of person). We applied the back-translation procedure in order to adapt the instrument into Polish. Cronbach's α in current study was 0.88 for negative affectivity and 0.87 for social inhibition. We calculated the sum score for each factor. The General Self-Efficacy Scale by Jerusalem and Schwarzer (1995) as adapted into Polish by Juczynski, measures optimistic self-beliefs about coping with a variety of difficult tasks in life. It consists of 10 items (e.g., I can solve most problems if I invest the necessary effort). The items are rated on a 4-point Likert scale from 1 (not at all true) to 4 (exactly true). Cronbach's α in current study was 0.85.
Table 1 Means and Standard Deviations for the Variables and the Correlations of Facebook Intrusion and Intensity With Personality and Coping With Stress Variables. M
SD
Facebook intrusion Facebook intensity
3.13 0.01
1.32 0.67
0.71***
D type Negative affectivity Social inhibition
13.42 11.97
6.71 6.75
0.20*** −0.01
0.16*** −0.06
56.39 47.24
9.82 11.67
−0.01 0.29***
−0.03 0.22***
43.09
10.31
0.25***
0.23***
30.04
4.97
−0.06
−0.01
CISS Task-oriented coping Emotion-oriented coping Avoidance-oriented coping Self-efficacy
Facebook intrusion
Facebook intensity
*p < 0 0.05. **p < 0.01. *** p < 0.001. Table 2 Regression Analysis Results for the Prediction of Facebook Intrusion and Intensity.
Negative affectivity Social inhibition Task-oriented coping Emotion-oriented coping Avoidance-oriented coping R2 0.05 R2 change 0.05***
Facebook intrusion
Facebook intensity
Step 1
Step 1
Step 2
***
0.26 −0.13***
0.12 0.07***
***
0.08 0.24 −0.11*** −0.18*** 0.01 0.23*** 0.16*** 0.05 0.05***
Step 2 0.11* −0.16*** −0.04 0.14** 0.17*** 0.10*** 0.05***
Note. All beta weights are standardized; all R2 values presented in the table are adjusted R2 values. * p < 0.05. ** p < 0 0.01. *** p < 0.001.
35
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ingly, that negative affectivity as a factor of Type D personality was positively related to Facebook intensity and to Facebook intrusion. This means that people who have a tendency to experience negative emotions such as depression, anxiety, and anger more often engage in Facebook activities and use the site in a more excessive way. Other studies (Coskunpinar et al., 2013) showed that negative affectivity is related to problematic alcohol use and attentional biases. Negative affectivity has also been found to be characteristic for substance abusers with a gambling problem (McCormick, 1993). This finding is consistent with other studies, showing that negative affectivity is associated with a higher tendency for frequent risk-taking (Desrichard and Denarié, 2005). Some people use Facebook in an intense way in order to disrupt negative emotional states. Moreover, we found that social inhibition negatively predicts both Facebook intensity and intrusion. In other words, people who feel at ease in contacts with others and are open in social interactions have a tendency to use Facebook intensively and problematically. Elsewhere, Facebook use has been found to be positively associated with extraversion (Correa et al., 2010; Gosling et al., 2011; Jenkins-Guarnieri et al., 2012). Our study indicated that using emotion and avoidance strategies in stress situations is associated with Facebook intrusion and intensity and that higher negative affectivity is linked with Facebook intensity. Similarly, Sriwilai and Charoensukmongkol (2015) demonstrated that people who are addicted to social media have a tendency to use emotion-oriented strategies in stressful situations and that people who use Facebook in an excessive way in such situations often use avoidance strategies; for example, they engage in substitute activities such as sleeping or eating (distraction) and seek social life (social diversion). Moreover, a previous study revealed that negative affectivity is related to Internet addiction (Wölfling et al., 2011). This can be explained as showing that those who are not capable of emotion regulation are more prone to develop Facebook addiction. Our findings are in line with the previous ones, showing that avoidant coping styles and, less so, problem-solving styles such as self-blame, fantasy, withdrawal, or rationalization are usually characteristic for problematic Internet users (Li et al., 2008). These findings generally confirm the compensatory perspective on Internet addiction proposed by KardefeltWinther (2014), who stated that excessive online activity is people's escape from everyday problems. According to this approach, it is a result rather than a cause of other problems. Another study by Kardefelt-Winther (2014) also showed that escapism was a mediator of the relationship between stress and excessive online gaming. We can say that social openness is connected with both Facebook intrusion and intensity, but only in people who use emotion-oriented coping strategies in stress situations. Ease in social contacts can protect a person against excessive involvement in Facebook. However, people who have a tendency to focus on their own emotions, such as tension, blame, or anger, may use Facebook in problematic ways in stressful situations. In other words, this strategy may become maladaptive. Certain limitations of the current study must be acknowledged. The main limitation is the fact that a majority of the sample were women. In future research, a more equal proportion between genders should be ensured. Moreover, the study was based on self-report data, which is also a considerable limitation. The current results cannot be generalized to the whole population also because a majority of the sample were young people, even if it is young people who use Facebook the most intensively. The presented study has provided some indications for future research on Facebook intrusion. Research should investigate the relationship between Facebook intrusion and stress in greater depth in terms of the potential mediators of this relationship, such as perceived social support or satisfaction with life. In spite of these limitations, the findings of our study have a number of salient implications for therapists, teachers, psychologists, and psychiatrists. Its results can be applied in practice. An effective
Fig. 1. Suppression analyses.
Emotion-oriented coping
.35***
.22*** -.06
Social inhibition
Facebook intensity
-.15*** Fig. 2. Suppression analyses.
Facebook intrusion and 12% of variance in Facebook intensity. Model 2 is statistically better than Model 1, which includes only Type D personality. In the case of Facebook intrusion, social inhibition (β=−0.11, p=0.003), emotion-oriented coping (β=0.23, p=0.001), and avoidance-oriented coping (β=0.17, p=0.001) were found to have significant beta weights. In the case of Facebook intensity, the variables with positive beta weights were negative affectivity (β=0.11, p=0.016), emotion-oriented coping (β=0.14, p=0.002), avoidance-oriented coping (β=0.17, p=0.001), and the variable with negative beta weight was social inhibition (β=−0.16, p=0.001). Because social inhibition was significantly correlated neither with Facebook intrusion nor with Facebook intensity, we performed a posthoc suppression analysis. We checked if the strategies used in situations of stress are a suppressor variable. As we can see on the Fig. 1, with the emotional-oriented coping variable controlled, the direct effect between social inhibition and Facebook intrusion is significant (the Sobel test was Z =6.58, p < 0.001). Similarly, with emotional-oriented coping variable controlled, the direct effect between social inhibition and Facebook intensity is significant (the Sobel test was Z =5.58, p < 0.001). Other strategies of coping with stress turned out not to be significant (Fig. 2). 4. Discussion The aim of the present study was to examine whether Type D personality, self-efficacy, and strategies of coping with stress are related to Facebook intensity and intrusion. The instruments used in the present study measure behavioral indicators of excessive Facebook use as well as emotional attitude toward Facebook. The results revealed several predictors of Facebook use. Type D personality and strategies based on emotions and avoidance in stressful situations were predictors of Facebook intrusion and intensity. This means that people with a specific type of personality, who have a tendency to experience negative affect, as well as people focusing on emotions and avoiding problems in stressful situations are likely to become intensive Facebook users. We predicted that people who were vulnerable to chronic distress – namely, people characterized as representing Type D personality – would more often develop Facebook intrusion. It turned out, interest36
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strategy of coping with stress may become a goal of some workshops designed for people at risk of Facebook addiction. Strategies that are not effective responses to stress make stress worse and do not solve the problem. Facebook use as an avoidance strategy may only cause other problems. To sum up, problematic strategies of coping in stressful situations, such as focus on emotions or avoidance, are centrally relevant to Facebook intrusion and Facebook use. People who cannot cope with everyday problems productively are probably the ones who more often use Facebook in an excessive way. More research is still needed to provide a better understanding of the Facebook phenomenon, but our findings add to the mounting evidence on Facebook intrusion and shed light on some factors playing a role in excessive Facebook use. Acknowledgments This study was funded by Grant no. 2014/15/B/HS6/03129 from the National Science Center (NCN), Poland. 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