- Email: [email protected]
Typing with a two-hand chord keyboard: Will the QWERTY become obsolete?
regulatory and information symbols in particular. Understandability was the factor rated most important, with conspicuity second. Learnability was considered least important, while reaction time, legibility distance and glance legibility were rated equally but were determined to be more important than learnability.
21.1.25 (113352)
Halton, T.B., and Wiginton, J.C. Designing screens for people to use easily. Computers & Indust Engng, 1988, 1 5 . 1 - 4 , 4 2 8 - 4 3 6 , 8 refs. The most common communications bridge between a person and a computer system is a display screen. A welldesigned screen format can enhance user productivity, eliminate or reduce user input errors, and p r o m o t e end user satisfaction. A poorly designed screen has the opposite effect: it will decrease human processing speed, provoke user mistakes, and complicate computer operations. Screen design requires the same care as designing the over-all application. It employs the same techniques as planning and preparing good user documents. Screens, like documents, must be easy to understand and easy to use. To achieve these objectives, screen designers must make good choices regarding three ease-of-use parameters: format; screen content and layout; and style. This paper describes how standards may be established for each of these parameters in a proposed application or system. Further, an interactive tutorial computer program has been developed (using Bricklin's DEMO program) which may be used to illustrate the application of these standards.
21.1.26 (113393) Fey, G.E. Application of technical writing principles to questionnaire design. In: Trends in Ergonomics/Human Factors V, F. Aghazadeh (Ed). North-Holland, Amsterdam, 1988, pp 1 1 5 - 1 2 3 , 24 refs. In gathering data to measure criteria, researchers frequently find themselves compiling questionnaires to be completed by or administered to respondents. The results from the administration of a questionnaire ultimately depend on the questions asked. Drawing on a variety of textbooks, periodicals and technical reports, this paper presents summary information on questionnaire design. Topics addressed in this paper include pre-questionnaire considerations and wording of the questions. It is prescriptive as well as descriptive in its coverage of questionnaires in general and questions in particular. The author, a
80
Applied Ergonomics
former technical writer, points out the similarities between good writing and good questionnaires.
21.1.27 (113360)
Marics, M.A., and Williges, B.H. The intelligibility of synthesised speech in data inquiry systems. Human Factors, 1988, 3 0 . 6 , 7 1 9 - 7 3 2 , 24 refs. Recent improvements in speech technology have made synthetic speech a viable form of system feedback. However, little is known about the effects of various speech parameters on speech intelligibility and system performance. Experiment 1 examined the effect of situational context clues and speech rate on synthesised speech intelligibility. Subjects who received pragmatic context information prior to each message had transcription error rates 50% lower than those who received no context information. Speech rates of 250 words per minute (wpm) yielded significantly more transcription errors and longer response latencies than rates of 180 wpm. In Experiment 2 the effects of speech rate, message repetition and location of information in a message were examined. Transcription accuracy was best for messages spoken at 150 or 180 wpm and for messages repeated either twice or three times. Words at the end of messages were transcribed more accurately than words at the beginning of messages. Subjective ratings indicated that subjects were aware of errors when incorrectly transcribing a message even though no feedback was provided.
21.1.28 (113373)
McDonald, J.E., Molander, M.E., and Noel, R.W. Color-coding categories in menus. In: Proc Conf on Human Factors in Computing Systems, CHI '88, Washington, DC, 1 5 - 1 9 May, 1988, E. Soloway, D. Frye and S.B. Sheppard (Eds). Assoc for Computing Machinery, New York, 1988, pp 1 0 1 - 1 0 6 , 10 refs. Categorical menu layouts are currently designed according to conventions and opinions, rather than by employing formal techniques. In this paper the authors describe a formal methodology for categorically organising menus. They go on to show how colour-coding can be applied to these layouts either to emphasise organisation or to provide additional information. The results of a controlled study comparing layouts based on frequency of co-occurrence and similarity show that the formal menu-layout methodology is effective. However, the use of colour-coding to identify categories is not supported. Potential reasons for this failure are discussed.
March 1990
Display and control design 21.1.29 (113524) Wong, C.K., and Lyman, J. American and Japanese control-display stereotypes: Possible implications for design of space station systems. In: Riding the Wave of Innovation. Proc Human Factors Soc 32nd Ann Meeting, Anaheim, California, 2 4 - 2 8 Oct, 1988: The Human Factors Soc, Santa Monica, California, Vol 1, t 988, pp 3 0 - 3 4 , 6 refs. This study examined the stimulusresponse stereotypes of American (United States citizens) and Japanese (Japanese citizens) subjects on the issue of control-display arrangements. Three questions were investigated. First, do Japanese and American operators adhere to the same compatibility principles -- e g, clockwisefor-increase - for certain configurations? Second, do the operators show similar or different responses to certain configurations? Third, are there arrangements in which both populations show strong or weak stimulus-response stereotypes? A paper and pencil test that contained 24 different control-display configurations was administered to 58 American subjects and 58 Japanese subjects, all of whom were right-handed. Out of the 24 configurations, only one elicited similar and statistically significant response stereotypes from American and Japanese subjects. The arrangement that did so emphasised that three compatibility principles (clockwise-for-increase, nearness of control-cursor relation, and scale-side) be in agreement with each other. The results provide initial, albeit speculative, guidelines for the design of controldisplay systems in NASA's international space station. Since multi-cultural crews will inhabit the space station for longduration missions, control-display designs which elicit common, consistent and extremely strong control-movement stereotypes from different cultural populations are a necessity.
21.1.30 (113483) Gopher, D., and R a i l D. Typing with a two-hand chord keyboard: Will the QWERTY become obsolete? IEEE Trans on Systems, Man and Cybernetics, 1988, 1 8 . 4 , 6 0 1 - 6 0 9 , 2 refs. The cognitive and m o t o r difficulties of acquiring a touch typing skill on the present system are analysed. It is proposed that poor cognitive structure is a main source of difficulty in the acquisition of typing skills. Experiments are described with a two-hand chord keyboard designed to provide an efficient alternative to the existing
standard QWERTY keyboard. The new system is based upon simpler and more powerful cognitive and motor organisation principles. It comprises two panels of five keys, one to each hand. Characters are entered by pressing together combinations of keys. The system enables fast skill acquisition, with subjects reaching rates of 3 0 - 3 5 words/rain after 20 h of training. With 60 h of training, subjects can reach entry rates close to 60 words/rain. There is no negative transfer from the new skill to an existing typing proficiency. A cognitive oriented design approach to data entry devices, of the kind applied to the development of the present chord keyboards, appears to have a strong promise in the age of computers. 21.1.31 (113484)
Milner, N.P. A review of human performance and preferences with different input devices to computer systems. In: People and Computers IV, D.M. Jones and R. Winder (Eds). Cambridge Univ Press, Cambridge, 1988, pp 3 4 1 - 3 6 2 , 35 refs. A large number of studies exist which compare different computer input devices. Under experimental conditions, no single device has been found to be consistently more appropriate than any other for humancomputer interaction. An extensive literature review has been undertaken of papers which compare the performance of different input devices. In the studies reviewed, all the devices have been compared on either speed, accuracy or subjective preference or a combination of these three measures. Whilst it is accepted that there are studies which contradict one another, the following general conclusions can be drawn. 1. For fixed-choice low-resolution applications the most direct input device (e g, a touch sensitive screen) is quickest and most liked by subjects. 2. For quick and accurate selection or manipulation of high-resolution objects indirect input devices are better than direct devices. 3. There is no clear evidence to support the mouse, joystick or trackball as being the best high-resolution indirect input device. 4. In comparative studies, cursor keys and function keys perform poorly against other input devices. 5. Experimental tasks and the specific design of the input device have a large effect on the empirical results. 21.1.32 (113489)
Nolan, P.R. The design of a squishy mouse. In: Riding the Wave of Innovation. Proc Human Factors Soc 32nd Ann Meeting, Anaheim, California, 2 4 - 2 8 Oct, 1988. The Human Factors Soc, Santa Monica, California, Vol 1, 1988, pp 4 2 5 - 4 2 9 , 4 refs.
Five research studies were conducted to specify the physical description of a novel mouse for an office computer. The mouse had side buttons that, when pressed at the same time, moved or scrolled the contents of the active window. The studies examined accidental activation of both the side buttons and the top buttons, whether the mouse should be single button or have multiple buttons on its top surface, the back width dimension, volume and silhouette, top b u t t o n position, and side button size and position. Each study provided data that were used in the n e x t study, after it was reviewed by a design team. This case study shows that in design/development environments, quick iterative studies serve the needs of design teams by providing successive approximations to the final design in a timely fashion. The utility of this method is compared with a multifactorial design.
21.1.33 (113504)
Shahnavaz, H., and Blomkvist, A.C~ Objective ~ subjective evaluation of ergonomics aspects of VDU filters. Displays Tech and Applications, 1989, 10.1, 2 9 - 3 6 , 12 refs. A study has been carried out to evaluate the effects of some commercially available filters for VDUs both from an objective and subjective viewpoint. Questionnaires were sent to filter manufacturers to assess their attitudes and opinions. Examination of colour, light absorption, change of contrast between character and background, and electrostatic measures were made in a university laboratory, and case studies were enacted in several offices. Ergonomics evaluations are discussed.
on the photometric properties of such markings and interim design guidance is offered for their use as potential alternative or supplementary provision to the traditional emergency lighting approach. 21.1.35 (113510)
Quellette, M.J. Exit signs in smoke: Design parameters for greater visibility. Lighting Res and Technol, 1988, 20.4, 155-160, 19 refs. A review of regulations and specifications for internally illuminated exit signs recommended or enforced by various sanctioning bodies in Canada, Great Britain and elsewhere reveals omissions and inconsistencies which may compromise the safety of building occupants in smoke. Since these problems are partly due to lack of conclusive research, a controlled psychophysical experiment was conducted to assess the readability of three common exit sign design features (i e, the various combinations of opaque and transilluminated text and backgrounds) under different levels of smoke density and ambient illumination. The sign designs differed greatly in terms of threshold illuminance at the rear of the signs (analogous to the intensity of the sign's light source), but all were similar in terms of the threshold luminance of the sign's front panel. Based on these findings, recommendations are made for improved building codes. 21.1.36 (113512)
Herlong, D.W., and Williges, B.H. Designing speech displays for telephone information systems. In: Riding the Wave of Innovation. Proc Human Factors Soc 32nd Ann meeting, Anaheim, California, 2 4 - 2 8 Oct, 1988. The Human Factors Soc, Santa Monica, California, Vol 1, 1988, p p 2 1 5 218, 8 refs.
21.1.34 (113509)
This study used a computer-driven telephone information system as a realtime human-computer interface to Movement under emergency lighting: Comparison between standard provisions simulate applications where synthetic and photoluminescent markings. Lighting speech is used to access data. Subjects Res and Technol, 1988, 20.4, 1 6 7 - 1 7 5 , used a telephone keypad to search through an automated department 17 refs. store database to locate and transcribe Photoluminescent markings are specific information messages. Because currently finding applications in emerspeech provides a sequential and transgency and safety signs. The material ient information display, users may glows in the dark (if previously excited) have difficulty navigating through and is therefore particularly useful at auditory databases, One issue investitimes of power failure, especially since gated in this study was whether the its temporal luminance decay is matched alternate use of male and female voices approximately by dark adaptation of to code different levels of the database the human eye. Comparability was would improve user search performance. found between speeds of movement Other issues investigated under the minimum BS5266 emergency were the basic intelligibility of these illuminance and with photoluminescent male and female voices as influenced by markings alone. Questionnaire scores different levels of speech rate. All from subjects indicated that the latter factors were assessed as functions of is at least as acceptable on escape routes search or transcription task performance and is often preferred. Data are given and user preference. Analysis of trans-
Webber, G.M.B., Hallman, P.J., and Salvidge, A.C.
Applied Ergonomics March 1990
81
21.1.25 (113352)
Halton, T.B., and Wiginton, J.C. Designing screens for people to use easily. Computers & Indust Engng, 1988, 1 5 . 1 - 4 , 4 2 8 - 4 3 6 , 8 refs. The most common communications bridge between a person and a computer system is a display screen. A welldesigned screen format can enhance user productivity, eliminate or reduce user input errors, and p r o m o t e end user satisfaction. A poorly designed screen has the opposite effect: it will decrease human processing speed, provoke user mistakes, and complicate computer operations. Screen design requires the same care as designing the over-all application. It employs the same techniques as planning and preparing good user documents. Screens, like documents, must be easy to understand and easy to use. To achieve these objectives, screen designers must make good choices regarding three ease-of-use parameters: format; screen content and layout; and style. This paper describes how standards may be established for each of these parameters in a proposed application or system. Further, an interactive tutorial computer program has been developed (using Bricklin's DEMO program) which may be used to illustrate the application of these standards.
21.1.26 (113393) Fey, G.E. Application of technical writing principles to questionnaire design. In: Trends in Ergonomics/Human Factors V, F. Aghazadeh (Ed). North-Holland, Amsterdam, 1988, pp 1 1 5 - 1 2 3 , 24 refs. In gathering data to measure criteria, researchers frequently find themselves compiling questionnaires to be completed by or administered to respondents. The results from the administration of a questionnaire ultimately depend on the questions asked. Drawing on a variety of textbooks, periodicals and technical reports, this paper presents summary information on questionnaire design. Topics addressed in this paper include pre-questionnaire considerations and wording of the questions. It is prescriptive as well as descriptive in its coverage of questionnaires in general and questions in particular. The author, a
80
Applied Ergonomics
former technical writer, points out the similarities between good writing and good questionnaires.
21.1.27 (113360)
Marics, M.A., and Williges, B.H. The intelligibility of synthesised speech in data inquiry systems. Human Factors, 1988, 3 0 . 6 , 7 1 9 - 7 3 2 , 24 refs. Recent improvements in speech technology have made synthetic speech a viable form of system feedback. However, little is known about the effects of various speech parameters on speech intelligibility and system performance. Experiment 1 examined the effect of situational context clues and speech rate on synthesised speech intelligibility. Subjects who received pragmatic context information prior to each message had transcription error rates 50% lower than those who received no context information. Speech rates of 250 words per minute (wpm) yielded significantly more transcription errors and longer response latencies than rates of 180 wpm. In Experiment 2 the effects of speech rate, message repetition and location of information in a message were examined. Transcription accuracy was best for messages spoken at 150 or 180 wpm and for messages repeated either twice or three times. Words at the end of messages were transcribed more accurately than words at the beginning of messages. Subjective ratings indicated that subjects were aware of errors when incorrectly transcribing a message even though no feedback was provided.
21.1.28 (113373)
McDonald, J.E., Molander, M.E., and Noel, R.W. Color-coding categories in menus. In: Proc Conf on Human Factors in Computing Systems, CHI '88, Washington, DC, 1 5 - 1 9 May, 1988, E. Soloway, D. Frye and S.B. Sheppard (Eds). Assoc for Computing Machinery, New York, 1988, pp 1 0 1 - 1 0 6 , 10 refs. Categorical menu layouts are currently designed according to conventions and opinions, rather than by employing formal techniques. In this paper the authors describe a formal methodology for categorically organising menus. They go on to show how colour-coding can be applied to these layouts either to emphasise organisation or to provide additional information. The results of a controlled study comparing layouts based on frequency of co-occurrence and similarity show that the formal menu-layout methodology is effective. However, the use of colour-coding to identify categories is not supported. Potential reasons for this failure are discussed.
March 1990
Display and control design 21.1.29 (113524) Wong, C.K., and Lyman, J. American and Japanese control-display stereotypes: Possible implications for design of space station systems. In: Riding the Wave of Innovation. Proc Human Factors Soc 32nd Ann Meeting, Anaheim, California, 2 4 - 2 8 Oct, 1988: The Human Factors Soc, Santa Monica, California, Vol 1, t 988, pp 3 0 - 3 4 , 6 refs. This study examined the stimulusresponse stereotypes of American (United States citizens) and Japanese (Japanese citizens) subjects on the issue of control-display arrangements. Three questions were investigated. First, do Japanese and American operators adhere to the same compatibility principles -- e g, clockwisefor-increase - for certain configurations? Second, do the operators show similar or different responses to certain configurations? Third, are there arrangements in which both populations show strong or weak stimulus-response stereotypes? A paper and pencil test that contained 24 different control-display configurations was administered to 58 American subjects and 58 Japanese subjects, all of whom were right-handed. Out of the 24 configurations, only one elicited similar and statistically significant response stereotypes from American and Japanese subjects. The arrangement that did so emphasised that three compatibility principles (clockwise-for-increase, nearness of control-cursor relation, and scale-side) be in agreement with each other. The results provide initial, albeit speculative, guidelines for the design of controldisplay systems in NASA's international space station. Since multi-cultural crews will inhabit the space station for longduration missions, control-display designs which elicit common, consistent and extremely strong control-movement stereotypes from different cultural populations are a necessity.
21.1.30 (113483) Gopher, D., and R a i l D. Typing with a two-hand chord keyboard: Will the QWERTY become obsolete? IEEE Trans on Systems, Man and Cybernetics, 1988, 1 8 . 4 , 6 0 1 - 6 0 9 , 2 refs. The cognitive and m o t o r difficulties of acquiring a touch typing skill on the present system are analysed. It is proposed that poor cognitive structure is a main source of difficulty in the acquisition of typing skills. Experiments are described with a two-hand chord keyboard designed to provide an efficient alternative to the existing
standard QWERTY keyboard. The new system is based upon simpler and more powerful cognitive and motor organisation principles. It comprises two panels of five keys, one to each hand. Characters are entered by pressing together combinations of keys. The system enables fast skill acquisition, with subjects reaching rates of 3 0 - 3 5 words/rain after 20 h of training. With 60 h of training, subjects can reach entry rates close to 60 words/rain. There is no negative transfer from the new skill to an existing typing proficiency. A cognitive oriented design approach to data entry devices, of the kind applied to the development of the present chord keyboards, appears to have a strong promise in the age of computers. 21.1.31 (113484)
Milner, N.P. A review of human performance and preferences with different input devices to computer systems. In: People and Computers IV, D.M. Jones and R. Winder (Eds). Cambridge Univ Press, Cambridge, 1988, pp 3 4 1 - 3 6 2 , 35 refs. A large number of studies exist which compare different computer input devices. Under experimental conditions, no single device has been found to be consistently more appropriate than any other for humancomputer interaction. An extensive literature review has been undertaken of papers which compare the performance of different input devices. In the studies reviewed, all the devices have been compared on either speed, accuracy or subjective preference or a combination of these three measures. Whilst it is accepted that there are studies which contradict one another, the following general conclusions can be drawn. 1. For fixed-choice low-resolution applications the most direct input device (e g, a touch sensitive screen) is quickest and most liked by subjects. 2. For quick and accurate selection or manipulation of high-resolution objects indirect input devices are better than direct devices. 3. There is no clear evidence to support the mouse, joystick or trackball as being the best high-resolution indirect input device. 4. In comparative studies, cursor keys and function keys perform poorly against other input devices. 5. Experimental tasks and the specific design of the input device have a large effect on the empirical results. 21.1.32 (113489)
Nolan, P.R. The design of a squishy mouse. In: Riding the Wave of Innovation. Proc Human Factors Soc 32nd Ann Meeting, Anaheim, California, 2 4 - 2 8 Oct, 1988. The Human Factors Soc, Santa Monica, California, Vol 1, 1988, pp 4 2 5 - 4 2 9 , 4 refs.
Five research studies were conducted to specify the physical description of a novel mouse for an office computer. The mouse had side buttons that, when pressed at the same time, moved or scrolled the contents of the active window. The studies examined accidental activation of both the side buttons and the top buttons, whether the mouse should be single button or have multiple buttons on its top surface, the back width dimension, volume and silhouette, top b u t t o n position, and side button size and position. Each study provided data that were used in the n e x t study, after it was reviewed by a design team. This case study shows that in design/development environments, quick iterative studies serve the needs of design teams by providing successive approximations to the final design in a timely fashion. The utility of this method is compared with a multifactorial design.
21.1.33 (113504)
Shahnavaz, H., and Blomkvist, A.C~ Objective ~ subjective evaluation of ergonomics aspects of VDU filters. Displays Tech and Applications, 1989, 10.1, 2 9 - 3 6 , 12 refs. A study has been carried out to evaluate the effects of some commercially available filters for VDUs both from an objective and subjective viewpoint. Questionnaires were sent to filter manufacturers to assess their attitudes and opinions. Examination of colour, light absorption, change of contrast between character and background, and electrostatic measures were made in a university laboratory, and case studies were enacted in several offices. Ergonomics evaluations are discussed.
on the photometric properties of such markings and interim design guidance is offered for their use as potential alternative or supplementary provision to the traditional emergency lighting approach. 21.1.35 (113510)
Quellette, M.J. Exit signs in smoke: Design parameters for greater visibility. Lighting Res and Technol, 1988, 20.4, 155-160, 19 refs. A review of regulations and specifications for internally illuminated exit signs recommended or enforced by various sanctioning bodies in Canada, Great Britain and elsewhere reveals omissions and inconsistencies which may compromise the safety of building occupants in smoke. Since these problems are partly due to lack of conclusive research, a controlled psychophysical experiment was conducted to assess the readability of three common exit sign design features (i e, the various combinations of opaque and transilluminated text and backgrounds) under different levels of smoke density and ambient illumination. The sign designs differed greatly in terms of threshold illuminance at the rear of the signs (analogous to the intensity of the sign's light source), but all were similar in terms of the threshold luminance of the sign's front panel. Based on these findings, recommendations are made for improved building codes. 21.1.36 (113512)
Herlong, D.W., and Williges, B.H. Designing speech displays for telephone information systems. In: Riding the Wave of Innovation. Proc Human Factors Soc 32nd Ann meeting, Anaheim, California, 2 4 - 2 8 Oct, 1988. The Human Factors Soc, Santa Monica, California, Vol 1, 1988, p p 2 1 5 218, 8 refs.
21.1.34 (113509)
This study used a computer-driven telephone information system as a realtime human-computer interface to Movement under emergency lighting: Comparison between standard provisions simulate applications where synthetic and photoluminescent markings. Lighting speech is used to access data. Subjects Res and Technol, 1988, 20.4, 1 6 7 - 1 7 5 , used a telephone keypad to search through an automated department 17 refs. store database to locate and transcribe Photoluminescent markings are specific information messages. Because currently finding applications in emerspeech provides a sequential and transgency and safety signs. The material ient information display, users may glows in the dark (if previously excited) have difficulty navigating through and is therefore particularly useful at auditory databases, One issue investitimes of power failure, especially since gated in this study was whether the its temporal luminance decay is matched alternate use of male and female voices approximately by dark adaptation of to code different levels of the database the human eye. Comparability was would improve user search performance. found between speeds of movement Other issues investigated under the minimum BS5266 emergency were the basic intelligibility of these illuminance and with photoluminescent male and female voices as influenced by markings alone. Questionnaire scores different levels of speech rate. All from subjects indicated that the latter factors were assessed as functions of is at least as acceptable on escape routes search or transcription task performance and is often preferred. Data are given and user preference. Analysis of trans-
Webber, G.M.B., Hallman, P.J., and Salvidge, A.C.
Applied Ergonomics March 1990
81