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Under the big top: An exploratory analysis of psychological factors influencing circus performers
Performance Enhancement & Health 5 (2017) 115–121
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Performance Enhancement & Health journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/peh
Under the big top: An exploratory analysis of psychological factors influencing circus performers Alexandra Ross ∗ , Jamie Shapiro Graduate School of Professional Psychology, University of Denver, 2450 South Vine Street, Denver, CO, 80208, United States
a r t i c l e
i n f o
Article history: Received 1 November 2016 Received in revised form 21 February 2017 Accepted 6 March 2017 Available online 20 April 2017 Keywords: Sport Performance Psychology Artistic expression Circus arts
a b s t r a c t There is a substantial body of literature addressing psychological experiences of performers in sport domains; however, there is a paucity of literature exploring the psychological experiences of performers in other domains, specifically circus arts. This study was designed to be an exploratory investigation of the mental challenges faced by circus performers as well as mental strengths that contribute to performance excellence. The researchers hoped to gain: (a) a general insight into the mental side of circus arts, (b) insight into differences between the mental side of circus arts and sports/performing arts, and (c) insight into the differences that might exist amongst specific disciplines within circus arts. Participants (n = 4) consisted of 2 aerialists and 2 clowns/mimes. Participants each engaged in a 30–60 min semi-structured interview about the mental aspects of practice and performance. Results showed that mental skills such as confidence, concentration, energy management, and emotional management are considered integral to success in circus arts. Results also reflected differences that exist between circus and sport domains, such as the ability to embody emotions and connect with the audience. Future research should explore phenomena more systematically as well as continue to examine the differences that exist between circus arts and other performance domains. © 2017 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
1. Introduction
1.1. Sports and performing arts
Sport and performance psychology (SPP) has gained popularity among both professional and amateur sports as a way to enhance performance and gain a competitive edge. It has also found its place in the domains of business, military, and performing arts, though it is still considerably new to these areas (Harmison, 2011; Hays, 2002; Hays, 2009; Jones, 2002; Williams, Ericsson, Ward, & Eccles, 2008). There is a large and growing body of literature addressing the psychological experiences of performers in sports and performing arts domains; however, there is a paucity of literature exploring the psychological experiences of performers in other domains where the use of these services is growing. One such domain is circus arts. Circus arts call for the blending of athleticism and art (Filho, Aubertin, & Petiot, 2016; Ménard & Hallé, 2014). While existing literature on athletes and performing artists provides a strong foundation for service delivery, the blending of domains creates specific pressures that warrant further study.
Researchers have accumulated an impressive body of literature to help understand the mental skills associated with performance excellence in sports (Williams et al., 2008). As the field has grown, research has expanded to study performing arts as well. Many of the major psychological components shown to affect performance in sports also affect that of performing artists (Hays & Brown, 2002). These are skills such as dealing with performance anxiety, coping with pressure, emotion regulation, building and maintaining confidence, motivation, commitment and concentration (Gilson, 2010; Hamilton & Robson, 2006; Hays, 2002; Hays, 2009; Krane & Williams, 2006; Nordin-Bates, 2012; Vealey & Chase, 2008; Taylor & Taylor, 1995). Just as each sport presents specific pressures, each performing art does as well. This is what creates the differences in the applications of the same mental skills. Several books have been published aiming to provide guidance to SPP professionals working with performing arts populations, such as The psychology of dance (Taylor & Taylor, 1995), You’re on! Consulting for peak performance (Hays & Brown, 2002), and Performance psychology in action (Hays, 2009). These texts provide concrete examples of incorporating intervention strategies and consulting approaches from the sport domain into work with performing artists while taking into consideration the discipline-specific mental challenges faced
∗ Corresponding author. E-mail address: [email protected] (A. Ross). http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.peh.2017.03.001 2211-2669/© 2017 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
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and strengths required for success in these environments. Since circus arts are a combination of acrobatic sports and performing arts, much of the literature on the experiences of athletes and performing artists can be applied to gain a basic understanding of the psychological environment. 1.2. Mental skills in circus arts similar to sport and performing arts Many psychological experiences from sports and performing arts also appear in the circus environment. M. Hallé, senior performance psychologist for Cirque du Soleil, and J. F. Ménard, SPP consultant for Cirque du Soleil, provide insight into the culture of circus arts based on their experiences. Ménard & Hallé, (2014) observed that many circus artists who come from elite sports backgrounds and have mastered the basic mental skills necessary for performance success. Hallé noted in an interview that working with fear issues and understanding and developing confidence are essential in circus arts (American Psychological Association, 2012). A recent study conducted by Hallé and Shrier (2011) on psychological risk factors affecting injury in circus artists demonstrated the importance of situation-specific confidence (self-efficacy) in this domain. Results showed that aerial artists with high self-efficacy were almost half as likely to become injured as those who exhibited low self-efficacy. Filho et al. (2016) also discussed the effect of fear of injury on aerialists’ ability to focus and noted the helpfulness of pre-performance routines in controlling attention. This relationship with fear is similar to that reported in the literature by gymnasts and athletes from other high risk and extreme sports (Brymer & Oades, 2008; Brymer & Schweitzer, 2013; Chase, Magyar, & Drake, 2005). Studies on circus artists also point to the importance of mental skills related to dealing with pressure, performance anxiety, and emotion control in the circus arts domain (Filho et al., 2016; Hallé & Shrier, 2011). Emotional awareness is especially important in the area of clowning/miming as it utilizes methods of physical acting, ways of storytelling and conveying emotions through physical means. While some skills might be more salient in certain environments, these are not unfamiliar demands for athletes or performing artists to encounter. 1.3. Unique factors in circus arts While this demonstrates some similarities between the mental aspects of sports, performing arts, and circus arts, there are also examples of domain-specific mental challenges from circus arts. According to Ménard and Hallé (2014), the transfer of skills from sports to circus is an important element of focus for performance success, as is the transfer of identity between these domains. Circus acts often require collaboration with other artists. With many artists transitioning from individual sports such as gymnastics and diving, sharing the stage and the spotlight might present a challenge. Additionally, many new circus artists need to develop their artistic identity, learning how to act, dance, put on makeup, and express their emotions on stage (Filho et al., 2016; Ménard & Hallé, 2014). Transitioning from the structured world of sports to the creative process of circus arts might present a challenge, and it is important to excellence as a circus artist that individuals are able to make this mental and physical transition (American Psychological Association, 2012; Clay, 2011; Filho et al., 2016; J. F. Ménard, personal communication, March 22, 2013; Ménard & Hallé, 2014). Circus arts call for engagement of the audience rather than impressing judges or defeating the competition. According to the experts in the psychology of circus arts, this is a different mentality than a competitive mindset and requires “adaptability and flexibility” on behalf of the performer in order to successfully achieve this relationship with themselves and the audience (Filho et al., 2016;
J. F. Ménard, personal communication, March 22, 2013; Ménard & Hallé, 2014). The role of the audience has been discussed in theater literature, but it has not addressed by SPP, thus presenting a novel concept (Hamilton, 2007). Filho et al. (2016) discuss pressure from the audience as experienced by clowns and suggested utilizing attention control strategies such as mindfulness to mediate this perceived pressure. Another difference between sport and circus environments like that of Cirque du Soleil and the National Circus School is the international environment. Performers need to overcome language barriers and develop cross-cultural sensitivity in order to communicate and develop trust with other artists, as do SPP professionals (Filho et al., 2016; Ménard & Hallé, 2014). In high-level, multi-show circuses like Cirque du Soleil, artists also need to adapt to performing more often than they train. Cirque du Soleil artists perform 400 or more shows per year, which is quite different from a sport environment where athletes train much more often than they perform (J. F. Ménard, personal communication, March 22, 2013; Ménard & Hallé, 2014). Artists could also perform in a variety of settings (big top, theater, arena, outdoors), each of which presenting its own sets of challenges to prepare for (Ménard & Hallé, 2014). Currently, the only literature on the use of SPP with circus populations is based on experiences with Cirque du Soleil and the National Circus School (Filho et al., 2016; Hallé & Shrier, 2011; Ménard & Hallé, 2014). These are professional programs that attract and develop high-level circus artists. There are many circus artists that train and perform in different environments than Cirque du Soleil and the National Circus School, such as artists who perform for festivals, live music, and/or private events. Each setting presents different challenges, and it is essential to the understanding of this population that the experiences of all calibers of circus artists be studied. 1.4. Purpose The purpose of this research is to explore psychological demands experienced by circus performers in order to expand the literature, encourage the expansion of the application of SPP, and contribute to the effectiveness of delivering SPP services to circus artists. This study was designed to be an exploratory investigation of the mental challenges faced by circus performers as well as mental strengths contributing to performance excellence in this domain. By interviewing individual circus performers from the domains of clowning (including mimes and clowns) and aerial arts, we hope to gain: (a) a general insight into the mental side of circus arts, (b) insight into differences between the mental side of circus arts and sports/performing arts, and (c) insight into the differences that might exist amongst specific disciplines within circus arts. 2. Materials and method 2.1. Participants Participants were purposively sampled from professional connections at circus centers in the United States. All participants were required to be either aerialists or clowns/mimes, have two or more years of experience performing in their domain, and involved as a performer at the time of this study. Aerialists were chosen because they represent the risky, acrobatic side of circus arts, and clowns/mimes were chosen because they represent the performing arts side through improvisational theater and physical acting. Out of twelve potential participants, a total of four participants expressed interested and met the criteria for this study (see Table 1 for demographic information). Circus artists included: aerialists (n = 2), referred to respectively as A1 and A2, and clowns/mimes
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Table 1 Participant Demographic Information. Participant
Gender
Area of Circus Arts
Years Performing
Age
Ethnicity
A1 A2 C1 C2
Female Female Male Male
Aerialist Aerialist Clown Mime
2 3 6 36
23 23 35 60
Caucasian Caucasian Caucasian Caucasian
(n = 2), referred to respectively as C1 and C2. The intention behind including a small number of participants was to maximize the amount of information obtained during the qualitative interview process. Since this was an exploratory study, the small number of participants was deemed appropriate by the researchers as a starting point for future research with these populations.
2.2. Procedure This study was approved by the Institutional Review Board of the authors’ institution. Interviews were one-on-one, semi-structured interviews between the participant and researcher (see Appendix A for interview questions). Informed Consent was obtained prior to the interviews, and the interviews were audio recorded. One participant (A1) was interviewed in person and non-local participants (A2, C1, C1) were interviewed via Skype video calls. Interviews lasted approximately 30–60 min.
3. Theory/calculation Data analysis was conducted using Interpretative Phenomenological Analysis (IPA; Smith, 1996). The purpose of this approach was to integrate as far as possible a contextualized understanding of individual experiences within the circus domain with current literature related to the psychological factors influencing performers (i.e., athletes and performing artists). This approach was chosen to allow the researchers the ability to explore the complex processes involved in psychology of circus arts. All interviews were transcribed verbatim, with the exception of identifying information that was removed. Following transcription, each manuscript was read several times. During this process, notes were made in the margins summarizing comments made in relationship to the questions asked about psychological experiences of circus performers. As this process advanced, tentative themes were identified. The themes represent more precise psychological terminology, whereas notes reflect participants’ comments. In order to validate themes, a research assistant trained in qualitative research methods specific to this study also read each manuscript several times, following the same process of note taking. Emerging themes were discussed and agreed upon by the researcher and research assistant before advancing with data analysis. Themes were organized, and as they were listed, they were checked with the transcripts to ensure the connections worked for the primary source material (i.e., the actual words of the participant). Once a list of themes was finalized, participants’ individual experiences were analyzed for commonalities, first looking for commonalities between experiences of participants from the same area of circus arts (i.e., aerial arts or clowning/miming) and then looking for commonalities within all four interviews. Both commonalities and individual differences in experiences of the psychological essence of circus performing were written out as a coherent whole, using the participants’ voices whenever possible. This written account was then reviewed and rewritten several times with the intention to acknowledge and reflect the complex psychological experiences of the circus performers interviewed for this study.
4. Results The following themes are discussed in relationship to the experiences of aerialists and clowns/mimes: motivation for involvement in circus arts, relationship with the audience, challenges and/or benefits of collaborating with other artists, mental strengths required for performance excellence in specific discipline, mental challenges faced in specific discipline, mental preparation techniques currently used, and applications for the usefulness of SPP in circus arts. Both commonalities and differences in disciplinespecific experiences are discussed, as well as common threads throughout all of the participants’ experiences (see Figure for visual representation of commonalities between participants). 4.1. Motivation A1, A2, and C2 identified early backgrounds in sport and performance as factors in their current involvement in circus arts. Coming from a 12-year career in gymnastics, A2 expressed that she wanted to perform without competition and combine physical activity with creativity. C1 and C2 were also drawn to circus arts by the opportunity to be physically active in a non-competitive environment. C1 stated, “It was a way to connect my body and my mind in a way that is not competitive, but also something where the challenge is pretty much limitless, there’s always something you can learn.” A1, A2, and C2 shared how personal enjoyment and fulfillment motivate them. A1 stated, “[What motivates me is] the joy that it brings to people. . .just creating a spectacle that people find so much joy in.” A2 shared: What drives me to keep performing is a feeling that I get from being vulnerable with the crowd and the audience, and just coming into this space that is extremely sacred to me, and that is special to me, in which I get to inspire people. . .I know that celebration is what makes people happy. Being able to be a part of the celebration in that way. . .is the best thing in the world to me. C2 reflected, “Why I stayed in [physical acting] is because the biggest discovery was that indeed I could make a career out of the very realm and milieu of life that allowed me to be self-actualized and free.” 4.2. Relationship with audience A1 and A2 spoke about the relationship between the audience and the performer as not only motivating, but also as integral to excellence in this domain. A1 discussed the reciprocal relationship she experiences: I completely feed off the energy of the audience. If the crowd is not paying attention or is distracted, I feel it as a performer and I feel like I don’t do as well. . .But then when the audience is super engaged and right there with you and is present and cheering you on, I feel like I perform so much better. I can actually connect with them and relate to them. A2 explained that an element of vulnerability must be present on behalf of the performer in order to achieve a meaningful connection
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with the audience. Similarly, C1 and C2 described the relationship between the performer and the audience as an “affective” (emotional) relationship. C2 stated, “I think people come to the theater to have their emotional life challenged and engaged,” he stated. “And to the degree a [clown] is capable of doing that, they create what I call an ‘affective performance.”’ C1 stated, “In my clowning, emotions are how I shift the mood in the piece. It’s how I affect the audience.” He stated further, “. . .I think that’s what separates [circus arts] from watching sports—you do actually have that connection with the entertainment that’s going on.” C2 reflected: Some of the most successful performers, in my bias, are the ones who are capable of really connecting to a physicality, or a physical journey, through their performance that guides me as an observer through their journey, the character’s journey, which basically is the actor’s journey–through that little journey through psychology, emotion, and thought in such a way that I’m in their shoes experiencing and making connections through my own life, my own sensory-based experience on the planet.
4.3. Collaboration All participants discussed the dynamics of working with other artists. A1 discussed how collaboration maximizes, strengthens, and enhances creative growth and development: We all bond together and help each other grow. Everybody has something that they’re good at and everybody has something that they are working towards. . .people help each other where they need and they want to help other people too, they just really want to work together. C1 expressed: . . .I really respect and value [the collaborative process] because when working with other people, ideas come up, things happen that either individual couldn’t have come up with by themselves. . .when you take those people and put them together, you create something new. . . C2 shared: . . .from the conception of my concepts and ideas, I get to constantly be surprised and taken on a journey that I would have never taken by myself, and my work ultimately becomes something that I would never have been able to, or capable of, imagining by myself. A1, A2 and C1 also expressed the opportunity for growth through constructive feedback as a benefit of collaboration. C1 stated, “. . .the only way you can get better is to practice it and the only way to practice is to collaborate with other people. . .” Challenges of collaboration were also discussed. A2 described the collaboration process as “chaotic,” stating, “[Group dynamics] is a long process. It can really draw out the process of creating something together.” C1 and C2 expressed that it can be a challenge to remain flexible and open throughout the collaborative process. C1 stated, “Anytime you are working with someone so closely and your creative ideas. . .are thrown out there, then it can be difficult to keep your feelings out of it and just create the best possible work.” C2 stated: I think the biggest challenge always is to not allow your ideas and your work to be so precious that you can’t throw it all away and start over. . .or that it can’t be influenced into a whole direction that you never envisioned by one of your collaborators. . .it’s about how to stay open to the process of creativity. . .
4.4. Mental strengths All participants identified commitment and resilience as integral qualities for success. A1 stated: Aerialists make it look so graceful. . .like anyone can do it; but, it is really uncomfortable, most of the things we’re doing, and to find the ease in it is what I feel like makes an aerialist really good. . .you need to spend hours and hours and hours a week and lots of time, and sweat, and blood, and tears. C1 and C2 identified the importance of commitment especially in response to mistakes. “. . .to be able to not stick something. . .and continue going. . .” can make or break a performance, reflected C1. A1 and A2 identified confidence as an important mental skill, especially in the context of dealing with fear. “If you know that you are strong in your body and you’re confident in all the moves that you’re making and training yourself in. . .that gives you the confidence to not become injured,” stated A1. Both aerialists also discussed the benefit in viewing challenges as functional rather than dysfunctional, such as understanding a surge of adrenaline as excitement instead of fear. The importance of this mental strength was shared by clowns/mimes. C2 stated: There are a million variables that enter into the process once you start; but if you can nurture within yourself a perspective and attitude that every single challenge is really a revelation, then you become a really great instrument for the art to create itself. Mindfulness/being in the moment was another mental strength identified by clowns/mimes. “Existing truly and purely in the moment, right where you’re at, not getting distracted by someone coughing in the audience. . .I think that having that ability can make or break a performer,” C1 stated. C2 expressed, “. . .I don’t want distraction of my outside world when I’m on stage. I want to be completely in a state of mindfulness that is moment to moment. . .I need that kind of concentration. . .” C1 also identified emotional regulation as a necessary mental skill, stating: “. . .you [need to] shift from emotion to emotion and you really wear that emotion with your whole body to communicate. . .” C2 explained the importance of emotional awareness and regulation in being an effective artist. He stated: . . .the relationship between our capacity to understand ourselves really well and the capacity that we build to be vulnerable in exposing the self. . .is that you use that relationship to actually build the craft of being able to embody emotion, thought, psychological transformation, and to reveal those elements during the. . .sensory-based experience of performing. 4.5. Mental challenges A1 and A2 discussed dealing with fear, specifically fear of injury, as a mental challenge. A1 stated, “[injury is] a pretty big aspect of aerials because you’re dealing with height and you’re dealing with relying solely on your apparatus.” A1 also stated that she is tempted by negative self-talk, asking herself questions such as, “Why can’t I get this?” and “Why am I not good enough yet?” She discussed how high selfexpectations and comparison to other artists can fuel negative self-talk. She also identified overcoming weakness as “the biggest challenge” she faces, explaining, “I would think that it was mostly physical. . .but. . .it is more of a mental weakness because I get down on myself. . .and that’s all in my head.” A2 identified performance anxiety as a mental challenge, stating, “You’re not going to be able to be a performer if you can’t perform in front of people.” C1 also identified overcoming performance anxiety as a “constant challenge.”
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A1 stated that while having confidence is a mental strength, enhancing and maintaining confidence presents a challenge. She also addressed concentration as a challenge: . . .being able to memorize your act under pressure, not only your act, but being able to be tuned into the show as a whole. . .you don’t only have to be aware of your own act, but being aware of your other duties that have to make the show as a whole go on. C1 and C2 discussed difficulties concentrating, referring to how challenging the process of memorization and recall can be, especially when under the pressure of a specific opening date. C1 also discussed maintaining composure through acceptance of mistakes. He expressed, “. . .to be able to not stick something but also not get disappointed by it or let down or have it affect the rest of your [act], [you have to be able to] shake it off and continue going.” C2 identified the capacity to be vulnerable on stage as a challenge to performance excellence. He stated, “. . .in the world of [physical] acting, vulnerability is precisely at the heart of the entire journey of learning your craft. . .[and] that’s a huge challenge. . .” He discussed challenges in creating an affective relationship with the audience, stating, “If we are alienated from ourselves and those [emotional] experiences, or we are terrified to confront them and work with them and to own them. . .we’re limited in our capacity to play and create an affective connection with the audience.” He also described self-evaluation as a mental challenge by saying, “One of the challenges for [creative] artists. . .is to understand that any product that you create is never a finished product; it’s only a moment that gives you more information about your art and your craft so that you can continue learning.”
4.6. Mental preparation Participants discussed ways they mentally prepare for practice and performance. Overall, the use of imagery, breathing techniques, and cultivating positive emotions arose as commonalities between the performers’ mental routines. A1 stated that she uses mental rehearsal starting several days before a performance to begin preparation. Specific to preparation for practice, she discussed the importance of finding inspiration: . . .a lot of the time when I’m trying to come up with an act, I will find a piece of music that really inspires me and then I’ll sit down and I’ll listen to that piece of music over and over again and start to come up with the images in my head of what I want to make. Then I’ll start to write those ideas down, and from there I’ll piece little bits together. And that’s all before I even go into the studio! A2’s methods for mental preparation for practice are targeted towards reducing fear. She uses deep breathing to relax and tries to instill confidence by reflecting on past training. Mental preparation for performance included meditation and imagery. A2 related: . . .right before going onstage, [I] just close [my] eyes and [get] grounded and feel the earth below [my] feet and envision water. . .envision calmness. . .being able to have [this] grounding meditation [is] a great practice for me. C1 and C2 also shared their pre-performance routines: C1 stated: . . .before I go on stage, I usually take a quiet moment and I try to stay smiling. I take a few breaths, just normal breaths, but I notice them, count them, and then I usually say. . .‘I love my audience, I love my audience, I love my audience,’ and I try to feel love for literally the people that are out there right now.
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C2 described: One of my rituals is to think about the success of my last performance and to open myself up to trusting myself in a very conscious manner, making it clear to myself that I trust myself completely and I am open to similar success again; and, I am also very open to it not being a success and learning from whatever happens. . .I do a lot of breath work right before going out. . .[to] focus concentration. I’ve really practiced and enjoy being completely in the present moment. . . 4.7. Applications of SPP All performers interviewed for this study stated that they thought SPP services could be useful to helping circus artists achieve performance excellence. A1 saw SPP as a tool that could help channel environmental stressors into functional opportunities for growth, stating, “I think it would be useful because there are a lot of stresses involved and it would be nice to have a way to channel that stress in a positive way.” A2 saw SPP as a method to explore the connection between the mind and the body in a structured manner. She stated: . . .the psychological part—there’s a lot—it’s really intense and it’s almost as intense as gymnastics at times. . .sometimes you get so wrapped up in this performance or this act. . .that you don’t think about how these physical things that are going on are mental or emotional. So having someone with experience in [SPP]. . .sounds like it would be really helpful. C1 identified that SPP services could be an effective tool to help performers examine their experiences from a different perspective: I would certainly be interested in. . .having a more extensive and far reaching knowledge of what’s going on for people [as performers]. . .I feel that performance teaches me skills that help me in my regular life also, and so I think using it all as tools. . .is interesting to me also, just the connection between them all. C2 stated, “[Physical acting and SPP] are trying to gain very similar capacities and assets that will benefit the success of performance.” He identified “the capacity to control the emotional response” as an area in which SPP could be useful. He also spoke to the importance of enhancing concentration, mindfulness, and confidence. 5. Discussion This study explored the essence of the psychological experiences of circus performers as it relates to performance excellence. Findings revealed rich, complex mental processes that highlight commonalities among participants’ experiences as well as discipline-specific differences that might exist between aerial arts and clowning/miming. One factor that seems to be specific to the domain of circus arts is the transition from sports to circus arts. As mentioned in the current literature and reflected by participants in this study, many circus artists come from high-level sports and need to form a new identity as an artist (see Section 1.3). As motivating as this might be for some, it could also present difficulties that a SPP practitioner could help mediate with various approaches and techniques related to identity formation. Another domain-specific factor is the relationship between the audience and the performer. Participant interviews reflected observations by experts in this area, stating that it is an emotional relationship, full of energy as well as vulnerability (see Section 1.3) (Filho et al., 2016; J. F. Ménard, personal communication, March 22, 2013; Ménard & Hallé, 2014). This seems to require
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emotional awareness as well as skilled emotion regulation abilities. These are mental skills that SPP practitioners can facilitate; however, the depth of emotional embodiment required might call for a different approach than used with performers from other domains. The relationship between the artist and the audience is fundamental to the domain of theater arts, thus looking to the current literature in that area could provide some guidance. As previously noted, it appears that many of the same mental skills required for performance excellence in sports and performing arts are also required in circus arts, such as commitment, resilience, concentration, and confidence. It is the discipline-specific pressures that create the differences in the applications of these skills to the circus environment. Fear was identified as by aerialists as a discipline-specific mental challenge, notably fear of injury. Risk of injury has also been identified as a stressor for aerialists by Filho et al. (2016) and Hallé and Shrier (2011). Aerialists in the present study identified confidence as an integral skill for success in their discipline. These findings point to the importance of Hallé and Shrier’s (2011) study on the potential of self-efficacy to reduce the risk of injury for aerialists (see Section 1.3). Training aerialists with SPP interventions that target confidence might provide an opportunity to loosen focus from the fear of injury, thus allowing more focus to be placed on the skills being practiced or performed. Specific to clowning/miming was a high emphasis on emotion regulation. This was specifically related to the physical embodiment of emotion as a form of communication with the audience. This seems to require a great amount of concentration and in-themoment processing, and is related to the importance participants placed on the ability to be mindful/in the moment. Filho et al. (2016) noted pressure and distraction from the audience as mental challenges for clowns/mimes and suggested mindfulness as a mental skill that could potentially be helpful (see Section 1.3). Their study seems to support the notion of mindfulness as an important mental skill for clowns/mimes as reflected in the present study.
6. Conclusions Responses from participants in this study support the notion that similar mental skills are called on by circus artists, athletes, and performing artists in their quests for excellence; the applications of these mental skills is what appears to be domain- and disciplinespecific. Circus arts represents a unique domain, containing within it numerous disciplines such as clowning/miming, juggling, and aerial acrobatics (Filho et al., 2016). What confidence looks and feels like for a clown might be quite different than what it looks and feels like for an aerialist, or for a goalie on a hockey team, or for a ballerina. The results of this study highlight the importance for SPP practitioners who are interested in working with circus artists to familiarize themselves with the domain- and discipline-specific pressures that require a tailored application of mental skills in order to provide the most effective services. This study presents research from a novel area. Because of this, understanding more experiences like those examined here is required before making any generalizations about the mental aspects of circus arts. Hallé and Shrier’s (2011) study on psychological risk factors for injury in aerialists is currently one of two published articles documenting the psychological experiences of circus artists. The other is Filho et al.’s (2016) applied analysis of the psychological environments of artists from Cirque du Soleil and the National Circus School. While Filho et al.’s (2016) article allows for a deeper understanding of the psychological processes and skills necessary for excellence in circus arts, the information related in the article in based off the researchers’ experience. The present study offers direct details of the personal experiences of circus artists, providing an in-depth depiction of the application of multiple, com-
plex SPP concepts within circus arts. The present study also offers perspectives from artists who are not from or related to Cirque du Soleil or the National Circus School, allowing for a diversification of experiences within the literature. While the small number of participants allowed for an indepth investigation into the complex psychological experiences of clowns/mimes and aerialists, it also presents a limitation for the generalizability of this study. All of the participants were Caucasian and from the United States, thus results cannot be applied to artists who are from other ethnic backgrounds or countries. Also, both clowns/mimes identified as male and both aerialists identified as female, limiting generalizability of results across gender. The fact that only 2 disciplines (clowns/mimes and aerialists) were used for this study also presents a limitation, in that the findings cannot be applied to other disciplines within circus arts (i.e., acrobats, contortionists, jugglers). Additionally, one of the four participants, C2, had significantly more years of experience as an artist than the others. This potentially influenced his level of insight, possibly allowing his answers to reflect more years of self-analysis and exploration as an artist. This leaves much room for future research on the psychological experiences of circus artists. Research should start to explore experiences more systematically, controlling for variables such as gender, discipline, and level of experience. Research should also compare the pressures of different performing environments, for example, comparing the pressures of training and performing with Cirque du Soleil to the pressures of training and performing in lower-profile circus troupes, and also to the experiences of independent artists. Another direction for future research could be to explore techniques already taught in circus and theater arts (e.g., emotional regulation techniques from physical acting) and integrate them with SPP theories and interventions. Familiarity with specific aspects of a performance environment can enhance credibility and potentially help SPP gain further entry with this population. As the field of SPP continues to grow and service delivery expands to more populations of performers, it is important for research to be conducted to help practitioners develop a greater understanding of the complexities of different environments. The findings of this study reinforce the level of complexity that exists within the psychological experiences of circus performers and call for practitioners to familiarize themselves with these complexities in order to provide effective, meaningful services to individuals in this performance domain. The findings of this study also point to similarities between mental processes in the domains of sports, performing arts, and circus arts, highlighting the opportunity for the application of tools and techniques practitioners are familiar with to an unfamiliar domain such as circus arts. Studies like this are necessary to help practitioners understand the specific demands circus performers face and translate SPP services to this domain. This knowledge and application not only aids the reputation of the field of SPP, but more importantly, it has the potential to help more performers on their quest to reach their maximum individual and collaborative potential.
Appendix A. Interview Questions 1. Talk about your history of involvement in circus arts. (e.g., How/why did you get involved? What types of performances do you do?) 2. What are mental strengths required to do well in this area? 3. What are mental challenges that you face as you practice and perform your art?
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Previous Experience (A1, A2, C1, C2) Motivational factors
Bringing joy to others (A1, A2, C1) Personal enjoyment (A2, C2)
Relationship with audience
Emotional relationship (A1, A2, C1, C2) Necessity for vulnerability (A2, C2)
Collaboration with other artists
Enhanced creativity (A2, C1, C2) Receive constructive feedback (A1, A2, C1) Commitment (A2, A2, C1, C2)
Mental Strengths
Functional interpretation of challenges and emotions (A2, C2) Mental Challenges
Performance anxiety (A1, C1) Concentration (A2, C1, C2)
Mental Preparation
Imagery (A1, A2, C2) Breathing techniques (A2, C1, C2)
Fig. A1. Commonalities in psychological aspects of circus performing between aerialists (A1 and A2) and clowns/mimes (C1 and C2).
4. Talk about some of the ways that you mentally prepare for practice and performances. 5. (Ask only after briefly describing sport and performance psychology) Describe some ways in which you think sport and performance psychology could be of use to circus performers such as yourself. References American Psychological Association. (2012). Circus psychologist helps athletes conquer their fears [Video file]. American Psychological Association. https:// www.youtube.com/watch?v=QOv0-DUA9gE Brymer, E., & Oades, L. (2008). Extreme Sports: A positive transformation in courage and humility. Journal of Humanistic Psychology, 49(1), 114–126. Brymer, E., & Schweitzer, R. (2013). Extreme sports are good for your health: A phenomenological understanding of fear and anxiety in extreme sport. Journal of Health Psychology, 18(4), 477–487. Chase, M. A., Magyar, T. M., & Drake, B. M. (2005). Fear of injury in gymnastics: Self-efficacy and psychological strategies to keep on tumbling. Journal of Sports Sciences, 23(5), 465–475. Clay, R. A. (2011). Odd jobs: Meet a circus psychologist. American Psychological Association Grad PSYCH Magazine, 9(November (4)) http://www.apa.org/ gradpsych/2011/11/odd-jobs.aspx Filho, E., Aubertin, P., & Petiot, B. (2016). The making of expert performers at Cirque du Soleil and the National Circus School: A performance enhancement outlook. Journal of Sport Psychology in Action, 7(2), 68–79. Gilson, T. A. (2010). Outcomes of confidence in sport training settings. Strength and Conditioning Journal, 32(5), 91–96. Hallé, M., & Shrier, I. (2011). Psychological predictors of injury in circus artists: An exploratory study. British Journal of Sports Medicine, 45, 433–436. Hamilton, L. H., & Robson, B. (2006). Performing arts consultation: developing expertise in this domain. Professional Psychology: Research and Practice, 37(3), 254–259.
Hamilton, J. R. (2007). The art of theatre. John Wiley and Sons. Harmison, R. J. (2011). Peak performance in sport: identifying ideal performance states and developing athletes’ psychological. Sport, Exercise, and Performance Psychology, 1(1), 3–18. Hays, K., & Brown, C., Jr. (2002). You’re on! Consulting for peak performance. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association. Hays, K. (2002). The enhancement of performance excellence among performing artists. Journal of Applied Sport Psychology, 14, 299–312. Hays, K. (Ed.). (2009). Performance psychology in action. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association. Jones, G. (2002). Performance excellence: A personal perspective on the link between sport and business. Journal of Applied Sport Psychology, 14(4), 268–281. Krane, V., & Williams, J. M. (2006). Psychological characteristics of peak performance. In J. M. Williams (Ed.), Applied sport psychology: Personal growth to peak performance (pp. 207–227). New York: McGraw-Hill. Ménard, J. F., & Hallé, M. (2014). Circus also needs performance psychology: Facts and realities of consulting at Cirque du Soleil. In J. G. Cremades, & L. S. Tashman (Eds.), Becoming a sport, exercise, and performance psychology professional: A global perspective (pp. 127–136). New York, New York: Psychology Press. Nordin-Bates, S. M. (2012). Performance psychology in the performing arts. In S. M. Murphy (Ed.), The oxford handbook of sport and performance psychology. New York, NY: Oxford University Press. Smith, J. A. (1996). Beyond the divide between cognition and discourse: Using interpretive phenomenological analysis in health psychology. Psychology and Health, 11, 261–271. Taylor, J., & Taylor, C. (1995). The psychology of dance. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics. Vealey, R. S., & Chase, M. A. (2008). Self-confidence in sport. In T. S. Horn (Ed.), Advances in sport psychology. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics. Williams, A. M., Ericsson, K. A., Ward, P., & Eccles, D. W. (2008). Research on expertise in sport: Implications for the military. Military Psychology, 20(1), 123–145.
Contents lists available at ScienceDirect
Performance Enhancement & Health journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/peh
Under the big top: An exploratory analysis of psychological factors influencing circus performers Alexandra Ross ∗ , Jamie Shapiro Graduate School of Professional Psychology, University of Denver, 2450 South Vine Street, Denver, CO, 80208, United States
a r t i c l e
i n f o
Article history: Received 1 November 2016 Received in revised form 21 February 2017 Accepted 6 March 2017 Available online 20 April 2017 Keywords: Sport Performance Psychology Artistic expression Circus arts
a b s t r a c t There is a substantial body of literature addressing psychological experiences of performers in sport domains; however, there is a paucity of literature exploring the psychological experiences of performers in other domains, specifically circus arts. This study was designed to be an exploratory investigation of the mental challenges faced by circus performers as well as mental strengths that contribute to performance excellence. The researchers hoped to gain: (a) a general insight into the mental side of circus arts, (b) insight into differences between the mental side of circus arts and sports/performing arts, and (c) insight into the differences that might exist amongst specific disciplines within circus arts. Participants (n = 4) consisted of 2 aerialists and 2 clowns/mimes. Participants each engaged in a 30–60 min semi-structured interview about the mental aspects of practice and performance. Results showed that mental skills such as confidence, concentration, energy management, and emotional management are considered integral to success in circus arts. Results also reflected differences that exist between circus and sport domains, such as the ability to embody emotions and connect with the audience. Future research should explore phenomena more systematically as well as continue to examine the differences that exist between circus arts and other performance domains. © 2017 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
1. Introduction
1.1. Sports and performing arts
Sport and performance psychology (SPP) has gained popularity among both professional and amateur sports as a way to enhance performance and gain a competitive edge. It has also found its place in the domains of business, military, and performing arts, though it is still considerably new to these areas (Harmison, 2011; Hays, 2002; Hays, 2009; Jones, 2002; Williams, Ericsson, Ward, & Eccles, 2008). There is a large and growing body of literature addressing the psychological experiences of performers in sports and performing arts domains; however, there is a paucity of literature exploring the psychological experiences of performers in other domains where the use of these services is growing. One such domain is circus arts. Circus arts call for the blending of athleticism and art (Filho, Aubertin, & Petiot, 2016; Ménard & Hallé, 2014). While existing literature on athletes and performing artists provides a strong foundation for service delivery, the blending of domains creates specific pressures that warrant further study.
Researchers have accumulated an impressive body of literature to help understand the mental skills associated with performance excellence in sports (Williams et al., 2008). As the field has grown, research has expanded to study performing arts as well. Many of the major psychological components shown to affect performance in sports also affect that of performing artists (Hays & Brown, 2002). These are skills such as dealing with performance anxiety, coping with pressure, emotion regulation, building and maintaining confidence, motivation, commitment and concentration (Gilson, 2010; Hamilton & Robson, 2006; Hays, 2002; Hays, 2009; Krane & Williams, 2006; Nordin-Bates, 2012; Vealey & Chase, 2008; Taylor & Taylor, 1995). Just as each sport presents specific pressures, each performing art does as well. This is what creates the differences in the applications of the same mental skills. Several books have been published aiming to provide guidance to SPP professionals working with performing arts populations, such as The psychology of dance (Taylor & Taylor, 1995), You’re on! Consulting for peak performance (Hays & Brown, 2002), and Performance psychology in action (Hays, 2009). These texts provide concrete examples of incorporating intervention strategies and consulting approaches from the sport domain into work with performing artists while taking into consideration the discipline-specific mental challenges faced
∗ Corresponding author. E-mail address: [email protected] (A. Ross). http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.peh.2017.03.001 2211-2669/© 2017 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
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and strengths required for success in these environments. Since circus arts are a combination of acrobatic sports and performing arts, much of the literature on the experiences of athletes and performing artists can be applied to gain a basic understanding of the psychological environment. 1.2. Mental skills in circus arts similar to sport and performing arts Many psychological experiences from sports and performing arts also appear in the circus environment. M. Hallé, senior performance psychologist for Cirque du Soleil, and J. F. Ménard, SPP consultant for Cirque du Soleil, provide insight into the culture of circus arts based on their experiences. Ménard & Hallé, (2014) observed that many circus artists who come from elite sports backgrounds and have mastered the basic mental skills necessary for performance success. Hallé noted in an interview that working with fear issues and understanding and developing confidence are essential in circus arts (American Psychological Association, 2012). A recent study conducted by Hallé and Shrier (2011) on psychological risk factors affecting injury in circus artists demonstrated the importance of situation-specific confidence (self-efficacy) in this domain. Results showed that aerial artists with high self-efficacy were almost half as likely to become injured as those who exhibited low self-efficacy. Filho et al. (2016) also discussed the effect of fear of injury on aerialists’ ability to focus and noted the helpfulness of pre-performance routines in controlling attention. This relationship with fear is similar to that reported in the literature by gymnasts and athletes from other high risk and extreme sports (Brymer & Oades, 2008; Brymer & Schweitzer, 2013; Chase, Magyar, & Drake, 2005). Studies on circus artists also point to the importance of mental skills related to dealing with pressure, performance anxiety, and emotion control in the circus arts domain (Filho et al., 2016; Hallé & Shrier, 2011). Emotional awareness is especially important in the area of clowning/miming as it utilizes methods of physical acting, ways of storytelling and conveying emotions through physical means. While some skills might be more salient in certain environments, these are not unfamiliar demands for athletes or performing artists to encounter. 1.3. Unique factors in circus arts While this demonstrates some similarities between the mental aspects of sports, performing arts, and circus arts, there are also examples of domain-specific mental challenges from circus arts. According to Ménard and Hallé (2014), the transfer of skills from sports to circus is an important element of focus for performance success, as is the transfer of identity between these domains. Circus acts often require collaboration with other artists. With many artists transitioning from individual sports such as gymnastics and diving, sharing the stage and the spotlight might present a challenge. Additionally, many new circus artists need to develop their artistic identity, learning how to act, dance, put on makeup, and express their emotions on stage (Filho et al., 2016; Ménard & Hallé, 2014). Transitioning from the structured world of sports to the creative process of circus arts might present a challenge, and it is important to excellence as a circus artist that individuals are able to make this mental and physical transition (American Psychological Association, 2012; Clay, 2011; Filho et al., 2016; J. F. Ménard, personal communication, March 22, 2013; Ménard & Hallé, 2014). Circus arts call for engagement of the audience rather than impressing judges or defeating the competition. According to the experts in the psychology of circus arts, this is a different mentality than a competitive mindset and requires “adaptability and flexibility” on behalf of the performer in order to successfully achieve this relationship with themselves and the audience (Filho et al., 2016;
J. F. Ménard, personal communication, March 22, 2013; Ménard & Hallé, 2014). The role of the audience has been discussed in theater literature, but it has not addressed by SPP, thus presenting a novel concept (Hamilton, 2007). Filho et al. (2016) discuss pressure from the audience as experienced by clowns and suggested utilizing attention control strategies such as mindfulness to mediate this perceived pressure. Another difference between sport and circus environments like that of Cirque du Soleil and the National Circus School is the international environment. Performers need to overcome language barriers and develop cross-cultural sensitivity in order to communicate and develop trust with other artists, as do SPP professionals (Filho et al., 2016; Ménard & Hallé, 2014). In high-level, multi-show circuses like Cirque du Soleil, artists also need to adapt to performing more often than they train. Cirque du Soleil artists perform 400 or more shows per year, which is quite different from a sport environment where athletes train much more often than they perform (J. F. Ménard, personal communication, March 22, 2013; Ménard & Hallé, 2014). Artists could also perform in a variety of settings (big top, theater, arena, outdoors), each of which presenting its own sets of challenges to prepare for (Ménard & Hallé, 2014). Currently, the only literature on the use of SPP with circus populations is based on experiences with Cirque du Soleil and the National Circus School (Filho et al., 2016; Hallé & Shrier, 2011; Ménard & Hallé, 2014). These are professional programs that attract and develop high-level circus artists. There are many circus artists that train and perform in different environments than Cirque du Soleil and the National Circus School, such as artists who perform for festivals, live music, and/or private events. Each setting presents different challenges, and it is essential to the understanding of this population that the experiences of all calibers of circus artists be studied. 1.4. Purpose The purpose of this research is to explore psychological demands experienced by circus performers in order to expand the literature, encourage the expansion of the application of SPP, and contribute to the effectiveness of delivering SPP services to circus artists. This study was designed to be an exploratory investigation of the mental challenges faced by circus performers as well as mental strengths contributing to performance excellence in this domain. By interviewing individual circus performers from the domains of clowning (including mimes and clowns) and aerial arts, we hope to gain: (a) a general insight into the mental side of circus arts, (b) insight into differences between the mental side of circus arts and sports/performing arts, and (c) insight into the differences that might exist amongst specific disciplines within circus arts. 2. Materials and method 2.1. Participants Participants were purposively sampled from professional connections at circus centers in the United States. All participants were required to be either aerialists or clowns/mimes, have two or more years of experience performing in their domain, and involved as a performer at the time of this study. Aerialists were chosen because they represent the risky, acrobatic side of circus arts, and clowns/mimes were chosen because they represent the performing arts side through improvisational theater and physical acting. Out of twelve potential participants, a total of four participants expressed interested and met the criteria for this study (see Table 1 for demographic information). Circus artists included: aerialists (n = 2), referred to respectively as A1 and A2, and clowns/mimes
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Table 1 Participant Demographic Information. Participant
Gender
Area of Circus Arts
Years Performing
Age
Ethnicity
A1 A2 C1 C2
Female Female Male Male
Aerialist Aerialist Clown Mime
2 3 6 36
23 23 35 60
Caucasian Caucasian Caucasian Caucasian
(n = 2), referred to respectively as C1 and C2. The intention behind including a small number of participants was to maximize the amount of information obtained during the qualitative interview process. Since this was an exploratory study, the small number of participants was deemed appropriate by the researchers as a starting point for future research with these populations.
2.2. Procedure This study was approved by the Institutional Review Board of the authors’ institution. Interviews were one-on-one, semi-structured interviews between the participant and researcher (see Appendix A for interview questions). Informed Consent was obtained prior to the interviews, and the interviews were audio recorded. One participant (A1) was interviewed in person and non-local participants (A2, C1, C1) were interviewed via Skype video calls. Interviews lasted approximately 30–60 min.
3. Theory/calculation Data analysis was conducted using Interpretative Phenomenological Analysis (IPA; Smith, 1996). The purpose of this approach was to integrate as far as possible a contextualized understanding of individual experiences within the circus domain with current literature related to the psychological factors influencing performers (i.e., athletes and performing artists). This approach was chosen to allow the researchers the ability to explore the complex processes involved in psychology of circus arts. All interviews were transcribed verbatim, with the exception of identifying information that was removed. Following transcription, each manuscript was read several times. During this process, notes were made in the margins summarizing comments made in relationship to the questions asked about psychological experiences of circus performers. As this process advanced, tentative themes were identified. The themes represent more precise psychological terminology, whereas notes reflect participants’ comments. In order to validate themes, a research assistant trained in qualitative research methods specific to this study also read each manuscript several times, following the same process of note taking. Emerging themes were discussed and agreed upon by the researcher and research assistant before advancing with data analysis. Themes were organized, and as they were listed, they were checked with the transcripts to ensure the connections worked for the primary source material (i.e., the actual words of the participant). Once a list of themes was finalized, participants’ individual experiences were analyzed for commonalities, first looking for commonalities between experiences of participants from the same area of circus arts (i.e., aerial arts or clowning/miming) and then looking for commonalities within all four interviews. Both commonalities and individual differences in experiences of the psychological essence of circus performing were written out as a coherent whole, using the participants’ voices whenever possible. This written account was then reviewed and rewritten several times with the intention to acknowledge and reflect the complex psychological experiences of the circus performers interviewed for this study.
4. Results The following themes are discussed in relationship to the experiences of aerialists and clowns/mimes: motivation for involvement in circus arts, relationship with the audience, challenges and/or benefits of collaborating with other artists, mental strengths required for performance excellence in specific discipline, mental challenges faced in specific discipline, mental preparation techniques currently used, and applications for the usefulness of SPP in circus arts. Both commonalities and differences in disciplinespecific experiences are discussed, as well as common threads throughout all of the participants’ experiences (see Figure for visual representation of commonalities between participants). 4.1. Motivation A1, A2, and C2 identified early backgrounds in sport and performance as factors in their current involvement in circus arts. Coming from a 12-year career in gymnastics, A2 expressed that she wanted to perform without competition and combine physical activity with creativity. C1 and C2 were also drawn to circus arts by the opportunity to be physically active in a non-competitive environment. C1 stated, “It was a way to connect my body and my mind in a way that is not competitive, but also something where the challenge is pretty much limitless, there’s always something you can learn.” A1, A2, and C2 shared how personal enjoyment and fulfillment motivate them. A1 stated, “[What motivates me is] the joy that it brings to people. . .just creating a spectacle that people find so much joy in.” A2 shared: What drives me to keep performing is a feeling that I get from being vulnerable with the crowd and the audience, and just coming into this space that is extremely sacred to me, and that is special to me, in which I get to inspire people. . .I know that celebration is what makes people happy. Being able to be a part of the celebration in that way. . .is the best thing in the world to me. C2 reflected, “Why I stayed in [physical acting] is because the biggest discovery was that indeed I could make a career out of the very realm and milieu of life that allowed me to be self-actualized and free.” 4.2. Relationship with audience A1 and A2 spoke about the relationship between the audience and the performer as not only motivating, but also as integral to excellence in this domain. A1 discussed the reciprocal relationship she experiences: I completely feed off the energy of the audience. If the crowd is not paying attention or is distracted, I feel it as a performer and I feel like I don’t do as well. . .But then when the audience is super engaged and right there with you and is present and cheering you on, I feel like I perform so much better. I can actually connect with them and relate to them. A2 explained that an element of vulnerability must be present on behalf of the performer in order to achieve a meaningful connection
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with the audience. Similarly, C1 and C2 described the relationship between the performer and the audience as an “affective” (emotional) relationship. C2 stated, “I think people come to the theater to have their emotional life challenged and engaged,” he stated. “And to the degree a [clown] is capable of doing that, they create what I call an ‘affective performance.”’ C1 stated, “In my clowning, emotions are how I shift the mood in the piece. It’s how I affect the audience.” He stated further, “. . .I think that’s what separates [circus arts] from watching sports—you do actually have that connection with the entertainment that’s going on.” C2 reflected: Some of the most successful performers, in my bias, are the ones who are capable of really connecting to a physicality, or a physical journey, through their performance that guides me as an observer through their journey, the character’s journey, which basically is the actor’s journey–through that little journey through psychology, emotion, and thought in such a way that I’m in their shoes experiencing and making connections through my own life, my own sensory-based experience on the planet.
4.3. Collaboration All participants discussed the dynamics of working with other artists. A1 discussed how collaboration maximizes, strengthens, and enhances creative growth and development: We all bond together and help each other grow. Everybody has something that they’re good at and everybody has something that they are working towards. . .people help each other where they need and they want to help other people too, they just really want to work together. C1 expressed: . . .I really respect and value [the collaborative process] because when working with other people, ideas come up, things happen that either individual couldn’t have come up with by themselves. . .when you take those people and put them together, you create something new. . . C2 shared: . . .from the conception of my concepts and ideas, I get to constantly be surprised and taken on a journey that I would have never taken by myself, and my work ultimately becomes something that I would never have been able to, or capable of, imagining by myself. A1, A2 and C1 also expressed the opportunity for growth through constructive feedback as a benefit of collaboration. C1 stated, “. . .the only way you can get better is to practice it and the only way to practice is to collaborate with other people. . .” Challenges of collaboration were also discussed. A2 described the collaboration process as “chaotic,” stating, “[Group dynamics] is a long process. It can really draw out the process of creating something together.” C1 and C2 expressed that it can be a challenge to remain flexible and open throughout the collaborative process. C1 stated, “Anytime you are working with someone so closely and your creative ideas. . .are thrown out there, then it can be difficult to keep your feelings out of it and just create the best possible work.” C2 stated: I think the biggest challenge always is to not allow your ideas and your work to be so precious that you can’t throw it all away and start over. . .or that it can’t be influenced into a whole direction that you never envisioned by one of your collaborators. . .it’s about how to stay open to the process of creativity. . .
4.4. Mental strengths All participants identified commitment and resilience as integral qualities for success. A1 stated: Aerialists make it look so graceful. . .like anyone can do it; but, it is really uncomfortable, most of the things we’re doing, and to find the ease in it is what I feel like makes an aerialist really good. . .you need to spend hours and hours and hours a week and lots of time, and sweat, and blood, and tears. C1 and C2 identified the importance of commitment especially in response to mistakes. “. . .to be able to not stick something. . .and continue going. . .” can make or break a performance, reflected C1. A1 and A2 identified confidence as an important mental skill, especially in the context of dealing with fear. “If you know that you are strong in your body and you’re confident in all the moves that you’re making and training yourself in. . .that gives you the confidence to not become injured,” stated A1. Both aerialists also discussed the benefit in viewing challenges as functional rather than dysfunctional, such as understanding a surge of adrenaline as excitement instead of fear. The importance of this mental strength was shared by clowns/mimes. C2 stated: There are a million variables that enter into the process once you start; but if you can nurture within yourself a perspective and attitude that every single challenge is really a revelation, then you become a really great instrument for the art to create itself. Mindfulness/being in the moment was another mental strength identified by clowns/mimes. “Existing truly and purely in the moment, right where you’re at, not getting distracted by someone coughing in the audience. . .I think that having that ability can make or break a performer,” C1 stated. C2 expressed, “. . .I don’t want distraction of my outside world when I’m on stage. I want to be completely in a state of mindfulness that is moment to moment. . .I need that kind of concentration. . .” C1 also identified emotional regulation as a necessary mental skill, stating: “. . .you [need to] shift from emotion to emotion and you really wear that emotion with your whole body to communicate. . .” C2 explained the importance of emotional awareness and regulation in being an effective artist. He stated: . . .the relationship between our capacity to understand ourselves really well and the capacity that we build to be vulnerable in exposing the self. . .is that you use that relationship to actually build the craft of being able to embody emotion, thought, psychological transformation, and to reveal those elements during the. . .sensory-based experience of performing. 4.5. Mental challenges A1 and A2 discussed dealing with fear, specifically fear of injury, as a mental challenge. A1 stated, “[injury is] a pretty big aspect of aerials because you’re dealing with height and you’re dealing with relying solely on your apparatus.” A1 also stated that she is tempted by negative self-talk, asking herself questions such as, “Why can’t I get this?” and “Why am I not good enough yet?” She discussed how high selfexpectations and comparison to other artists can fuel negative self-talk. She also identified overcoming weakness as “the biggest challenge” she faces, explaining, “I would think that it was mostly physical. . .but. . .it is more of a mental weakness because I get down on myself. . .and that’s all in my head.” A2 identified performance anxiety as a mental challenge, stating, “You’re not going to be able to be a performer if you can’t perform in front of people.” C1 also identified overcoming performance anxiety as a “constant challenge.”
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A1 stated that while having confidence is a mental strength, enhancing and maintaining confidence presents a challenge. She also addressed concentration as a challenge: . . .being able to memorize your act under pressure, not only your act, but being able to be tuned into the show as a whole. . .you don’t only have to be aware of your own act, but being aware of your other duties that have to make the show as a whole go on. C1 and C2 discussed difficulties concentrating, referring to how challenging the process of memorization and recall can be, especially when under the pressure of a specific opening date. C1 also discussed maintaining composure through acceptance of mistakes. He expressed, “. . .to be able to not stick something but also not get disappointed by it or let down or have it affect the rest of your [act], [you have to be able to] shake it off and continue going.” C2 identified the capacity to be vulnerable on stage as a challenge to performance excellence. He stated, “. . .in the world of [physical] acting, vulnerability is precisely at the heart of the entire journey of learning your craft. . .[and] that’s a huge challenge. . .” He discussed challenges in creating an affective relationship with the audience, stating, “If we are alienated from ourselves and those [emotional] experiences, or we are terrified to confront them and work with them and to own them. . .we’re limited in our capacity to play and create an affective connection with the audience.” He also described self-evaluation as a mental challenge by saying, “One of the challenges for [creative] artists. . .is to understand that any product that you create is never a finished product; it’s only a moment that gives you more information about your art and your craft so that you can continue learning.”
4.6. Mental preparation Participants discussed ways they mentally prepare for practice and performance. Overall, the use of imagery, breathing techniques, and cultivating positive emotions arose as commonalities between the performers’ mental routines. A1 stated that she uses mental rehearsal starting several days before a performance to begin preparation. Specific to preparation for practice, she discussed the importance of finding inspiration: . . .a lot of the time when I’m trying to come up with an act, I will find a piece of music that really inspires me and then I’ll sit down and I’ll listen to that piece of music over and over again and start to come up with the images in my head of what I want to make. Then I’ll start to write those ideas down, and from there I’ll piece little bits together. And that’s all before I even go into the studio! A2’s methods for mental preparation for practice are targeted towards reducing fear. She uses deep breathing to relax and tries to instill confidence by reflecting on past training. Mental preparation for performance included meditation and imagery. A2 related: . . .right before going onstage, [I] just close [my] eyes and [get] grounded and feel the earth below [my] feet and envision water. . .envision calmness. . .being able to have [this] grounding meditation [is] a great practice for me. C1 and C2 also shared their pre-performance routines: C1 stated: . . .before I go on stage, I usually take a quiet moment and I try to stay smiling. I take a few breaths, just normal breaths, but I notice them, count them, and then I usually say. . .‘I love my audience, I love my audience, I love my audience,’ and I try to feel love for literally the people that are out there right now.
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C2 described: One of my rituals is to think about the success of my last performance and to open myself up to trusting myself in a very conscious manner, making it clear to myself that I trust myself completely and I am open to similar success again; and, I am also very open to it not being a success and learning from whatever happens. . .I do a lot of breath work right before going out. . .[to] focus concentration. I’ve really practiced and enjoy being completely in the present moment. . . 4.7. Applications of SPP All performers interviewed for this study stated that they thought SPP services could be useful to helping circus artists achieve performance excellence. A1 saw SPP as a tool that could help channel environmental stressors into functional opportunities for growth, stating, “I think it would be useful because there are a lot of stresses involved and it would be nice to have a way to channel that stress in a positive way.” A2 saw SPP as a method to explore the connection between the mind and the body in a structured manner. She stated: . . .the psychological part—there’s a lot—it’s really intense and it’s almost as intense as gymnastics at times. . .sometimes you get so wrapped up in this performance or this act. . .that you don’t think about how these physical things that are going on are mental or emotional. So having someone with experience in [SPP]. . .sounds like it would be really helpful. C1 identified that SPP services could be an effective tool to help performers examine their experiences from a different perspective: I would certainly be interested in. . .having a more extensive and far reaching knowledge of what’s going on for people [as performers]. . .I feel that performance teaches me skills that help me in my regular life also, and so I think using it all as tools. . .is interesting to me also, just the connection between them all. C2 stated, “[Physical acting and SPP] are trying to gain very similar capacities and assets that will benefit the success of performance.” He identified “the capacity to control the emotional response” as an area in which SPP could be useful. He also spoke to the importance of enhancing concentration, mindfulness, and confidence. 5. Discussion This study explored the essence of the psychological experiences of circus performers as it relates to performance excellence. Findings revealed rich, complex mental processes that highlight commonalities among participants’ experiences as well as discipline-specific differences that might exist between aerial arts and clowning/miming. One factor that seems to be specific to the domain of circus arts is the transition from sports to circus arts. As mentioned in the current literature and reflected by participants in this study, many circus artists come from high-level sports and need to form a new identity as an artist (see Section 1.3). As motivating as this might be for some, it could also present difficulties that a SPP practitioner could help mediate with various approaches and techniques related to identity formation. Another domain-specific factor is the relationship between the audience and the performer. Participant interviews reflected observations by experts in this area, stating that it is an emotional relationship, full of energy as well as vulnerability (see Section 1.3) (Filho et al., 2016; J. F. Ménard, personal communication, March 22, 2013; Ménard & Hallé, 2014). This seems to require
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emotional awareness as well as skilled emotion regulation abilities. These are mental skills that SPP practitioners can facilitate; however, the depth of emotional embodiment required might call for a different approach than used with performers from other domains. The relationship between the artist and the audience is fundamental to the domain of theater arts, thus looking to the current literature in that area could provide some guidance. As previously noted, it appears that many of the same mental skills required for performance excellence in sports and performing arts are also required in circus arts, such as commitment, resilience, concentration, and confidence. It is the discipline-specific pressures that create the differences in the applications of these skills to the circus environment. Fear was identified as by aerialists as a discipline-specific mental challenge, notably fear of injury. Risk of injury has also been identified as a stressor for aerialists by Filho et al. (2016) and Hallé and Shrier (2011). Aerialists in the present study identified confidence as an integral skill for success in their discipline. These findings point to the importance of Hallé and Shrier’s (2011) study on the potential of self-efficacy to reduce the risk of injury for aerialists (see Section 1.3). Training aerialists with SPP interventions that target confidence might provide an opportunity to loosen focus from the fear of injury, thus allowing more focus to be placed on the skills being practiced or performed. Specific to clowning/miming was a high emphasis on emotion regulation. This was specifically related to the physical embodiment of emotion as a form of communication with the audience. This seems to require a great amount of concentration and in-themoment processing, and is related to the importance participants placed on the ability to be mindful/in the moment. Filho et al. (2016) noted pressure and distraction from the audience as mental challenges for clowns/mimes and suggested mindfulness as a mental skill that could potentially be helpful (see Section 1.3). Their study seems to support the notion of mindfulness as an important mental skill for clowns/mimes as reflected in the present study.
6. Conclusions Responses from participants in this study support the notion that similar mental skills are called on by circus artists, athletes, and performing artists in their quests for excellence; the applications of these mental skills is what appears to be domain- and disciplinespecific. Circus arts represents a unique domain, containing within it numerous disciplines such as clowning/miming, juggling, and aerial acrobatics (Filho et al., 2016). What confidence looks and feels like for a clown might be quite different than what it looks and feels like for an aerialist, or for a goalie on a hockey team, or for a ballerina. The results of this study highlight the importance for SPP practitioners who are interested in working with circus artists to familiarize themselves with the domain- and discipline-specific pressures that require a tailored application of mental skills in order to provide the most effective services. This study presents research from a novel area. Because of this, understanding more experiences like those examined here is required before making any generalizations about the mental aspects of circus arts. Hallé and Shrier’s (2011) study on psychological risk factors for injury in aerialists is currently one of two published articles documenting the psychological experiences of circus artists. The other is Filho et al.’s (2016) applied analysis of the psychological environments of artists from Cirque du Soleil and the National Circus School. While Filho et al.’s (2016) article allows for a deeper understanding of the psychological processes and skills necessary for excellence in circus arts, the information related in the article in based off the researchers’ experience. The present study offers direct details of the personal experiences of circus artists, providing an in-depth depiction of the application of multiple, com-
plex SPP concepts within circus arts. The present study also offers perspectives from artists who are not from or related to Cirque du Soleil or the National Circus School, allowing for a diversification of experiences within the literature. While the small number of participants allowed for an indepth investigation into the complex psychological experiences of clowns/mimes and aerialists, it also presents a limitation for the generalizability of this study. All of the participants were Caucasian and from the United States, thus results cannot be applied to artists who are from other ethnic backgrounds or countries. Also, both clowns/mimes identified as male and both aerialists identified as female, limiting generalizability of results across gender. The fact that only 2 disciplines (clowns/mimes and aerialists) were used for this study also presents a limitation, in that the findings cannot be applied to other disciplines within circus arts (i.e., acrobats, contortionists, jugglers). Additionally, one of the four participants, C2, had significantly more years of experience as an artist than the others. This potentially influenced his level of insight, possibly allowing his answers to reflect more years of self-analysis and exploration as an artist. This leaves much room for future research on the psychological experiences of circus artists. Research should start to explore experiences more systematically, controlling for variables such as gender, discipline, and level of experience. Research should also compare the pressures of different performing environments, for example, comparing the pressures of training and performing with Cirque du Soleil to the pressures of training and performing in lower-profile circus troupes, and also to the experiences of independent artists. Another direction for future research could be to explore techniques already taught in circus and theater arts (e.g., emotional regulation techniques from physical acting) and integrate them with SPP theories and interventions. Familiarity with specific aspects of a performance environment can enhance credibility and potentially help SPP gain further entry with this population. As the field of SPP continues to grow and service delivery expands to more populations of performers, it is important for research to be conducted to help practitioners develop a greater understanding of the complexities of different environments. The findings of this study reinforce the level of complexity that exists within the psychological experiences of circus performers and call for practitioners to familiarize themselves with these complexities in order to provide effective, meaningful services to individuals in this performance domain. The findings of this study also point to similarities between mental processes in the domains of sports, performing arts, and circus arts, highlighting the opportunity for the application of tools and techniques practitioners are familiar with to an unfamiliar domain such as circus arts. Studies like this are necessary to help practitioners understand the specific demands circus performers face and translate SPP services to this domain. This knowledge and application not only aids the reputation of the field of SPP, but more importantly, it has the potential to help more performers on their quest to reach their maximum individual and collaborative potential.
Appendix A. Interview Questions 1. Talk about your history of involvement in circus arts. (e.g., How/why did you get involved? What types of performances do you do?) 2. What are mental strengths required to do well in this area? 3. What are mental challenges that you face as you practice and perform your art?
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Previous Experience (A1, A2, C1, C2) Motivational factors
Bringing joy to others (A1, A2, C1) Personal enjoyment (A2, C2)
Relationship with audience
Emotional relationship (A1, A2, C1, C2) Necessity for vulnerability (A2, C2)
Collaboration with other artists
Enhanced creativity (A2, C1, C2) Receive constructive feedback (A1, A2, C1) Commitment (A2, A2, C1, C2)
Mental Strengths
Functional interpretation of challenges and emotions (A2, C2) Mental Challenges
Performance anxiety (A1, C1) Concentration (A2, C1, C2)
Mental Preparation
Imagery (A1, A2, C2) Breathing techniques (A2, C1, C2)
Fig. A1. Commonalities in psychological aspects of circus performing between aerialists (A1 and A2) and clowns/mimes (C1 and C2).
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