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Understanding the environment
Book reviews/Corlference
but in the process also sidestep concepts which would have added something of value to their survey. I would have thought that, among those, my own proxemic-distemic hypothesis with its concept of the non-territorial ‘community of strangers’ would have fitted nicely into their dialectic. Nevertheless, I can highly recommend this book to all who are in-
terested in helping human cultures to deal more respectfully with their environment than most modern ones do. On that score it offers few answers, but it gives a base for asking good questions. Barrie B. Greenbie University of Massachusetts MA, USA
Environmental conservation through behavioural technology ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS/ BEHAVIOURAL SOLUTIONS by John Hayes
D. Cone
and
Cambridge University 1985, 284 pp
Steven
Press,
C.
UK,
This important textbook in environmental psychology explores the viewpoint that environmental conservation can be enhanced by devising rewards for protective behaviour as well as punishments for destructive behaviour. ‘Behavioural technology’ is shown to be a vital complement to physical technology which is effective only when people actually use it. A review of 128 previous studies finds that nearly 98% of them are concerned with the effect of the environment on people instead of vice versa, as here; and also that most of them deal with attitudes and responses rather than the environmental problems themselves. Recalling the Behaviourist caveat against assuming that attitudes and statements necessarily correspond with actual behaviour, the authors set up a scientific framework leading towards a set of principles for influencing behaviour. rather than merely calling on ‘a bag of tricks’. Nevertheless, they recognize that principles must be based upon evidence, and the great strength of this book is an analysis of the experimental evidence obtained in relation to the selected fields of environmental aesthetics, health and resource management. Chapters 5 to II present the find-
LAND USE POLICY January
1986
ings of behavioural technology experiments in relation to litter, noise, population control, recycling of waste, transportation and the conservation of energy and water in the home. A great wealth of examples are drawn together in a lucid, progressive exposition and certain generalities are adduced. For example, signs and written messages are more effective than vocal appeals in reducing litter. Tax disincentives have reduced Singapore’s birth rate from 44 to 21 per thousand. Oregon’s law against nonrecyclable containers can reduce highway rubbish by 17 to 38%, and monthly feedback information on electricity
Conference Understanding
review
consumption was followed by a clear decrease in use. Behavioural technology is still in its infancy and the book concludes with some pertinent considerations of its future: how to ensure that solutions hold good over long periods, how to extend them to a wider range of people and places, and whether they have implications for other environmental problems such as air and water pollution, pesticides or nuclear radiation. Mention is also made of the need for training children in rule-governed behaviour so that some of the problems do not arise in the first place. In the final chapter a plea is made for authorities to adopt experimental policies which can be perpetuated or discontinued on the basis of their effect, instead of assuming that the answers are known and then finding it difficult to rescind counterproductive systems. A bonus of the book is its explicit emphasis on what constitutes sound experimental design. It should be a constructive stimulus to further advancement in conservation. Alice Coleman King ‘s College, London, UK .
review
the environment
World Conference on Environmental Tokyo, 19-24 August 1985.
The World Conference on Environmental Education was held in the main auditorium of the Science Council of Japan. Both the Science Council of Japan and the United Nations University supported the convening of this important meeting in Tokyo. In the Memorial Address to the conference. Margaret R. Biswas, Balliol College, Oxford University and I presented a global systems view to environmental education. Good environmental management is possible only if people receive appropriate environmental education. Equally, for such a broad subject area, education
Education,
Science
Council
of Japan,
should encompass an overall systems approach, including an understanding of the interrelationships between people, resources, environment and development. Reviewing some popular misconceptions that exist in our understanding of the interrelationships, it was pointed out that if the entire global population was resettled in a country like Burma, a family of four would have an area of 570 m’. which is a typical single-family one-storey home in North America with a front and a backyard. Similarly there appears to be very little or no rela-
73
Confrrerm
rrviewlPuh1ication.s
tionship between level of income and population density. For example, the USA and Ethiopia had somewhat similar population densities in mid1982 of 24.7 people/km2 and 26.9 people/km* respectively. and yet per capita GNP was $13 160 in the USA but only $140 in Ethiopia. Prosperous Japan has 31.8 people/km’ and per capita GNP of $10 080, compared to developing India with 21.8 people/km* and GNP per capita of only $260. One can argue that it is not area that is important but arable land, since non-cultivable land may be of little economic significance. By this yardstick, however, Japan compares even more favourably with India, and Ethiopia has more arable land per capita than Singapore or Hong Kong. With regard to the interrelationships between population, resources, environment and development. it is essential to consider not only the extent of cultivable land available at present but also its quality and the farming technology used. Unfortunately, desertification, defined as loss of land productivity, is now threatening 35% of the earth’s land surface and 20% of its population. During the past 10 years, land lost through various forms of desertification has been estimated at six million ha/year. FolIowIng the memorial a ddress, Professor Y. Fukushima of the Japan Science Council provided, in his key note speech, an excellent historical perspective of the environmental issues facing the world during the past two decades. IIe pointed out that many environmental problems like acid rain, climatic impacts of carbon dioxide and PCB are now spreading beyond national boundaries. While nationalistic tendencies are growing in many countries, environmental problems are becoming international. IIe felt it was urgently necessary to abandon national egoism so that environmental issues can be successfully tackled. Professor Fukushima pointed out that a good beginning on the resolution of these complex problems can be made only when the importance of evironmental education is realized. TO disseminate knowledge among people, and to work toward developing a
74
new environmental ethic in the minds of millions. environmental education is indispensable. In a series of papers presented during the conference, various aspects of environmental education in elementary schools, high schools and universities were discussed by speakers from 15 developed and developing countries. Several speakers outlined their experiences with citizens’ movements. The conference participants unanimously recommended that: Following the precept of thinking globally and acting locally, we call for the creation of an Environmental Education C’entre in Japan, whose initial task would he to coordinate. through a loose and llexihle relationship, the work of many nongovcrnmcntal environmental education groups which already exist in Japan. to act as II clearinghouse of environmental cducation information and to promote. hy all the
means accessible to it. the cause ol a holistic approach to cnvironmcntal education in Japan.
There is no doubt such a centre would be most beneficial not only for Japan but also in terms of disseminating information on Japanese experiences in environmental education in other countries. The World Conference was very well organized, and in contrast to several conferences on environmental education in the past decade where widely diverse topics were discussed, this Conference had wisely selected an overall focus. This, plus the quality of discussions, immensely contributed to its overall success.
President,
Asit K. Biswas international Society for Ecological Modeling Oxford, UK.
Publications Ahnr~do,~ Afjrlurrm’ hy F.E. ‘l‘ramcr (Zcd Books. London. UK, 10X5, 30X pp) After examining recent evidence on major global problems (cg environmental dcstruction, Third World undcrdcvclopment). the author argues that our commitment to growth and affluence ih magnifying all thche problems. Our economy is such that the production of luxury gooda i\ encouraged while the need\ of the poor arc ignored. An altcrnativc society is outlined that could provide a high quality of life dcspitc low per capita rcsourcc rate\. Afriur’c Shrretl Wtric,r Rccoru~e.c: Lcgnl trrd Im~itu/iomd Aspcc~s of /hc Nile. Nlgcr mrl Smr,qu/ Rirmcv S~s/~vm by Bonaya Adhi Godana (Frances Pintcr. London, UK, IYXS. 370 pp. f20.00) A general approach to the law of intcrmtional watercoursea is combined with indepth C~,L s,tudics of the three main African rivers - the Nile, the Niger and the Senegal. Agricdifrrc~ it1 c‘hiua: Prospac1.s for Prot/lrc~/ior! crrltl Trde (OECD. Paris. distributed in the UK hy HMSO, London. 19x5. X1 pp, FhS). Agriculture Urlder /he Conmo~~ Agrid/lrml foliq by Ian R. Bowler (Manchester University Prcsa. Manchatcr. UK, IYXS? 2SS pp, flY.50) As the CAP IS ‘the world’s moat highly developed rorm of supranational law and institutional regulations‘. the author feels that it is important to look at the evolution
or agriculture under the CAP and to consider the extent to which farm modcrnisntion has hccn influcnccd hy it\ polic,es. Rihlio,~rqlr~~ OH Eu~t~ornrc~ Ar~rr!,‘siv jhr fm%.s md Recrctrfim by Henry N. McC’arl and David McConnell (Vance Bibliographics. Monticello. IL, USA, 10X5. 2X pp, $4.50) Hri/i.vh A,~rrclrl/ctrc, Sitm IOJ.5 by B.A. 1Iolderncss (Manchester University Press, Manchester, UK. IYXS. 185 pp. fl7.50) C‘hir~rr’s A~rimhrcrl Motierrli,-rrriotr: rhc, Sociulitr Mrchat~izurior~ Schom~ by On Kit Tam (Croom Helm. Beckcnham, IJK, IYXS, 241 pp. flY.YS) C‘irics ii, C‘oriflic/: Slfrtlirv in f/w Pltrrirliug rmd Mrrrq~mer~/ of Asicrn C‘iricts edited by John P. Lea and John M. Courtney (The World Bank. Washington, DC, USA. availahlc in the UK From MicroinTo. Alton, IYXS, I22 pp3fl2.00) Thr C‘omcn,utiotr crrftl Dc\dop~ncv~f Pro,+rmlme for dw UK: ‘I Rr~.spotr.sc~ /o llre World C’omervcrtiotr 9ru~qp (Kogan Page. Lendon, UK. IYX.?. IYh pp. fl4.YS) The World Conservation Strategy shows that our planet’s capacity to support pcoplc has been greatly reduced. An ovc’rvicw on ‘Resourceful Britain’ is followed by scvcn major sector report3 (Industry. Urban. Rural. Marine and Coastal. International. Ethic\ and Education).
LAND USE POLICY January
1986
but in the process also sidestep concepts which would have added something of value to their survey. I would have thought that, among those, my own proxemic-distemic hypothesis with its concept of the non-territorial ‘community of strangers’ would have fitted nicely into their dialectic. Nevertheless, I can highly recommend this book to all who are in-
terested in helping human cultures to deal more respectfully with their environment than most modern ones do. On that score it offers few answers, but it gives a base for asking good questions. Barrie B. Greenbie University of Massachusetts MA, USA
Environmental conservation through behavioural technology ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS/ BEHAVIOURAL SOLUTIONS by John Hayes
D. Cone
and
Cambridge University 1985, 284 pp
Steven
Press,
C.
UK,
This important textbook in environmental psychology explores the viewpoint that environmental conservation can be enhanced by devising rewards for protective behaviour as well as punishments for destructive behaviour. ‘Behavioural technology’ is shown to be a vital complement to physical technology which is effective only when people actually use it. A review of 128 previous studies finds that nearly 98% of them are concerned with the effect of the environment on people instead of vice versa, as here; and also that most of them deal with attitudes and responses rather than the environmental problems themselves. Recalling the Behaviourist caveat against assuming that attitudes and statements necessarily correspond with actual behaviour, the authors set up a scientific framework leading towards a set of principles for influencing behaviour. rather than merely calling on ‘a bag of tricks’. Nevertheless, they recognize that principles must be based upon evidence, and the great strength of this book is an analysis of the experimental evidence obtained in relation to the selected fields of environmental aesthetics, health and resource management. Chapters 5 to II present the find-
LAND USE POLICY January
1986
ings of behavioural technology experiments in relation to litter, noise, population control, recycling of waste, transportation and the conservation of energy and water in the home. A great wealth of examples are drawn together in a lucid, progressive exposition and certain generalities are adduced. For example, signs and written messages are more effective than vocal appeals in reducing litter. Tax disincentives have reduced Singapore’s birth rate from 44 to 21 per thousand. Oregon’s law against nonrecyclable containers can reduce highway rubbish by 17 to 38%, and monthly feedback information on electricity
Conference Understanding
review
consumption was followed by a clear decrease in use. Behavioural technology is still in its infancy and the book concludes with some pertinent considerations of its future: how to ensure that solutions hold good over long periods, how to extend them to a wider range of people and places, and whether they have implications for other environmental problems such as air and water pollution, pesticides or nuclear radiation. Mention is also made of the need for training children in rule-governed behaviour so that some of the problems do not arise in the first place. In the final chapter a plea is made for authorities to adopt experimental policies which can be perpetuated or discontinued on the basis of their effect, instead of assuming that the answers are known and then finding it difficult to rescind counterproductive systems. A bonus of the book is its explicit emphasis on what constitutes sound experimental design. It should be a constructive stimulus to further advancement in conservation. Alice Coleman King ‘s College, London, UK .
review
the environment
World Conference on Environmental Tokyo, 19-24 August 1985.
The World Conference on Environmental Education was held in the main auditorium of the Science Council of Japan. Both the Science Council of Japan and the United Nations University supported the convening of this important meeting in Tokyo. In the Memorial Address to the conference. Margaret R. Biswas, Balliol College, Oxford University and I presented a global systems view to environmental education. Good environmental management is possible only if people receive appropriate environmental education. Equally, for such a broad subject area, education
Education,
Science
Council
of Japan,
should encompass an overall systems approach, including an understanding of the interrelationships between people, resources, environment and development. Reviewing some popular misconceptions that exist in our understanding of the interrelationships, it was pointed out that if the entire global population was resettled in a country like Burma, a family of four would have an area of 570 m’. which is a typical single-family one-storey home in North America with a front and a backyard. Similarly there appears to be very little or no rela-
73
Confrrerm
rrviewlPuh1ication.s
tionship between level of income and population density. For example, the USA and Ethiopia had somewhat similar population densities in mid1982 of 24.7 people/km2 and 26.9 people/km* respectively. and yet per capita GNP was $13 160 in the USA but only $140 in Ethiopia. Prosperous Japan has 31.8 people/km’ and per capita GNP of $10 080, compared to developing India with 21.8 people/km* and GNP per capita of only $260. One can argue that it is not area that is important but arable land, since non-cultivable land may be of little economic significance. By this yardstick, however, Japan compares even more favourably with India, and Ethiopia has more arable land per capita than Singapore or Hong Kong. With regard to the interrelationships between population, resources, environment and development. it is essential to consider not only the extent of cultivable land available at present but also its quality and the farming technology used. Unfortunately, desertification, defined as loss of land productivity, is now threatening 35% of the earth’s land surface and 20% of its population. During the past 10 years, land lost through various forms of desertification has been estimated at six million ha/year. FolIowIng the memorial a ddress, Professor Y. Fukushima of the Japan Science Council provided, in his key note speech, an excellent historical perspective of the environmental issues facing the world during the past two decades. IIe pointed out that many environmental problems like acid rain, climatic impacts of carbon dioxide and PCB are now spreading beyond national boundaries. While nationalistic tendencies are growing in many countries, environmental problems are becoming international. IIe felt it was urgently necessary to abandon national egoism so that environmental issues can be successfully tackled. Professor Fukushima pointed out that a good beginning on the resolution of these complex problems can be made only when the importance of evironmental education is realized. TO disseminate knowledge among people, and to work toward developing a
74
new environmental ethic in the minds of millions. environmental education is indispensable. In a series of papers presented during the conference, various aspects of environmental education in elementary schools, high schools and universities were discussed by speakers from 15 developed and developing countries. Several speakers outlined their experiences with citizens’ movements. The conference participants unanimously recommended that: Following the precept of thinking globally and acting locally, we call for the creation of an Environmental Education C’entre in Japan, whose initial task would he to coordinate. through a loose and llexihle relationship, the work of many nongovcrnmcntal environmental education groups which already exist in Japan. to act as II clearinghouse of environmental cducation information and to promote. hy all the
means accessible to it. the cause ol a holistic approach to cnvironmcntal education in Japan.
There is no doubt such a centre would be most beneficial not only for Japan but also in terms of disseminating information on Japanese experiences in environmental education in other countries. The World Conference was very well organized, and in contrast to several conferences on environmental education in the past decade where widely diverse topics were discussed, this Conference had wisely selected an overall focus. This, plus the quality of discussions, immensely contributed to its overall success.
President,
Asit K. Biswas international Society for Ecological Modeling Oxford, UK.
Publications Ahnr~do,~ Afjrlurrm’ hy F.E. ‘l‘ramcr (Zcd Books. London. UK, 10X5, 30X pp) After examining recent evidence on major global problems (cg environmental dcstruction, Third World undcrdcvclopment). the author argues that our commitment to growth and affluence ih magnifying all thche problems. Our economy is such that the production of luxury gooda i\ encouraged while the need\ of the poor arc ignored. An altcrnativc society is outlined that could provide a high quality of life dcspitc low per capita rcsourcc rate\. Afriur’c Shrretl Wtric,r Rccoru~e.c: Lcgnl trrd Im~itu/iomd Aspcc~s of /hc Nile. Nlgcr mrl Smr,qu/ Rirmcv S~s/~vm by Bonaya Adhi Godana (Frances Pintcr. London, UK, IYXS. 370 pp. f20.00) A general approach to the law of intcrmtional watercoursea is combined with indepth C~,L s,tudics of the three main African rivers - the Nile, the Niger and the Senegal. Agricdifrrc~ it1 c‘hiua: Prospac1.s for Prot/lrc~/ior! crrltl Trde (OECD. Paris. distributed in the UK hy HMSO, London. 19x5. X1 pp, FhS). Agriculture Urlder /he Conmo~~ Agrid/lrml foliq by Ian R. Bowler (Manchester University Prcsa. Manchatcr. UK, IYXS? 2SS pp, flY.50) As the CAP IS ‘the world’s moat highly developed rorm of supranational law and institutional regulations‘. the author feels that it is important to look at the evolution
or agriculture under the CAP and to consider the extent to which farm modcrnisntion has hccn influcnccd hy it\ polic,es. Rihlio,~rqlr~~ OH Eu~t~ornrc~ Ar~rr!,‘siv jhr fm%.s md Recrctrfim by Henry N. McC’arl and David McConnell (Vance Bibliographics. Monticello. IL, USA, 10X5. 2X pp, $4.50) Hri/i.vh A,~rrclrl/ctrc, Sitm IOJ.5 by B.A. 1Iolderncss (Manchester University Press, Manchester, UK. IYXS. 185 pp. fl7.50) C‘hir~rr’s A~rimhrcrl Motierrli,-rrriotr: rhc, Sociulitr Mrchat~izurior~ Schom~ by On Kit Tam (Croom Helm. Beckcnham, IJK, IYXS, 241 pp. flY.YS) C‘irics ii, C‘oriflic/: Slfrtlirv in f/w Pltrrirliug rmd Mrrrq~mer~/ of Asicrn C‘iricts edited by John P. Lea and John M. Courtney (The World Bank. Washington, DC, USA. availahlc in the UK From MicroinTo. Alton, IYXS, I22 pp3fl2.00) Thr C‘omcn,utiotr crrftl Dc\dop~ncv~f Pro,+rmlme for dw UK: ‘I Rr~.spotr.sc~ /o llre World C’omervcrtiotr 9ru~qp (Kogan Page. Lendon, UK. IYX.?. IYh pp. fl4.YS) The World Conservation Strategy shows that our planet’s capacity to support pcoplc has been greatly reduced. An ovc’rvicw on ‘Resourceful Britain’ is followed by scvcn major sector report3 (Industry. Urban. Rural. Marine and Coastal. International. Ethic\ and Education).
LAND USE POLICY January
1986