Unique in its chaîne opératoire, unique in its symbolism: undressing a figurine from the 6th Millennium BC Körös culture, Hungary

Journal of Archaeological Science 44 (2014) 136e147

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Journal of Archaeological Science journal homepage: http://www.elsevier.com/locate/jas

Unique in its chaîne opératoire, unique in its symbolism: undressing a figurine from the 6th Millennium BC Körös culture, Hungary } a, Mária Tóth d, Attila Kreiter a, *, Danielle J. Riebe b, William A. Parkinson c, Ákos Peto Péter Pánczél a, Eszter Bánffy e a

Hungarian National Museum National Heritage Protection Centre, H-1113 Budapest, Daróci út 3, Hungary University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, IL 60607, USA Field Museum of Natural History, Chicago, IL 60605, USA d Institute for Geological and Geochemical Research, Research Centre for Astronomy and Earth Sciences, Hungarian Academy of Sciences, H-1112 Budapest, Budaörsi út 45, Hungary e Research Center for the Humanities, Hungarian Academy of Sciences, Institute of Archaeology, H-1014 Budapest, Úri u. 49, Hungary b c

a r t i c l e i n f o

a b s t r a c t

Article history: Received 16 May 2013 Received in revised form 28 January 2014 Accepted 31 January 2014 Available online 10 February 2014

In the southern part of the DanubeeTisza interfluve (Hungary), a dense Early Neolithic, Körös culture settlement was identified during the excavation of Szakmár-Kisülés. Among several unregistered finds was a unique, mostly intact, clay horned figurine often referred to as a clay horn, bull representation. However, female genitalia is represented on the figurine, indicating that the objects is a female symbol. The practice of cattle keeping and secondary products are important economic topics in the Early Neolithic of the Carpathian Basin. The broken base of the figurine suggests that at one time the object was attached to a four-legged altar. Importantly, its base reveals that the figurine was created with multiple layers of clay. The various techniques for characterizing the figurine open new avenues of interpretation concerning how the object was made. A broken section of the figurine shows three distinct layers of manufacture and in order to better understand its construction computed tomography (CT), ceramic petrography, geochemical analyses (LAICP-MS and XRD), and phytolith analysis were applied. The results indicate that the figurine was made from three clearly identifiable layers, created during three distinct manufacturing episodes. The results suggest that after each manufacturing episode the figurine was fired again, implying that it also was utilized after each building phase. The raw materials from the different manufacturing episodes are similar petrographically and geochemically, indicating that the figurine was made from similar raw materials. Nevertheless, the raw materials of the different manufacturing episodes show differences in organic temper supporting our contention that the figurine had three distinct manufacturing episodes. The utilization of multiple interdisciplinary methods highlights the complex biography of the figurine. Ó 2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Körös culture Early Neolithic Figurine Bull/cow representation Ceramic technology Phytolith LA-ICP-MS XRD Vegetal temper Computed Tomography (CT)

1. Introduction Technological practices play an integral role in social relationships. While most technological studies focus on ceramic vessels (Quinn, 2009) and lithics (Lycett and Chauhan, 2012), the technological characteristics of prehistoric figurines are studied less

* Corresponding author. E-mail addresses: [email protected] (A. Kreiter), [email protected] (D.J. Riebe), wparkinson@fieldmuseum.org (W.A. Parkinson), akos.peto@mnm} ), [email protected] (M. Tóth), [email protected]. nok.gov.hu (Á. Peto hu (P. Pánczél), [email protected] (E. Bánffy). http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jas.2014.01.027 0305-4403/Ó 2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

frequently (Kreiter and Szakmány, 2011). Studies of Neolithic figurines mainly have considered iconographic and typological characteristics of objects (Höckmann, 1968; Ucko, 1968; Marangou, 1992; Kalicz et al., 2012) and the ways they represent human bodies, convey social relationships, and reflect identities (Bánffy, 1991; Chapman, 2000; Bailey, 2005). Technological approaches towards figurine manufacturing remain understudied, however by examining their technology we can learn a great deal not only about how figurines were made, but also how they may have been utilized and conceptualized. Material culture plays an important role in mediating and representing social relationships and social links may be identified by identifying how an object was made.

A. Kreiter et al. / Journal of Archaeological Science 44 (2014) 136e147

Artifacts go through various events from manufacture to discard, and in the process they accumulate histories that comprise their biography (Por ci c, 2012, 810). Therefore, the figurine can be studied using the chaîne opératoire approach that often is applied in ceramic studies (Kreiter, 2007a). The layered nature of the figurine suggests that there was a set of behaviors contributing to the biography of the figurine. 2. Background 2.1. Discovery of the figurine and its archaeological background The area known as the Kalocsa Sárköz (DanubeeTisza interfluve in Southern Hungary) is a floodplain extending 20 km from the Danube where a dense Early Neolithic, Körös Culture settlement pattern has been identified. One of the sites, Szakmár-Kisülés (Fig. 1), was excavated in the 1970s (Bánffy, 2013). The Körös culture lived between 6000 and 5500 cal. BC in the Carpathian Basin. Considering the finds from Szakmár, its assemblage neither belongs to the youngest, nor to the oldest period. Therefore, the site was most probably occupied between 5800 and 5700 cal. BC (Bánffy, 2012; Oross and Siklósi, 2012). Among several unregistered finds there was a unique, almost intact, clay horned figurine (Figs. 2 and 3). The figurine is oval in

137

cross-section and narrows towards the top. It is 26.7 cm long, with a width of 12.5 cm at the bottom, and 7.5 cm at the top. It has an unusual relief in the place of its face. The figurine was covered with a thin layer of very fine-grained clay (slip) that has broken off in some places. The surface is light brown, yellowish and orangey brown (in the web version). The broken surface shows three layers of manufacture (Fig. 4). The manner in which the base is broken implies that it originally was attached to another object. At the time the site publication was being prepared, the adjoining object was reconstructed from various foot and table fragments found scattered among the ceramics and it now seems that the figurine stood upon a four-legged table, known as an altarpiece in the current literature. This observation connects the Szakmár find to an emblematic group of South East European Early Neolithic cult objects: altarpieces or building models with a vertically protruding human or animal head (or a transition in between e Bánffy, 2001) placed in the middle. 3. Materials and methods 3.1. Sampling the figurine The figurine was damaged on the front and on the base. Three clearly distinguishable layers were visible on the base. Samples of

Fig. 1. Map of the Szakmár-Kisülés site.

138

A. Kreiter et al. / Journal of Archaeological Science 44 (2014) 136e147

Fig. 4. Three layers can be identified at bottom of the figurine.

Fig. 2. The clay horned figurine from different views. The restored part is marked by a circle.

the outermost (third) and the second layers were taken from the bottom of the figurine (Fig. 4). The innermost layer (core) was sampled through the damaged part on the front, which had a large enough hole where the layers could clearly be distinguished from each other. A Dremel drill was used to mine around a sample of the innermost layer, which then could be broke off. After sampling, the hole on front of the figurine was restored (Fig. 2). In order to assess possible similarities or differences of the figurine to local products its different layers were compared with ceramics and clay plaster from the settlement, which we presume to be of local origin. Prior to this study, a comprehensive petrographic analysis of ceramics from the site was carried out (Kreiter et al., 2013). Fortyseven ceramics and one plaster thin section were examined petrographically from Szakmár. The ceramics at the site showed little variability in terms of petrographic characteristics. From the 47 ceramic thin sections only 2 ceramics, which are similar petrographically to the figurine, were chosen for geochemical comparison with the figurine layers. A plaster fragment also was included in the geochemical comparison. Thus the samples from the figurine, two ceramic thin sections, and the plaster sample were analyzed using LA-ICP-MS, while samples of the figurine also were submitted for XRD analysis (Table 1). 3.2. Methodological approaches 3.2.1. Petrographic analysis During petrographic analysis, the amount of inclusions, their size categories, degree of sorting and roundness of the components were determined in accordance with the guidelines of the Prehistoric Ceramic Research Group (PCRG, 2010). Inclusion amount

Table 1 Inventory of the analyzed samples and the methods applied during the study. Sample code

Sample 1 Sample 2 Sample 3 Sample 4 Sample 5 Sample 6 Fig. 3. The unusual relief in the place of its ‘face’.

Description

Figurine: outermost layer Figurine: middle layer Figurine: core Plaster Körös ceramic No. 25 Körös ceramic No. 28

Applied method Petrographic analysis

Phytolith analysis

LA-ICP-MS

XRD

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X X X

X e e

X X X

X e e

X

e

X

e

A. Kreiter et al. / Journal of Archaeological Science 44 (2014) 136e147

categories are as follows: rare (1e2%), sparse (3e9%), moderate (10e19%), common (20e29%), very common (30e39%), abundant (>40%). Size categories: very fine (<0.1 mm), fine (0.1e0.25 mm), medium (0.25e1 mm), coarse (1e3 mm), and very coarse (>3 mm). Inclusion sorting categories include: poorly-sorted, moderatelysorted, well-sorted, and very well-sorted. Roundness classes of the components are: angular, sub angular, sub rounded, rounded and well rounded. 3.2.2. Computed tomography (CT) Computer-processed X-ray imaging to produce tomographic images or slices of specific areas of the figurine also was carried out. Digital geometry processing is used to generate a threedimensional image of the inside of an object from a large series of two-dimensional X-ray images taken around a single axis of rotation. These cross-sectional images of the figurine are used for assessing the differences between the different layers of the figurine, such as porosity, size of larger inclusions/impurities, and number and size of impurities. The following instrument parameters were used: 90 kV accelerating voltage and 44 mA current flow. 3.2.3. Phytolith analysis in thin sections Phytolith analysis was carried out on the thin sections prepared for petrographic analysis. Phytoliths can be used as a proxy for identifying characteristics of ceramic production and the temperature of pottery firing (e.g. Starnini et al., 2007). Furthermore, plant opal particles may shed light on the characteristics of vegetal material used for temper (De Paepe et al., 2003; Lippi et al., 2011; Tomber et al., 2011; Kreiter et al., 2013). Apart from our aim to determine the presence of vegetal temper in the different ceramic fabrics, an attempt also was made to clarify the anatomical origin of the vegetal material used for figurine production. Phytoliths were analyzed in thin sections at a magnification of 400x and morphotype identification was performed to gain anatomical information regarding the vegetal material. Description of phytoliths was based on the International Code for Phytolith Nomenclature (ICPN 1.0; Madella et al., 2005). A modern reference collection of inflorescence bract elements of cereals and relevant scientific literature (Metcalfe, 1960; Haraszty, 1979; Miller Rosen, 1992; Ball et al., 1996, 1999; Dickinson, 2000) was used to identify the anatomical origin of the observed morphologies. The poor visibility of phytoliths in ceramic thin sections prevents their precise quantification. This is explained by taphonomical circumstances that appear in the ceramic fabric and the nature of phytolith analysis in a two-dimensional environment. Phytoliths are not liberated from the plant tissue before entering the fabric e as it occurs in other micro-environments e rather the plant tissue is burnt out of the fabric, therefore the visibility of plant opal is dependent on the perfection of the firing process. We consider this to be one of the primary factors of a successful phytolith analysis in thin sections. Visible phytoliths were expected to appear clearly in the oxidized zone since they are not blurred by charred vegetal remains. In the black-coloured reduced part of the thin section, however, they might remain blurred and can hardly be observed. Phytoliths may appear in the thin section in various positions, which help or hinder their observation and identification. In a bestcase scenario a phytolith appears in a top view, which indicates that the polishing of the surface of the section reached the level of the phytolith. The two dimensional analysis environment limits the morphotype identification, since phytoliths cannot be rotated for the sake of three dimensional observation, description, and proper identification. This option is limited to a fixed position within a thin } section (see also Vrydaghs et al., 2007; Starnini et al., 2007 and Peto and Vrydaghs, in press).

139

3.2.4. LA-ICP-MS LA-ICP-MS (Laser Ablation-Inductively Coupled Plasma-Mass Spectrometry) analysis of the figurine was conducted to identify the major, minor, and trace elemental composition of the figurine. This technique is quasi-non-destructive because only a few nanogrammes of a sample are required for analysis, sample preparation is minimal, and samples can be measured directly. Specifically, LAICP-MS was used to determine whether the figurine was formed over time using material from the same resource, or whether different compositional signatures were identifiable for the raw materials used to make each of the layers, possibly suggesting manufacture at multiple locations. The primary focus was on the three layers of the ceramic figurine (Samples 1, 2, and 3). These samples were analyzed in conjunction with one plaster sample (Sample 4), and two ceramic samples (Samples 5 and 6; Table 1) recovered from the site of Szakmár. Each sample was tested twice for an overall total of twelve sub-samples. LA-ICP-MS analysis was carried out using a Bruker quadrupole mass spectrometer. The samples were ablated with a New Wave UP213 system, using a 213 nm wavelength laser set at 70% energy (0.2 mJ) and a pulse frequency of 15 Hz. In order to calculate absolute concentrations and account for instrument drift, standard reference materials (SRM) from the National Institute of Standards of Technology (NIST) and Missouri University Research Reactor Center (MURR) were analyzed. The standards, including NIST 612, NIST 610, New Ohio Red Clay (NORC), and NIST 679 (brick clay), were run before the sub-sample analysis. Ablation of the standards and samples occurred once the chamber reached a stable level, as indicated by the RSD% level for the 29Si blank reaching 5% or less. During the project, all standards were ablated five to ten times each and samples were ablated 10 times each with a 100 mm diameter spot. Prior to any statistical analysis, the raw data was processed following the methods established by the Elemental Analysis Facility at the Field Museum of Natural History (see Dussubieux et al., 2007; Golitko, 2010, and Niziolek, 2011 for more information). Concentration values for the samples and the standards were calculated by subtracting the blank value and dividing the result by the internal standard value (29Si). Low instrumental measurement precision for some elements (e.g. P, Cl, As, Ag, In, Bi) excluded them from the statistical analysis, and high background noise forced other elements (e.g. Tb, Ho, Tm, Lu) to be removed as well. This method of analysis closely follows that first proposed by Gratuze et al. (2001), and later modified by Speakman and Neff (2005). 3.2.5. XRD In order to assess changes in mineral phases and estimate firing temperature of the different layers of the figurine, the samples were subjected to X-ray powder diffraction (XRD) analysis. XRD was carried out on a Philips PW1710 type X-ray diffractometer with the following instrument parameters: CuKa radiation, graphite monochromator, 45 kV tension, 35 mA intensity, 1
divergence gap. This analysis supplements the petrographic analysis and further explores the similarities and differences between the different layers of the figurine. 4. Results 4.1. CT analysis CT measurements were taken horizontally and vertically for a clear visual rendering of the different layers of the figurine and to provide essential information on the manufacturing episodes that led to its final shape. Fig. 5 shows the CT image with the different manufacturing layers in different colors. The core (Sample 3) shows

140

A. Kreiter et al. / Journal of Archaeological Science 44 (2014) 136e147

Fig. 5. CT image of the figurine with the different manufacturing layers in different colors (coloring was made by the authors). 5.1. Fabric of the outermost layer (third manufacturing episode), þN. 5.2. Fabric of the second layer (second manufacturing episode), þN. 5.3. Fabric of the core (first manufacturing episode), þN. 5.4. Articulated phytolith morphotypes (silica skeletons), 1N. 5.5. Elongate dendritic LC (arrows) and rondel SC (circles) phytolith morphotypes, 1N. 5.6. Articulated elongate dendrtic LC morphotypes representing silicified tissue element (silica skeleton), 1N. (For interpretation of the references to colour in this figure legend, the reader is referred to the web version of this article.)

a somewhat asymmetric appearance. It seems that during the first manufacturing episode the figurine was conical and no horn features were visible at this stage. The raw material of the core was poorly prepared since large pores and lumps are visible. The lumps seem to be heterogeneous clay pieces. The raw material of the core is distinct from the other two layers in that there are lumps in the raw material (see the results of petrographic analysis). The second manufacturing episode (Sample 2) can clearly be distinguished from the first one by a thin gap between them. The raw material of the second layer is much better prepared. The fabric shows an even distribution of non-plastic inclusions, the fabric is also less porous. CT shows that it was during the second building phase when the horns began to take shape. The third layer is very similar to the second one in terms of composition and no obvious differences could be identified with CT. The raw material is well prepared and the fabric shows an even distribution of non-plastic inclusions and is significantly less porous than the core. During the third manufacturing episode the figurine reached its final horned shape and, eventually, it was covered with a thin layer of clay slip. 4.2. Petrographic analysis of the figurine The thin sections of the different layers show serial, very finegrained texture. The average grain size is w0.07 mm and their amounts vary between sparse and moderate (3e10%). The raw materials of the layers show similar non-plastic inclusions in terms of type and size, which are monocrystalline quartz, potash feldspar

and muscovite mica. All three layers are tempered with vegetal material (w11%). The raw material of the first manufacturing episode (core) (Sample 3) (Fig. 5.3) is different from the second (Sample 2) (Fig. 5.2) and third (Sample 1) (Fig. 5.1) because the core shows higher porosity as a result of being tempered with more vegetal material and also because it was not kneaded as well as the second and third layers. Another significant difference between the layers is that the core shows rounded calcareous argillaceous fragments (inhomogenized fragments of calcareous clay) that are 1e3 mm in size. The petrographic results of the figurine also were compared with that of the clay plaster (Fig. 6). Clay plaster samples are considered to be well suited for assessing whether other objects from the same site were made from locally available clay since house plasters were presumably made from local clays that were readily available for house construction (Starnini et al., 2007). The analyzed clay plaster is very fine-grained, the amount of non-plastic inclusions is sparse (3e9%), the average grain size is w0.05 mm. Sparse amounts of 0.1e0.2 mm grains also appear. The grains are rounded even the fine (0.1e0.2 mm) ones. The porosity of the sample is the result of burnt out vegetal temper (w4%). In the thin section, three layers could clearly be identified indicating that the plaster was renewed twice (Fig. 7). There are slight differences between the layers in terms of the amount and size of inclusions in that two layers are finer in texture than the third one. Petrographically the composition of the plaster shows similarities to the figurine in terms of the type, amount and size ranges of inclusions.

A. Kreiter et al. / Journal of Archaeological Science 44 (2014) 136e147

Fig. 6. Fabric of the plaster, þN.

141

plastic inclusions varies between sparse to moderate (3e19%). The porosity of the sherds is similar to that of the first fabric group and is also caused by burnt out vegetal temper (5e8%). The fabrics of the samples are serial and the grains are rounded, although the majority of 0.1 mm grains are sub rounded to sub angular. The type and amount of the inclusions are similar to that of the first fabric group. The two ceramics (No. 25 and No. 28) chosen for a more detailed comparison with the figurine are also characterized by a very finegrained fabric (Figs. 8 and 9). The average grain size is between w0.05 and 0.1 mm, the largest grain size is 0.5 mm. The amounts of non-plastic inclusions are sparse or moderate. The porosity of the ceramics results from vegetal tempering (w5%) that burnt out during firing. The pores are characteristically 2e3 mm in length. The fabrics are serial, the grains are well sorted, rounded or well rounded. The inclusions are mainly monocrystalline quartz, rare amounts of potash feldspar and muscovite mica also appear. The petrographic characteristics of ceramics from the site show similarities with the plaster and the figurine. The types of inclusions are similar, although their size and amount show some variability; the ceramics show more non-plastic inclusions than the plaster and figurine. It is probable that the raw materials for the ceramics came from different sources than those for the figurine and plaster.

Ceramic samples from the site also were compared petrographically with the plaster and figurine. Prior to this study, 47 ceramic samples were subjected to petrographic analysis from Szakmár, which indicated that the ceramics are local products (Kreiter et al., 2013). Petrographically, the ceramics could be divided into two groups. One group shows more, primarily very fine, non-plastic inclusions than the other but both groups were tempered with vegetal material. The first ceramic group is characterized by a very fine-grained fabric. The average grain size is w0.05e0.1 mm and the largest grain size being 0.3 mm. The amount of non-plastic inclusions varies between sparse and moderate (3e19%). The extensive porosity of the ceramics is due to vegetal tempering (3e5%), which was burnt out during the firing process. The pores are characteristically 2e3 mm in length. The fabrics are serial, the grains are well sorted, rounded or well rounded. The inclusions are mainly monocrystalline quartz, less amounts of potash feldspar and muscovite mica could also be observed. Rare (1e2%) amounts of plagioclase feldspar, calcareous inclusions and iron oxide also appear just as accessory minerals (zircon, tourmaline, zoisite). The second fabric group also is characterized by very finegrained inclusions although fine grains also appear. The average grain size is w0.1 mm, the largest is 0.5 mm. The amount of non-

In general, the phytoliths observed in voids represent vegetal temper, whilst any biogenic silica component embedded in the matrix sheds light on the properties of the material used for the production of the figurine. The elongated voids in Sample 3 (the core of the figurine) indicate that the raw material was tempered with plant resources. Silicified vegetal remains predominate in the sample, however, charred vegetal remains also appear. Organic material used to temper the core of the figurine burnt out almost completely. Therefore, in situ charred material did not significantly hinder the observation and the analyses of phytoliths. In spite of the high porosity e the linear consequence of the high vegetal temper concentration e relatively few phytolith morphotypes could be observed in the thin section. The most important element of the sample is the presence of elongate dendritic LC morphotypes. Most of these morphologies were only partly visible due to the thin sectioning process, however, the perfect anatomical order of a few

Fig. 7. Three layers in the plaster, þN.

Fig. 8. Fabric of ceramic No. 25, þN.

4.3. Phytolith analysis of the figurine

142

A. Kreiter et al. / Journal of Archaeological Science 44 (2014) 136e147

Fig. 9. Fabric of ceramic No. 28, þN.

silicified tissue fragments indicates that cereal husks were utilized to temper the fabric. Sample 2 (the middle layer of the figurine) resembles the core layer. The most visible difference is the degree of oxidization. This can be assessed through the higher charred material content. In spite of this phenomenon, cereal husk indicators e in the form of anatomically sound silicified tissues composed of elongate dendritic LC phytolith morphotypes e were observable in the sample (Fig. 5.6). Similar to Sample 3, Sample 1 (the outermost layer of the figurine) is characterized by the presence of elongated voids in high concentrations. Besides charred plant organic material remains, which blurred parts of the phytolith record, high concentrations of well-exposed and anatomically sound silicified tissue fragments (silica skeleton) were observed. Additionally, disarticulated phytolith morphotypes were detected (Fig. 5.4). Phytolith morphotypes, which indicate the use of cereal husk elements for tempering, imply elongate dendritic LC and rondel SC (Figs. 5.5 and 10). We also observed papilla bases (Fig. 11). In spite of the higher amount of the silicified plant remains, morphometric analyses could not be performed due to the leaned position of the phytoliths. Cell wall patterns observed in Sample 1, however, can be compared to the identification key set up earlier by

Fig. 10. Rondel SC phytolith morphotype, 1N.

Fig. 11. Papilla bases, 1N.

Miller Rosen (1992, 142). Based on this visual comparison e shown on Fig. 12 e it seems that species from the wheat genus (cf. Triticum sp.) were used as tempering material. At the same time, the visual comparison of limited cell wall patterns is not a definitive method to use for genera or species identification of phytoliths. Both Ball (1992) and Miller Rosen (1992, 143) published an identification key based on the morphometric and morphological properties of papilla bases of the Triticum and Hordeum genera. On

Fig. 12. Species from the wheat genus (cf. Triticum sp.) were used as tempering material, 1N.

A. Kreiter et al. / Journal of Archaeological Science 44 (2014) 136e147

143

4.4. Geochemical analyses

Fig. 13. The result of the LA-ICP-MS analysis. The dendrogram illustrates the compositional relationship between the sub-samples.

the outer skirt surface of the papilla bases found in Sample 1 we counted over 12 pits. This indicates the possibility of the presence of the Triticum genus. Approaches lacking exact and statistically sound morphometric analyses only narrow the possible taxon spectra, but do not allow precise identification. The research material e due partly to the previously mentioned taphonomical and methodological properties and disadvantages e was not suitable for precise taxonomical identification; therefore we only suspect the presence of Triticum species in the vegetal temper. Based on the micro-archaeobotanical observation of samples taken from the core, the middle layer, and the outer layer of the figurine, it can be stated that cereal inflorescence bracts (husk elements) were generally used to temper the fabric. Small, but visible, differences in the degree of oxidization of the samples appeared in the form of higher charred plant remain concentrations in Sample 2. However, this did not hinder the phytolith observations significantly. None of the observed phytoliths or silicified tissue fragments were molten, which would indicate that the firing process of the ceramics exceeded 750e800
C (Starnini et al., 2007).

The results of the LA-ICP-MS measurements (Appendix 1) were subjected to a series of statistical analyses. However, due to the small sample size, statistical analysis of the results was limited. After processing the raw data the results were imported into the statistical program developed by Hector Neff called GAUSS. The parts-per-million elemental concentrations were converted to log base-10 values to eliminate the registered differences between major and minor elements (Glascock, 1992; Neff, 1994; Baxter, 2001). Once this transformation was completed, the program was used to calculate a dendrogram and bivariate plots illustrating the compositional results. In both cases, the samples neatly separated into four groups with the plaster, ceramics, and figurine layers being compositionally different from one another. While further analysis was attempted, small sample size inhibited robust statistical comparisons between the samples. The six samples selected for LA-ICP-MS analysis were analyzed twice. Based on the compositional results, the samples neatly separate into four groups, thus indicating compositional differences between the ceramics, the plaster, and the figurine layers (Figs. 13 and 14). Group 1 represents sub-samples of Sample 6 (No. 28) from the site of Szakmár (Fig. 14). Compared to Sample 5 (No. 25), Group 1 samples have lower concentrations of barium (Ba) and sodium (Na), as well as differing concentrations of minor elements. Compared to the other material types, Sample 6 (No. 28) registered relatively low amounts of magnesium (Mg). Readings from Group 2 (Fig. 14) representing Sample 5 (No. 25) show a high concentration in certain elements including barium (Ba) and sodium (Na) in comparison to Sample 6 (No. 28). Compared to the other material types, Sample 5 (No. 25) registered relatively low amounts of magnesium (Mg), though a higher amount of magnesium is registered in Sample 5 than Sample 6. Two readings comprise Group 3 (Fig. 14) and both are associated with Sample 4 (plaster). The composition of the plaster was different from that of the ceramics and figurine layers. The silica (Si) concentrations are noticeably lower than the other two material types, while the potassium (K) is found in larger quantities. Group 4 (Fig. 14) is comprised of all three layers (outermost layer e Sample 1, middle layer e Sample 2, and core layer e Sample 3) analyzed from the figurine. Differentiation between the layers

Fig. 14. The result of the LA-ICP-MS analysis. The bivariate plot of Ba vs. Al. The diagram illustrates the separation of the materials into 4 groups.

144

A. Kreiter et al. / Journal of Archaeological Science 44 (2014) 136e147

Fig. 15. XRD phase analysis results of the layers of the figurine.

could not be statistically determined. However, when compared with the other materials, the figurine is noticeably different from the ceramics and the plaster. For example, all figurine layers typically registered lower concentrations of potassium (K) and barium (Ba) than other materials. One reading belonging to the middle layer (Sample 2b) has a large amount of variability in the registered readings suggesting that this result should be removed as an outlier to the dataset further limiting the ability to statistically analyze the results. According to phase analysis (XRD) (Fig. 15) the raw material of the figurine is marl clay that was fired under oxidized conditions. The differences in the mineral phases are accounted for by the inhomogeneity of the layers and differences between firing temperatures. According to the phase changes in marl clays the outermost layer of the figurine (Sample 1) was not fired above 800e850
C. In this layer gehlenite and diopside phases appear indicating that the firing temperature was around 800
C. In the middle layer of the figurine (Sample 2) diopside is not identified, the amount of calcite and aragonite is higher than in the outermost layer (Sample 1), and dolomite appears in traces just as gehlenite. The latter indicates that the firing temperature of the middle layer (Sample 2) was similar to the outermost. Although the firing atmosphere was slightly reduced, this could be the result of better firing conditions or perhaps the object was fired after another layer was added and this layer allowed less oxygen to reach the interior of the figurine. In order for the diopside to appear in this layer the temperature should have been around 100e150
C higher within the layer. The core of the figurine (Sample 3) was fired at a lower temperature as indicated by the presence of calcite, dolomite, aragonite (under oxidized circumstances <550e750
C) and maghemite/magnetite. The lack of hematite suggests that the temperature never reached 850
C. This result, however, may not be indicative of that the core was fired at a lower temperature since Neolithic vessels in thin section often show differences in firing temperatures between the edges and core (Szakmány et al., 2004). This phenomenon could be the result of the use of bonfires, the lack of temperature control and short soaking time. 5. Discussion The multiple analytical approaches to study a horned Neolithic figurine provide interesting information about how the object may have been made. The way the figurine was built fundamentally contributed to its complex biography (Fig. 5).

The CT analysis revealed that the figurine was manufactured in three distinct layers with clearly visible gaps between each construction layer. The considerable shrinkage gaps between the layers indicate that the figurine was fired after each building phase. It must be noted that space between building units (slabs, coils) are usually somewhat visible after firing due to material shrinkage (Kreiter, 2008, 147, Fig. 6/10b). The spaces between the figurine’s layers are quite large, suggesting that a layer of air exists between the layers. Such large gaps do not typically occur in ceramics because if they did, the individual building units would not stay together and the vessel would fall apart. While it cannot be demonstrated unequivocally that the figurine was fired after each building episode, many indicators suggest this was the case. Firstly, the gaps in the figurine are quite large and they are clearly visible on the bottom and front (where the samples were taken) of the figurine with the naked eye and also on the CT sections. These gaps on the bottom are 1e2 mm wide (Fig. 4), whereas the CT images show that they are typically 0.1 mm wide on the inside of the figurine (Fig. 5), though their maximum width reaches 0.2e0.3 mm. Secondly, even though LA-ICP-MS suggests a similar source for the raw materials used in the construction of the figurine, the differences between the layers in terms of organic tempering and raw material preparation, revealed by the petrographic analysis, also support the notion that the figurine may have been constructed and fired at different times. The noticeable compositional difference between the local Szakmár ceramics and the figurine also suggest that the figurine may not have been locally crafted, but could have been transported to the site after it’s multi-phase construction. Unfortunately, it remains unclear how the figurine was utilized between the building phases since no traces of use wear could be analyzed between the manufacturing episodes. The amount of time between manufacturing periods cannot be assessed either. What is clear, however, is that for some reason it was important to renew the object twice to gain its final shape. It appears that during the second building phase the horns began to take shape, but the shape of the figurine still remained asymmetrical. It was during the third phase when its final shape was achieved and also when the figurine was covered with a thin layer of slip. The way the bottom of the figurine is fractured suggests that it may have been attached to its pedestal, but only when it reached its third and final shape. This also suggests that the figurine was constructed and fired at different times. It is intriguing that the core of the figurine is different from the other layers in terms of raw material preparation and chaff

A. Kreiter et al. / Journal of Archaeological Science 44 (2014) 136e147

tempering; its raw material is roughly kneaded with remains of large heterogeneous clay lumps and pores. Its shape also is asymmetric, however asymmetric Neolithic human representations, having similar layered structure to the figurine examined in this paper, are found at other sites, suggesting that form does not affect figurine use and meaning (Kalicz, 2007). Barley (1983) argues that a lack of technical proficiency in material culture production can often be explained by a symbolic process. Technological production and the raw materials used may have a significant effect on social relations (Taçon, 1991; Boivin, 2004; Bowser, 2005). The figurine, being made in a series of different stages, marks time and objects with time depth often are used to construct social relations (Campbell, 2002; Kreiter, 2007b). Vegetal temper used in the fabric of Early Neolithic clay products is collectively termed chaff, which is the by-product of the cleaning process of harvested cereals. In the case of the figurine, its building phases and the incorporation of chaff in each layer possibly manifest temporalities within the community. The phytolith analysis suggests that only chaff e or predominantly chaff material e was used and none of the by-products produced earlier in the cleaning process (straw and leaf phytoliths, weed indicators) were utilized as vegetal temper. Thus, the harvested spikes were cleaned and the remaining material e suitable in size e was used for tempering. Regarding the temper, the Körös people harvested mostly hulled cereals, especially ancient forms of wheat (Bogaard } et al., 2013), which proet al., 2007, 435; Gyulai, 2010, 74; Peto vided a rich source of suitably sized vegetal by-products for tempering. Thus the vegetal material was small enough and did not require further processing. The results of this study correspond with the phytolith analysis carried out on Szakmár ceramic thin sections (Kreiter et al., 2013) and the archaeobotanical knowledge of the Neolithic in the Carpathian Basin. The observed silicified tissue fragments open up the possibility that species of the Triticum genus was used. However, the precise and doubtless taxonomic identification of the vegetal temper was not possible based on the available evidence. Nevertheless, the dominantly chaff material may be indicative of the way harvesting was carried out. The phytolith results may suggest that only the spike of the growth was harvested and incorporated into the different manufacturing phases of the figurine. This practice may have coincided with the annual growth of harvest also implying an annual building phase of the figurine strengthening the temporality of the making of the figurine. Temporality is very important among traditional communities, because changes in temporality often are linked with lifecycle rituals that link past and present (Barley, 1984; Mourer, 1984; David et al., 1988; Spindel, 1989; Sterner, 1989). Temporality works as a structuring principle that is integral to identifying people’s relationship with material culture. Cereal is strongly associated with considerations of temporality. It has an annual growth cycle marked by events such as sowing, growth, and eventually harvest. The growth cycle of plants is an important factor in determining how time is culturally perceived (Gell, 1996) and therefore, cereal is likely to engender notions of cyclical time occurring on an annual basis. The figurine, similar to ceramics containing similar phytolith morphotypes, was likely to be produced around the time of harvest when the harvested spikes were cleaned and readily available. In the light of this investigation, there is a clear connection between figurine making/pottery production and agriculture in the Neolithic of the Carpathian Basin. 6. Conclusion Since the figurine shows different building stages, the multitemporality of the object may imply its role in the household or its ideological significance. Conceptually, the figurine shows what

145

appears to be a single event in the past: the annual harvest. This event actually incorporates multiple events and timescales. Such recognition of the multi-temporal nature of the archaeological record suggests that archaeological frameworks for thinking about material culture need to consider the biography of objects (see Thomas, 1999, Chapter 6; Hoskins, 2006). Considering the concept and implementation of the figurine, it is clear that the object held significant importance in Neolithic society. Firstly, the figurine is very large in comparison to other figurines or animal representations from the period in the Carpathian Basin, suggesting that it was intended to be impressively large. However, this representation is not entirely unique within the Körös culture. Several fragments of figurines with similar horns and of similar size have been found at other sites on the Plain (Makkay, 2007, 107, 165). It is possible that this figurine type was a part of domestic cult life in lowland Körös settlements. Moreover, this particular shape probably relates to other similar figurine types from the Early Neolithic in South Eastern Europe. Interestingly, the interpretation of horned figurines has been reduced to being exclusively bull figurines (or synecdoche representations, when only the horns are indicated). Traditionally, advocates of this view often associate them with male procreative power (Kalicz and Raczky, 1982). In this way, the male principle with his horns of consecration was created, to counter the Neolithic Mother Goddess, supported by many scholars, though most expressively by Gimbutas (1982). Yet, the male character of the figurine arouses doubts, mainly based on the relief on its front, which rather clearly represents female genitalia. Nevertheless, the figurine is an object that was manufactured in different stages. Therefore, it is considered that this practice may have a similar social significance to that observed in miniature human figurines since they also appear to have this layered structure (Kalicz, 2007; Kreiter and Szakmány, 2011). As a unique and probably socially significant item, it is conceivable that the figurine was produced for some special event, perhaps a ritual associated with an annual growth cycle, secondary products (dairy products) or other significant rite of passage. The figurine may have tied people and events together in its life-cycle, bringing together multiple people, new conceptualizations of figurine making (its form, size, and implementation is unique), and the agricultural life-cycle (animal husbandry and secondary products). Acknowledgments We are grateful to Szilvia Döbröntey-David (Archeolore Ltd.) for carrying out X-ray imaging and supporting the CT scan. Additional thanks is given to M.D. Kinga Karlinger, Senior Research Fellow at the Semmelweis University Clinic for Radiology and Oncotherapy, who carried out the CT imaging. Ryan Williams, Anthropology Department Chair at the Field Museum, made the EAF facilities available for this analysis. The Anthropology Collection’s Fund covered the expenses accrued from the LA-ICP-MS compositional analysis. Laure Dussubieux, Lisa Niziolek, and Mark Golitko have provided endless amounts of instruction and guidance throughout the analysis of the geochemical dataset. Appendix A. Supplementary data Supplementary data related to this article can be found at http:// dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jas.2014.01.02. References Bailey, D.W., 2005. Prehistoric Figurines: Representation and Corporeality in the Neolithic. Routledge, London.

146

A. Kreiter et al. / Journal of Archaeological Science 44 (2014) 136e147

Ball, T.B., 1992. Phytolithy Morphometries: the Use of Image Analysis for Morphologie and Systematic Study of Various Grass Phytoliths (Bouteloua, Panicum, Zea, and Triticum) (Unpublished PhD dissertation). Brigham Young University. Ball, T.B., Gardner, J.S., Anderson, N., 1999. Identifying inflorescence phytoliths from selected species of wheat (Triticum monococcum, T. dicoccon, T. dicoccoides, and T. aestivum) and barley (Hordeum vulgare and H. spontaneum) (Gramineae). Am. J. Bot. 86 (11), 1615e1623. Ball, T.B., Gardner, J.S., Brotherson, J.D., 1996. Identifying phytoliths produced by the inflorescence bracts of three species of wheat (Triticum monococcum L., T. dicoccon Schrank., and T. aestivum L.) using computer-assisted image and statistical analyses. J. Archaeol. Sci. 23 (4), 619e632. Bánffy, E., 1990-91. Continuity and discontinuity: some questions on the transition from the Neolithic to the Copper Age in the Carpathian Basin. Antaeus 19e20, 23e32. Bánffy, E., 2001. Notes on the connection between human and zoomorphic representations in the Neolithic. In: Biehl, P., Bertemes, F. (Eds.), The Archaeology of Cult and Religion. Archaeolingua, Budapest, pp. 53e71. Bánffy, E., 2012. South western Körös culture settlement in the DanubeeTisza interfluve: SzakmáreKisülés. In: Anders, A., Siklósi, Zs (Eds.), The First Neolithic Sites in Central/South-East European Transect, The Körös Culture in Eastern Hungary, vol. III. Archaeopress, Oxford, pp. 53e68. BAR IS 2334. Bánffy, E., 2013. Data to the distribution of the Körös culture in Central Hungary: Szakmár-Kisülés. The site and the findings (Chapter 6). In: Bánffy, E. (Ed.), The Early Neolithic of the DanubeeTisza Interfluve, With contributors. BAR IS 2584, Central European Series, vol. 7. Archaeopress, Oxford. Barley, N., 1983. Symbolic Structures. An Exploration of the Culture of the Dowayos. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. Barley, N., 1984. Placing the West African potter. In: Picton, J. (Ed.), Earthenware in Asia and Africa. Percival David Foundation, London, pp. 93e105. Baxter, M.J., 2001. Multivariate analysis in Archaeology. In: Brothwell, D.R., Pollard, A.M. (Eds.), Handbook of Archaeologcal Aciences. John Wiley & Sons, Ltd., Chichester, pp. 685e694. Bogaard, A., Bending, J., Jones, G., 2007. Archaeobotanical evidence for plant husbandry and use. In: Whittle, A. (Ed.), The Early Neolithic on the Great Hungarian Plain: Investigations of the Körös Culture Site of Ecsegfalva 23, County Békés, Varia Archaeologica Hungarica, vol. 21, pp. 421e441. Budapest. Boivin, N., 2004. From veneration to exploitation: human engagement with the material world. In: Boivin, N., Owoc, M.A. (Eds.), Soils, Stones and Symbols: Cultural Perceptions of the Mineral World. UCL Press, London, pp. 1e29. Bowser, B.J., 2005. Transactional politics and the local and regional exchange of pottery resources in the Ecuadorian Amazon. In: Livingston Smith, A., Bosquet, D., Martineau, R. (Eds.), Pottery Manufacturing Processes: Reconstitution and Interpretation, Acts of the XIVth UISPP Congress, University of Liége, Belgium, 2e8 September 2001, pp. 23e32. BAR IS 1349, Oxford. Campbell, S.F., 2002. The Art of Kula. Berg, Oxford. Chapman, J.C., 2000. Fragmentation in Archaeology: People, Places and Broken Objects in the Prehistory of South Eastern Europe. Routledge, London. David, N., Sterner, J., Gavua, K., 1988. Why pots are decorated? Curr. Anthropol. 29, 365e389. De Paepe, P., Rutten, K., Vrydaghs, L., Haerinck, E., 2003. Petrographic, chemical and phytolith analysis of late Preislamic ceramic from ed-Dur, Um el-Kawein (U.A.E.). In: Potts, D., Hasan Al Naboodah, H., Hellyer, P. (Eds.), Archaeology of the United Arab Emirates. Proceedings of the First International Conference on the Archaeology of the United Arab Emirates. Trident Press, London, pp. 207e229. Dickinson, W.C., 2000. Integrative Plant Anatomy. Harcourt Academic Press, Burlinton, Massachusetts. Dussubieux, L., Golitko, M., Williams, P.R., Speakman, R.J., 2007. Laser ablationinductively coupled plasma-mass spectrometry analysis applied to the characterization of Peruvian Wari ceramics. In: Glascock, M.D., Speakman, R.J., PopelkaFilcoff, R.S. (Eds.), Archaeological Chemistry: Analytical Technique and Archaeological Interpretation. American Chemical Society, Washington, D.C., pp. 349e363. Gell, A., 1996. The Anthropology of Time. Berg, Oxford. Gimbutas, M., 1982. The Goddesses and Gods of Old Europe. Myths and Cult Images. Thames and Hudson, London. Glascock, M.D., 1992. Characterization of archaeological ceramics at MURR by neutron activation analysis. In: Neff, H. (Ed.), Chemical Characterization of Ceramic Pastes in Archaeology. Prehistory Press, Madison, pp. 11e26. Golitko, M., 2010. Warfare and Alliance Building during the Belgian Early Neolithic, Late Sixth Millennium BC (Ph.D.). Department of Anthropology, University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago. Gratuze, B., Blet-Lemarquand, M., Barrandon, J.N., 2001. Mass spectrometry with laser sampling: a new tool to characterize archaeological materials. J. Radioanal. Nucl. Chem. 247, 645e656. Gyulai, F., 2010. Archaeobotany in Hungary. Seed, Fruit, Food and Beverage Remains in the Carpathian Basin from the Neolithic to the Late Middle Ages. In: Archaeolingua Main Series, vol. 21 (Budapest). Haraszty, Á. (Ed.), 1979. Növényszervezettan és növényélettan. Tankönyvkiadó, Budapest. Höckmann, O., 1968. Die menschengestaltige Figuralplastik der südosteuropäischen Jungsteinzeit und Steinkupferzeit. In: Münsterische Beiträge zur Vorgeschichteforschung, vol. 3e4. August Lax Verlag, Hildesheim. Hoskins, J., 2006. Agency, biography and objects. In: Tilley, C., Keane, W., KuechlerFogden, S., Rowlands, M., Spyer, P. (Eds.), Handbook of Material Culture. Sage, London, pp. 74e84. Kalicz, N., 2007. The beginning of prehistoric figurine making in western Transdanubia, Hungary. In: Ilon, G. (Ed.), Wonderful Beauties. Human

Representations in Prehistoric Western Hungary. Vas Megyei Múzeumok Igazgatósága, Szombathely, pp. 30e43. Kalicz, N., Kreiter, A., Kreiter, E., Tokai, Z.M., 2012. A neolitikum kronológiai kérdései } lo } lelo }helyen (Chronological questions of the Neolithic Becsehely-Bükkaljai-du } } lo } ). In: Kolozsi, B. (Ed.), MOMOS IV. Oskoros at Becsehely-Bükkaljai-du Kutatók IV. Összejövetelének Konferenciakötete, Debrecen, 2005. Március 22e24. Déri Múzeum, Debrecen, pp. 87e170. Kalicz, N., Raczky, P., 1982. The precursors to the “horns of consecration” in the Southeast European Neolithic. Acta Arch. Hung. 33, 5e20. Kreiter, A., 2007a. Technological Choices and Material Meanings in Early and Middle Bronze Age Hungary: Understanding the Active Role of Material Culture through Ceramic Analysis. BAR IS 1604. Archaeopress, Oxford. } koncepciója a bronzKreiter, A., 2007b. Kerámia technológiai tradíció és az ido korban e Ceramic technological tradition and the concept of time in the Bronze } Age. Osrégészeti Levelek e Prehist. Newslett. 8e9, 146e166. Kreiter, A., 2008. A Celtic Pottery Kiln and Ceramic Technological Study from Zalakomár-Alsó Csalit (S-W Hungary), vol. 17. Zalai Múzeum, pp. 131e148. }, Á., Pánczél, P., 2013. Materializing tradition: ceramic production in Kreiter, A., Peto Early and Middle Neolithic Hungary. In: Bánffy, E. (Ed.), The Early Neolithic of the DanubeeTisza Interfluve, BAR IS 2584, Central European Series, vol. 7. Archaeopress, Oxford, pp. 127e140. Kreiter, A., Szakmány, Gy., 2011. Petrographic analysis of Körös ceramics from MéhtelekeNádas. In: Kalicz, N., with a contribution by Attila Kreiter and György Szakmány (Ed.), Méhtelek. The First Excavated Site of the Méhtelek Group of the Early Neolithic Körös Culture in the Carpathian Basin, BAR S2321, Archaeolingua Central European Series, vol. 6, Archaeolingua, Budapest, 113e130. Lippi, M.M., Gonnelli, T., Pallecchi, P., 2011. Rice chaff in ceramics from the archaeological site of Sumhuram (Dhofar, Southern Oman). J. Archaeol. Sci. 38 (6), 1173e1179. Lycett, S., Chauhan, P. (Eds.), 2012. New Perspectives on Old Stones: Analytical Approaches to Paleolithic Technologies. Springer, New York. Madella, M., Alexandre, A., Ball, T., 2005. International code for phytolith nomenclature 1.0. Ann. Bot. 96, 253e260. Makkay, J., 2007. The excavations of the Early Neolithic sites of the Körös culture in the Körös valley, Hungary: the final report. In: Starnini, E., Biagi, P. (Eds.), The Excavations: Stratigraphy, Structures and Graves, Societa per la preistoria e protoistoria della regione Friuli-Venezia Giulia. Quaderno 11, vol. I. Museo Civico, Trieste. Marangou, Chr, 1992. EIDULIA. Figurines et miniatures du Néolithique Récent et du Bronze Ancien en Grece. BAR IS 576. Archaeopress, Oxford. Metcalfe, C.R., 1960. Anatomy of the Monocotyledons. In: Gramineae, vol. I. Clarendon Press, Oxford. Miller Rosen, A., 1992. Preliminary identification of silica skeletons from near eastern archaeological sites: an anatomical approach. In: Rapp, G., Mulholland, S.C. (Eds.), Phytolith Systematics. Emerging Issues. Plenum Press, New York, pp. 129e147. Mourer, R., 1984. Technical progress: what for? Some reflections on pottery in Cambodia. In: Picton, J. (Ed.), Earthenware in Asia and Africa. Percival David Foundation, London, pp. 28e53. Neff, H., 1994. RQ-Mode principal components analysis of ceramic compositional data. Archaeometry 36, 115e130. Niziolek, L.C., 2011. Ceramic Production and Craft Specialization in the Prehispanic Philippines, A.D. 500 to 1600 (Ph.D.). Department of Anthropology, University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago. Oross, K., Siklósi, Zs, 2012. Relative and absolute chronology of the Early Neolithic in the Great Hungarian Plain. In: Anders, A., Siklósi, Zs (Eds.), The First Neolithic Sites in Central/South-east European Transect, The Körös Culture in Eastern Hungary, vol. III. Archaeopress, Oxford, pp. 129e159. BAR IS 2334. PCRG, 2010. The Study of Later Prehistoric Pottery: General Policies and Guidelines for Analysis and Publication, third ed.. In: Prehistoric Ceramic Research Group: Occasional Papers Nos 1 and 2 revised. } , Á., Gyulai, F., Pópity, D., Kenéz, Á., 2013. Macro- and micro-archaeobotanical Peto study of a vessel content from a Late Neolithic structured deposition from southeastern Hungary. J. Archaeol. Sci. 40 (1), 58e71. } , Á., Vrydaghs, L., 2014. Phytolith analysis of ceramic thin sections. First Peto taphonomical insights gained through experiments with vegetal tempering of bread wheat (Triticum aestivum L. ssp. aestivum) organs. In: Proceedings of the Insight from Innovation: New Light on Archaeological Ceramics Conference, Southampton, UK, 19e21 October 2012 (in press). Por ci c, M., 2012. Contextual analysis of fragmentation of the anthropomorphic figurines from the Late Neolithic site of Selevac. Issues Ethnol. Anthropol. 7 (3), 809e827. Quinn, P.S. (Ed.), 2009. Interpreting Silent Artefacts: Petrographic Approaches to Archaeological Ceramics. Oxbow, Oxford. Spindel, C., 1989. Kpenbeele Senufo potters. Afr. Arts 22 (3), 66e73. Speakman, R.J., Neff, H., 2005. The application of Laser Ablation ICP-MS to the study of archaeological materials e an introduction. In: Speakman, R.J. (Ed.), Laser Ablation-ICP-MS in Archaeological Research. University of New Mexico Press, Albuquerque, pp. 1e16. Starnini, E., Szakmány, G., Madella, M., 2007. Archaeometry of the first pottery production in the Carpathian Basin: results from two years of research. In: D’Amico, C. (Ed.), Atti Del IV Congresso Nazionale Aiar. Pisa, 1e3 febbraio 2006. Pátron Editore, Bologna, pp. 401e411. Sterner, J., 1989. Who is signalling whom? Ceramic style, ethnicity and taphonomy amongst the Sirak Bulahary. Antiquity 63, 451e459.

A. Kreiter et al. / Journal of Archaeological Science 44 (2014) 136e147 Szakmány, Gy, Gherdán, K., Starnini, E., 2004. Kora neolitikus kerámia készítés Magyarországon: a Körös és a Star cevo kultúra kerámiáinak összehasonlító } hely 1, 28e31. archeometriai vizsgálata. Archeometriai Mu Taçon, P., 1991. The power of stone: symbolic aspects of stone use and tool development in Western Arnhem Land, Australia. Antiquity 65, 192e207. Thomas, J., 1999. Time, Culture and Identity. Routledge, London. Tomber, R., Cartwright, C., Gupta, S., 2011. Rice temper: technological solutions and source identification in the Indian Ocean. J. Archaeol. Sci. 38 (2), 360e366.

147

Ucko, P., 1968. Anthropomorphic Figurines of Predynastic Egypt and Neolithic Crete with Comparative Material from the Prehistoric Near East and Mainland Greece. Royal Anthropological Institute, London. Occasional Paper 24. Vrydaghs, L., Devos, Y., Fechner, K., Degraeve, A., 2007. Phytolith analysis of ploughed land thin sections. Contribution to the early development of Medieval Brussels (Treurenberg site, Belgium). In: Madella, M., Zurro, D. (Eds.), Plants, People and Places. Recent Studies in Phytolith Analysis. Oxbow Books, Oakville, pp. 13e28.