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Upward social comparison on social network sites and depressive symptoms: A moderated mediation model of self-esteem and optimism
Personality and Individual Differences 113 (2017) 223–228
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Upward social comparison on social network sites and depressive symptoms: A moderated mediation model of self-esteem and optimism Qing-Qi Liu, Zong-Kui Zhou ⁎, Xiu-Juan Yang, Geng-Feng Niu, Yuan Tian, Cui-Ying Fan Key Laboratory of Adolescent Cyberpsychology and Behavior (CCNU), Ministry of Education, Wuhan 430079, China School of Psychology, Central China Normal University, Wuhan 430079, China
a r t i c l e
i n f o
Article history: Received 7 October 2016 Received in revised form 1 March 2017 Accepted 14 March 2017 Available online xxxx Keywords: Upward social comparison Social network sites Self-esteem Optimism Depressive symptoms
a b s t r a c t Studies have revealed that upward social comparison on social network sites (SNSs) was a risk factor for depressive symptoms, however, little is known about the underlying processes that may mediate or moderate this relationship. This study extended prior research by examining the mediating role of self-esteem and the moderating role of optimism in this relationship. A sample of 1205 Chinese undergraduate students completed measures of upward social comparison on SNSs, depressive symptoms, self-esteem, and optimism. Results showed that self-esteem partially mediated the relation between upward social comparison on SNSs and depressive symptoms. In addition, the direct effect of upward social comparison on SNSs on depressive symptoms and the mediating effect of self-esteem were both moderated by optimism. The two effects were more potent for individuals with low optimism than for those with high optimism. The present study contributes to a better understanding of how and when upward social comparison on SNSs increases the risk of depressive symptoms. Limitations and implications of this study are discussed. © 2017 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
1. Introduction Social comparison is a common social phenomenon (Festinger, 1954; Suls & Miller, 1977; Xing & Yu, 2005). Information of others is the key factor that leads individuals to engage in social comparison (Festinger, 1954; Mussweiler, Ruter, & Epstude, 2006). In addition to offline interpersonal interaction, many Internet applications also provide individuals with convenient access to comparative information. One such application is social network sites (SNSs). Since viewing others' profiles is the most prevalent activity on SNSs (Pempek, Yermolayeva, & Calvert, 2009), and the majority of time spent on SNSs was devoted to browsing and searching for others' information (Wise, Alhabash, & Park, 2010), social network sites have been considered as an ideal platform for social comparison to take place (Vogel, Rose, Okdie, Eckles, & Franz, 2015). Moreover, information on SNSs is overly positive because people tend to present themselves in overly flattering ways and communicate positive life developments more frequently than negative ones on SNSs (Kross et al., 2013; Verduyn et al., 2015). Social comparison on SNSs thus involves mostly upward social comparison, namely, comparing with those who are better off (Feinstein et al., 2013; Vogel, Rose, Roberts, & Eckles, 2014; Vogel et al., 2015), or even envy of others (Tandoc, Ferrucci, & Duffy, 2015). ⁎ Corresponding author: Key Laboratory of Adolescent Cyberpsychology and Behavior (CCNU), Ministry of Education, Wuhan 430079, China. E-mail address: [email protected] (Z.-K. Zhou).
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2017.03.037 0191-8869/© 2017 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Studies indicated that social comparison on SNSs would bring about negative impacts on individuals' mental health (Jang, Park, & Song, 2016; Lee, 2014). Depression is one of the undesirable consequences of upward social comparison on SNSs (Appel, Crusius, & Gerlach, 2015). Research showed that upward social comparison on SNSs was positively associated with depressive symptoms (Nesi & Prinstein, 2015), and envy on SNSs positively predicted symptoms of depression (Tandoc et al., 2015). In addition, upward social comparison on SNSs would lead to increases in depressive symptoms 3 weeks later (Feinstein et al., 2013). Namely, upward social comparison on SNSs has not only an immediate effect but also a delayed effect on depressive symptoms. In spite of the robust association between upward social comparison on SNSs and depressive symptoms, however, whether there exist some individual traits that would mediate or moderate this association remains largely unexplored. Determining the mediating and moderating mechanism underlying this association could advance our understanding of how and when upward social comparison on SNSs leads to symptoms of depression, and how to protect individuals from the deleterious effects of upward social comparison on SNSs. 1.1. The mediating role of self-esteem Self-esteem is regarded as a global evaluation of oneself (Błachnio, Przepiorka, & Rudnicka, 2016). Since social comparison is primarily used to learn about the self, it will undoubtedly exert significant impacts
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on self-evaluation (Corcoran, Crusius, & Mussweiler, 2011; Festinger, 1954). According to social comparison theory (de Vries & Kühne, 2015; Festinger, 1954), upward social comparison would lead individuals to be more aware of the fact that they are worse off than others. The contrast effect would then cause a less favorable self-evaluation (Collins, 1995). Studies on upward social comparison on SNSs support the viewpoint of social comparison theory. For instance, a study showed that upward social comparison on SNSs negatively predicted self-perceived competence and physical appearance (de Vries & Kühne, 2015). Another study found that upward social comparison on social media significantly lowered self-esteem (Lee, 2014). Self-esteem is closely associated with depressive symptoms (Bajaj, Robins, & Pande, 2016). According to Beck's cognitive theory of depression, negative belief about oneself (e.g., low self-esteem) is the key etiology of depression (Beck, 1967). Both cross-sectional and longitudinal studies found that low self-esteem was one of the most important risk factors for depression (Michalak, Teismann, Heidenreich, Strohle, & Vocks, 2011; Sowislo & Orth, 2013). Considering that upward social comparison on SNSs would lower self-esteem, and low self-esteem would in turn result in symptoms of depression, we assume that upward social comparison on SNSs may influence depression symptoms through the mediating role of self-esteem. 1.2. The moderating role of optimism Although upward social comparison would bring about negative impacts on self-esteem and depression, the impacts may not be the same for all individuals. The negative effects of upward social comparison may be weak in some individuals because of their positive attitudes towards the comparative information. Some factors, especially individual trait factors, could moderate the association between social comparison and its outcomes (Xing & Yu, 2005). Therefore, it is important to explore individual traits that may alleviate the adverse impacts of upward social comparison on SNSs. Optimism is one of the most important central concepts in the Positive Psychology. A great number of scholars are attracted to conduct research on optimism. Some researchers consider optimism as an attributional style displayed in explaining successful or failure experience (Seligman, Abramson, Semmel, & Von, 1979). Others argue that optimism is a dispositional trait (e.g., Barnett & Martinez, 2015; Carver & Scheier, 2005; Scheier, Weintraub, & Carver, 1987; Tucker et al., 2013). Optimists tend to think of their future in a positive manner and believe that life will be generally favorable (Carver & Scheier, 2005; Scheier et al., 1987). Although there exist different viewpoints about the construct of optimism, most of the researchers agree that optimism could be considered as a relatively stable dispositional trait. A metaanalysis study revealed that dispositional optimism was positively correlated with self-esteem, positive affect, and life satisfaction, and negatively correlated with stress, anxiety, and depression (Qi, Zhang, Shao, Wang, & Gong, 2012). In addition, as an important factor for individual development, optimism was found to moderate the relationship between stress factors and mental health. For example, studies showed that optimism weakened the relationship between rumination and suicidal ideation (Tucker et al., 2013), as well as the association between chronic stress and burnout (Riolli & Savicki, 2003). Optimism may influence the way individuals' process information of upward social comparison. Since optimists generally have positive expectation of future (Carver & Scheier, 2005; Scheier et al., 1987), they may think that they can get the same ideal life as that of others in the future when faced with the information that others are better off. An experimental study found that happiness moderated the relationship between upward social comparison and its consequences (Lyubomirsky & Ross, 1997). Upward social comparison decreased the positive mood and lowered the self-evaluation of competence among unhappy people, whereas such tendency did not happen to happy people. Since happiness and optimism are closely related, optimism may also serve as a
moderator in the relationship between social comparison and its outcomes (Lyubomirsky & Ross, 1997). Therefore, it may be assumed that optimism, as a positive personality trait, may weaken the relationship between upward social comparison on SNSs and its unfavorable outcomes. Namely, the association between upward social comparison on SNSs and depressive symptoms and the association between upward social comparison on SNSs and self-esteem may be both moderated by optimism. According to previous studies (e.g., Edwards & Lambert, 2007; Hayes, 2013; Muller, Judd, & Yzerbyt, 2005), if self-esteem mediates the relation between upward social comparison on SNSs and depression, and optimism moderates the relation between upward social comparison on SNSs and self-esteem simultaneously, then the mediating role of self-esteem would be moderated by optimism. Further, if the mediation process depends on the value of a moderator variable, there will be a moderated mediation effect.
1.3. The present study Taken together, the present study aimed at examining whether the relationship between upward social comparison on SNSs and depressive symptoms was mediated by self-esteem, and whether the effect of upward social comparison on SNSs on depressive symptoms and the mediating effect of self-esteem were moderated by optimism. The specific hypotheses to be examined were as follows, and the integrated model proposed was outlined in Fig. 1. H1. Self-esteem would mediate the relationship between upward social comparison on SNSs and depressive symptoms. H2. Optimism would moderate the relationship between upward social comparison on SNSs and depressive symptoms. H3. Optimism would moderate the mediating effect of self-esteem in the relationship between upward social comparison on SNSs and depressive symptoms.
2. Methods 2.1. Participants and procedure Participants were recruited from three universities in China. The authenticity, independence and integral nature of all answers as well as the confidentiality of the information collected were emphasized to all participants by well-trained psychology graduate students. A total of 1205 undergraduate students between 17 and 24 years (Mage = 19.86, SDage = 1.265, 51.45% females) completed the present study after informed consent was obtained from the schools and the participants.
Fig. 1. Overview of the hypothesized moderated mediation model.
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2.2. Measurements
3. Results
2.2.1. Upward social comparison on SNSs The Chinese version of Upward Social Comparison Scale (Bai, Liu, & Liu, 2013) was used. It was adapted from the Iowa-Netherlands Comparison Orientation Measure (Gibbons & Buunk, 1999). To make sure that participants endorsed items based on upward social comparison on SNSs, we specified the comparative targets as “others on social network sites”. Participants answered six items (e.g., “On social network sites, I always like comparing myself with others who are better off”) on a five-point scale (1 = strongly disagree, 5 = strongly agree). Higher scores indicate more upward social comparison on SNSs. In our study, the index of CFA suggested a good fit: χ2/df = 5.78, RMSEA = 0.06, CFI = 0.99, NFI = 0.99, GFI = 0.99. Cronbach's α for the scale was 0.86.
3.1. Preliminary analyses
2.2.2. Depression The Chinese version (Wang, Wang, & Ma, 1999) of Center for Epidemiologic Studies Depression Scale (CES-D) (Radloff, 1977) was used. It has been widely used among Chinese young adults with good reliability and validity (Liu et al., 2007). Participants answered 20 items on a fourpoint scale (1 = never, 4 = always). Item responses were summed and averaged to form a scale score. Higher scores indicate severer depressive symptoms. In our study, Cronbach's α for the scale was 0.88.
2.2.3. Self-esteem Self-esteem was measured by the Chinese version (Wang et al., 1999) of Rosenberg Self-esteem Scale (Rosenberg, 1965). One item (“I wish I could have more respect for myself”) was excluded for cultural difference (Chen, Yan, & Lin, 2013; Tian, 2006). Participants answered nine items on a four-point scale (1 = strongly disagree, 4 = strongly agree). Item responses were summed and averaged to form a scale score. Higher scores indicate higher self-esteem. In our study, Cronbach's α for the scale was 0.80.
2.2.4. Optimism In our study, we considered optimism as a protective personality trait. We used the Chinese version (Liu & Chen, 2007) of the Life Orientation Test–Revised (Scheier, Carver, & Bridges, 1994) to assess optimism. The Life Orientation Test–Revised is constructed to measure dispositional optimism (Scheier et al., 1994), and has been widely used in previous studies with high reliability and validity (e.g., Barnett & Martinez, 2015; Krok, 2015; Zou et al., 2016). The Chinese version of the Life Orientation Test–Revised consists of five positive phrased items, five negative phrased items and two filler items. Participants answered these items on a five-point scale (1 = strongly disagree, 5 = strongly agree). Item responses were summed and averaged to form a scale score, with higher scores indicating higher optimism. In the present study, the index of CFA showed a good fit of the scale model: χ2/df = 5.34, RMSEA = 0.06, CFI = 0.94, NFI = 0.93, GFI = 0.97. Cronbach's α for the scale for the present study was 0.72.
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Table 1 presents the descriptive statistics and correlation matrix. Upward social comparison on SNSs was positively correlated with depressive symptoms, and negatively correlated with self-esteem and optimism. Self-esteem was negatively correlated with depressive symptoms and positively correlated with optimism. Optimism was negatively correlated with depressive symptoms. 3.2. Testing for the proposed model Our hypotheses include how (mediating effect), when (moderating effect) and when of the how (moderated mediating effect) upward social comparison on SNSs influences depression. We used the SPSS macro PROCESS (http://www.afhayes.com) suggested by Hayes (2013) to test our model. This macro PROCESS is specifically developed for path analysis-based moderation and mediation analysis as well as their combination (moderated mediation and mediated moderation). It has been widely used to examine moderated mediation models or mediated moderation models in previous studies (e.g., Chardon, Janicke, Carmody, & Dumont-Driscoll, 2016; Nyadzayo & Khajehzadeh, 2016). The main results generated by Hayes' (2013) SPSS macro PROCESS were presented in Table 2 consisting of three parts: mediator and dependent variable model, conditional direct effect analysis and conditional indirect effect analysis. As can be seen from the mediator and dependent variable model, after controlling for gender and age, upward social comparison on SNSs negatively predicted self-esteem (β = −0.17, p b 0.001), self-esteem negatively predicted depressive symptoms (β = −0.26, p b 0.001), and upward social comparison on SNSs positively predicted depressive symptoms (β = 0.12, p b 0.001). These results indicated self-esteem partially mediated the relationship between social comparison on SNSs and depressive symptoms. Therefore, H1 was supported. Besides, the interaction of upward social comparison on SNSs and optimism showed significant effects on symptoms of depression (β = − 0.09, p b 0.01) and self-esteem (β = 0.12, p b 0.001). These findings indicated both the association between upward social comparison on SNSs and depressive symptoms and the association between upward social comparison on SNSs and self-esteem were moderated by optimism (see Figs. 2 and 3). Furthermore, as can be seen from the conditional direct effect analysis and conditional indirect effect analysis, two of the three conditional direct effects (based on the moderator values at the mean and at −1 standard deviation) and two of the three conditional indirect effects (based on the moderator values at the mean and at − 1 standard deviation) were positively and significantly different from zero. Namely, the direct effect of upward social comparison on SNSs on depressive symptoms and the indirect effect of upward social comparison on SNSs on depressive symptoms through self-esteem were observed when optimism was moderated to low, but not when optimism was high. Therefore, both H2 and H3 were supported. 4. Discussion
Table 1 Descriptive statistics and intercorrelations between variables. Variables
M
SD
1
2
3
4
1. USC on SNSs 2. Self-esteem 3. Optimism 4. Depression
2.72 2.73 3.16 1.86
0.84 0.48 0.56 0.48
– −0.21⁎⁎⁎ −0.07⁎ 0.20⁎⁎⁎
– 0.48⁎⁎⁎ −0.44⁎⁎⁎
– −0.43⁎⁎⁎
–
Note. N = 1205. USC = upward social comparison. SNSs = social network sites. ⁎ p b 0.05. ⁎⁎⁎ p b 0.001.
The present study constructed a moderated mediation model to analyze the mechanism underlying the association between upward social comparison on SNSs and depression. The results demonstrated the mediating effect of self-esteem and the moderating effect of optimism in the relation between upward social comparison on SNSs and depressive symptoms. Furthermore, the moderated mediation model showed that the mediating effect of self-esteem was different at different values of optimism. Firstly, our study found that self-esteem mediated the relationship between upward social comparison on SNSs and depressive symptoms. This result is consistent with prior research indicating the effect of
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Table 2 Conditional process analysis.
Mediator variable model for predicting self-esteem Constant Gender Age USC on SNSs Optimism USC on SNSs × Optimism Dependent variable model for predicting depression Constant Gender Age USC on SNSs Self-esteem Optimism USC on SNSs × Optimism
Conditional direct effect analysis at IA = M ± SD M − 1 SD (2.60) M (3.16) M + 1 SD (3.72) Conditional indirect effect analysis at IA = M ± SD M − 1 SD (2.60) M (3.16) M + 1 SD (3.72)
β
SE
t
p
0.88⁎ 0.05 −0.05⁎ −0.17⁎⁎⁎ 0.44⁎⁎⁎ 0.12⁎⁎⁎
0.44 0.05 0.02 0.03 0.03 0.03
2.01 0.94 −2.26 −6.12 14.98 4.72
b0.05 0.35 b0.05 b0.001 b0.001 b0.001
−0.67 −0.02 0.03 0.12⁎⁎⁎ −0.26⁎⁎⁎ −0.28⁎⁎⁎ −0.09⁎⁎
0.39 0.05 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.04 0.03
−1.73 −0.40 1.87 4.63 −6.77 −7.76 −3.17
0.08 0.69 0.06 b0.001 b0.001 b0.001 b0.01
β
Boot SE
BootLLCI
BootULCI
0.21⁎⁎⁎ 0.12⁎⁎⁎ 0.03
0.04 0.03 0.03
0.12 0.07 −0.04
0.29 0.17 0.09
0.07⁎⁎⁎ 0.04⁎⁎⁎ 0.01
0.01 0.01 0.01
0.05 0.03 −0.003
0.10 0.06 0.03
Note. N = 1205. USC = upward social comparison. SNSs = social network sites. Bootstrap sample size = 5000. LL = low limit, CI = confidence interval, UL = upper limit. ⁎ p b 0.05. ⁎⁎ p b 0.01. ⁎⁎⁎ p b 0.001.
upward social comparison on SNSs on self-esteem (Lee, 2014) and the effect of self-esteem on depression (Bajaj et al., 2016; Michalak et al., 2011; Sowislo & Orth, 2013). Besides, the mediating effect of self-esteem in the relationship between upward social comparison on SNSs and symptoms of depression also coincides with the viewpoints of social comparison theory and Beck's cognitive theory of depression. Based on these studies, our study makes a further investigation by documenting that comparing with others who are better off on social network sites would lead to lower self-esteem, and further leads to depression. In addition, our study indicated that the direct effect that upward social comparison on SNSs itself exerted on depressive symptoms and the indirect effect that upward social comparison exerted on depressive symptoms through self-esteem were both moderated by optimism. The two effects were more potent for individuals with low optimism than for those with high optimism. These results are consistent with
the diathesis-stress model of depression which argues that individuals with different traits will deal with stress or negative experiences differently (Monroe & Simons, 1991). In our study, individuals with different levels of optimism responded differently to upward social comparison on SNSs, and optimists were less vulnerable to the negative factors. These results were also in accordance with the studies demonstrating the important role of optimism in protecting mental health (Qi et al., 2012; Riolli & Savicki, 2003; Tucker et al., 2013). The moderating effects of optimism in the relations between upward social comparison on SNSs and its outcomes (self-esteem and depressive symptoms) suggest that the way individuals' process information of upward social comparison is impacted by optimism. Optimism is a dispositional trait focusing on future-oriented positive expectations, and optimists often have positive expectation of future (Carver & Scheier, 2005; Scheier et al., 1987). They may thus believe that they can make the same achievement as that of others in the future.
Fig. 2. Plot of the relationship between upward social comparison on SNSs and depressive symptoms at two levels of optimism.
Fig. 3. Plot of the relationship between upward social comparison on SNSs and self-esteem at two levels of optimism.
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In addition, individuals with high dispositional optimism are more likely to use approach coping strategies (e.g., task-oriented coping) rather than avoidance coping strategies (e.g., distract coping) (Hatchett & Park, 2004; Nes & Segerstrom, 2006). Therefore, optimists may make efforts to catch up with others in many aspects of life. These reasons are also consistent with the expectancy-value models of motivation which argue that positive expectations can boost motivation and enhance successful coping with potential failures in the process of goal pursuit (Austin & Vancouver, 1996; Barnett & Martinez, 2015; Carver & Scheier, 2005). Therefore, optimism influences the way individuals' process comparative information and thus alleviates the negative effects of upward social comparison on SNSs. 5. Limitations and implications Several limitations of this study should be noted. First, there are different kinds of social network sites, but this study did not take the types of social network sites into account. Future studies may test whether the associations between upward social comparison and its consequences as well as the underlying mechanisms differ on diverse social network sites. Second, since all participants in our study were undergraduate students, it remains unknown whether these findings are applicable to other groups. As social network sites are also popular among adolescents, future studies may examine the moderated mediation model in adolescents. Third, this study is a cross-sectional survey research. The results should be interpreted with caution in terms of causality. Future studies may conduct longitudinal research or experimental research to strictly confirm the causal relationships among variables. In spite of these limitations, this study is the first attempt to test the mediating role of self-esteem and the moderating role of optimism in the relationship between upward social comparison on SNSs and depressive symptoms. It deepens prior studies by examining the mechanisms underlying this relationship. Specifically, it explains how, when, and when of the how upward social comparison on SNSs influences depressive symptoms. Besides, this study has important practical implications. Since both self-esteem and optimism can be significantly enhanced through learning and training (Chen et al., 2016; Snyder & Shane, 2002), it would be effective to diminish the negative effects of upward social comparison on SNSs by enhancing self-esteem and optimism. Acknowledgements This work was supported by Major Program of National Social Science Foundation of China [project number: 11&ZD151], Fundamental Research Funds of Central China Normal University [project number: CCNU14Z02004; CCNU15A05047], Research Program Funds of the Collaborative Innovation Center of Assessment toward Basic Education Quality at Beijing Normal University [project number: 2016-04-003BZK01], and Open Project Program of Key Laboratory of Adolescent Cyberpsychology and Behavior (CCNU), Ministry of Education (project number: 2014B08). No competing financial interests existed. References Appel, H., Crusius, J., & Gerlach, A. L. (2015). Social comparison, envy, and depression on Facebook: A study looking at the effects of high comparison standard on depressed individuals. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 34(4), 277–289. Austin, J. T., & Vancouver, J. B. (1996). Goal constructs in psychology: Structure, process, and content. Psychological Bulletin, 120(3), 338–375. Bai, X. J., Liu, X., & Liu, H. J. (2013). The mediating effects of social comparison on the relationship between achievement goal and academic self-efficacy: Evidence from the junior high school student. Journal of Psychological Science, 36(6), 1413–1420. Bajaj, B., Robins, R. W., & Pande, N. (2016). Mediating role of self-esteem on the relationship between mindfulness, anxiety, and depression. Personality and Individual Differences, 96, 127–131. Barnett, M. D., & Martinez, B. (2015). Optimists: It could have been worse; pessimists: It could have been better: Dispositional optimism and pessimism and counterfactual thinking. Personality and Individual Differences, 86, 122–125.
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Upward social comparison on social network sites and depressive symptoms: A moderated mediation model of self-esteem and optimism Qing-Qi Liu, Zong-Kui Zhou ⁎, Xiu-Juan Yang, Geng-Feng Niu, Yuan Tian, Cui-Ying Fan Key Laboratory of Adolescent Cyberpsychology and Behavior (CCNU), Ministry of Education, Wuhan 430079, China School of Psychology, Central China Normal University, Wuhan 430079, China
a r t i c l e
i n f o
Article history: Received 7 October 2016 Received in revised form 1 March 2017 Accepted 14 March 2017 Available online xxxx Keywords: Upward social comparison Social network sites Self-esteem Optimism Depressive symptoms
a b s t r a c t Studies have revealed that upward social comparison on social network sites (SNSs) was a risk factor for depressive symptoms, however, little is known about the underlying processes that may mediate or moderate this relationship. This study extended prior research by examining the mediating role of self-esteem and the moderating role of optimism in this relationship. A sample of 1205 Chinese undergraduate students completed measures of upward social comparison on SNSs, depressive symptoms, self-esteem, and optimism. Results showed that self-esteem partially mediated the relation between upward social comparison on SNSs and depressive symptoms. In addition, the direct effect of upward social comparison on SNSs on depressive symptoms and the mediating effect of self-esteem were both moderated by optimism. The two effects were more potent for individuals with low optimism than for those with high optimism. The present study contributes to a better understanding of how and when upward social comparison on SNSs increases the risk of depressive symptoms. Limitations and implications of this study are discussed. © 2017 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
1. Introduction Social comparison is a common social phenomenon (Festinger, 1954; Suls & Miller, 1977; Xing & Yu, 2005). Information of others is the key factor that leads individuals to engage in social comparison (Festinger, 1954; Mussweiler, Ruter, & Epstude, 2006). In addition to offline interpersonal interaction, many Internet applications also provide individuals with convenient access to comparative information. One such application is social network sites (SNSs). Since viewing others' profiles is the most prevalent activity on SNSs (Pempek, Yermolayeva, & Calvert, 2009), and the majority of time spent on SNSs was devoted to browsing and searching for others' information (Wise, Alhabash, & Park, 2010), social network sites have been considered as an ideal platform for social comparison to take place (Vogel, Rose, Okdie, Eckles, & Franz, 2015). Moreover, information on SNSs is overly positive because people tend to present themselves in overly flattering ways and communicate positive life developments more frequently than negative ones on SNSs (Kross et al., 2013; Verduyn et al., 2015). Social comparison on SNSs thus involves mostly upward social comparison, namely, comparing with those who are better off (Feinstein et al., 2013; Vogel, Rose, Roberts, & Eckles, 2014; Vogel et al., 2015), or even envy of others (Tandoc, Ferrucci, & Duffy, 2015). ⁎ Corresponding author: Key Laboratory of Adolescent Cyberpsychology and Behavior (CCNU), Ministry of Education, Wuhan 430079, China. E-mail address: [email protected] (Z.-K. Zhou).
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2017.03.037 0191-8869/© 2017 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Studies indicated that social comparison on SNSs would bring about negative impacts on individuals' mental health (Jang, Park, & Song, 2016; Lee, 2014). Depression is one of the undesirable consequences of upward social comparison on SNSs (Appel, Crusius, & Gerlach, 2015). Research showed that upward social comparison on SNSs was positively associated with depressive symptoms (Nesi & Prinstein, 2015), and envy on SNSs positively predicted symptoms of depression (Tandoc et al., 2015). In addition, upward social comparison on SNSs would lead to increases in depressive symptoms 3 weeks later (Feinstein et al., 2013). Namely, upward social comparison on SNSs has not only an immediate effect but also a delayed effect on depressive symptoms. In spite of the robust association between upward social comparison on SNSs and depressive symptoms, however, whether there exist some individual traits that would mediate or moderate this association remains largely unexplored. Determining the mediating and moderating mechanism underlying this association could advance our understanding of how and when upward social comparison on SNSs leads to symptoms of depression, and how to protect individuals from the deleterious effects of upward social comparison on SNSs. 1.1. The mediating role of self-esteem Self-esteem is regarded as a global evaluation of oneself (Błachnio, Przepiorka, & Rudnicka, 2016). Since social comparison is primarily used to learn about the self, it will undoubtedly exert significant impacts
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on self-evaluation (Corcoran, Crusius, & Mussweiler, 2011; Festinger, 1954). According to social comparison theory (de Vries & Kühne, 2015; Festinger, 1954), upward social comparison would lead individuals to be more aware of the fact that they are worse off than others. The contrast effect would then cause a less favorable self-evaluation (Collins, 1995). Studies on upward social comparison on SNSs support the viewpoint of social comparison theory. For instance, a study showed that upward social comparison on SNSs negatively predicted self-perceived competence and physical appearance (de Vries & Kühne, 2015). Another study found that upward social comparison on social media significantly lowered self-esteem (Lee, 2014). Self-esteem is closely associated with depressive symptoms (Bajaj, Robins, & Pande, 2016). According to Beck's cognitive theory of depression, negative belief about oneself (e.g., low self-esteem) is the key etiology of depression (Beck, 1967). Both cross-sectional and longitudinal studies found that low self-esteem was one of the most important risk factors for depression (Michalak, Teismann, Heidenreich, Strohle, & Vocks, 2011; Sowislo & Orth, 2013). Considering that upward social comparison on SNSs would lower self-esteem, and low self-esteem would in turn result in symptoms of depression, we assume that upward social comparison on SNSs may influence depression symptoms through the mediating role of self-esteem. 1.2. The moderating role of optimism Although upward social comparison would bring about negative impacts on self-esteem and depression, the impacts may not be the same for all individuals. The negative effects of upward social comparison may be weak in some individuals because of their positive attitudes towards the comparative information. Some factors, especially individual trait factors, could moderate the association between social comparison and its outcomes (Xing & Yu, 2005). Therefore, it is important to explore individual traits that may alleviate the adverse impacts of upward social comparison on SNSs. Optimism is one of the most important central concepts in the Positive Psychology. A great number of scholars are attracted to conduct research on optimism. Some researchers consider optimism as an attributional style displayed in explaining successful or failure experience (Seligman, Abramson, Semmel, & Von, 1979). Others argue that optimism is a dispositional trait (e.g., Barnett & Martinez, 2015; Carver & Scheier, 2005; Scheier, Weintraub, & Carver, 1987; Tucker et al., 2013). Optimists tend to think of their future in a positive manner and believe that life will be generally favorable (Carver & Scheier, 2005; Scheier et al., 1987). Although there exist different viewpoints about the construct of optimism, most of the researchers agree that optimism could be considered as a relatively stable dispositional trait. A metaanalysis study revealed that dispositional optimism was positively correlated with self-esteem, positive affect, and life satisfaction, and negatively correlated with stress, anxiety, and depression (Qi, Zhang, Shao, Wang, & Gong, 2012). In addition, as an important factor for individual development, optimism was found to moderate the relationship between stress factors and mental health. For example, studies showed that optimism weakened the relationship between rumination and suicidal ideation (Tucker et al., 2013), as well as the association between chronic stress and burnout (Riolli & Savicki, 2003). Optimism may influence the way individuals' process information of upward social comparison. Since optimists generally have positive expectation of future (Carver & Scheier, 2005; Scheier et al., 1987), they may think that they can get the same ideal life as that of others in the future when faced with the information that others are better off. An experimental study found that happiness moderated the relationship between upward social comparison and its consequences (Lyubomirsky & Ross, 1997). Upward social comparison decreased the positive mood and lowered the self-evaluation of competence among unhappy people, whereas such tendency did not happen to happy people. Since happiness and optimism are closely related, optimism may also serve as a
moderator in the relationship between social comparison and its outcomes (Lyubomirsky & Ross, 1997). Therefore, it may be assumed that optimism, as a positive personality trait, may weaken the relationship between upward social comparison on SNSs and its unfavorable outcomes. Namely, the association between upward social comparison on SNSs and depressive symptoms and the association between upward social comparison on SNSs and self-esteem may be both moderated by optimism. According to previous studies (e.g., Edwards & Lambert, 2007; Hayes, 2013; Muller, Judd, & Yzerbyt, 2005), if self-esteem mediates the relation between upward social comparison on SNSs and depression, and optimism moderates the relation between upward social comparison on SNSs and self-esteem simultaneously, then the mediating role of self-esteem would be moderated by optimism. Further, if the mediation process depends on the value of a moderator variable, there will be a moderated mediation effect.
1.3. The present study Taken together, the present study aimed at examining whether the relationship between upward social comparison on SNSs and depressive symptoms was mediated by self-esteem, and whether the effect of upward social comparison on SNSs on depressive symptoms and the mediating effect of self-esteem were moderated by optimism. The specific hypotheses to be examined were as follows, and the integrated model proposed was outlined in Fig. 1. H1. Self-esteem would mediate the relationship between upward social comparison on SNSs and depressive symptoms. H2. Optimism would moderate the relationship between upward social comparison on SNSs and depressive symptoms. H3. Optimism would moderate the mediating effect of self-esteem in the relationship between upward social comparison on SNSs and depressive symptoms.
2. Methods 2.1. Participants and procedure Participants were recruited from three universities in China. The authenticity, independence and integral nature of all answers as well as the confidentiality of the information collected were emphasized to all participants by well-trained psychology graduate students. A total of 1205 undergraduate students between 17 and 24 years (Mage = 19.86, SDage = 1.265, 51.45% females) completed the present study after informed consent was obtained from the schools and the participants.
Fig. 1. Overview of the hypothesized moderated mediation model.
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2.2. Measurements
3. Results
2.2.1. Upward social comparison on SNSs The Chinese version of Upward Social Comparison Scale (Bai, Liu, & Liu, 2013) was used. It was adapted from the Iowa-Netherlands Comparison Orientation Measure (Gibbons & Buunk, 1999). To make sure that participants endorsed items based on upward social comparison on SNSs, we specified the comparative targets as “others on social network sites”. Participants answered six items (e.g., “On social network sites, I always like comparing myself with others who are better off”) on a five-point scale (1 = strongly disagree, 5 = strongly agree). Higher scores indicate more upward social comparison on SNSs. In our study, the index of CFA suggested a good fit: χ2/df = 5.78, RMSEA = 0.06, CFI = 0.99, NFI = 0.99, GFI = 0.99. Cronbach's α for the scale was 0.86.
3.1. Preliminary analyses
2.2.2. Depression The Chinese version (Wang, Wang, & Ma, 1999) of Center for Epidemiologic Studies Depression Scale (CES-D) (Radloff, 1977) was used. It has been widely used among Chinese young adults with good reliability and validity (Liu et al., 2007). Participants answered 20 items on a fourpoint scale (1 = never, 4 = always). Item responses were summed and averaged to form a scale score. Higher scores indicate severer depressive symptoms. In our study, Cronbach's α for the scale was 0.88.
2.2.3. Self-esteem Self-esteem was measured by the Chinese version (Wang et al., 1999) of Rosenberg Self-esteem Scale (Rosenberg, 1965). One item (“I wish I could have more respect for myself”) was excluded for cultural difference (Chen, Yan, & Lin, 2013; Tian, 2006). Participants answered nine items on a four-point scale (1 = strongly disagree, 4 = strongly agree). Item responses were summed and averaged to form a scale score. Higher scores indicate higher self-esteem. In our study, Cronbach's α for the scale was 0.80.
2.2.4. Optimism In our study, we considered optimism as a protective personality trait. We used the Chinese version (Liu & Chen, 2007) of the Life Orientation Test–Revised (Scheier, Carver, & Bridges, 1994) to assess optimism. The Life Orientation Test–Revised is constructed to measure dispositional optimism (Scheier et al., 1994), and has been widely used in previous studies with high reliability and validity (e.g., Barnett & Martinez, 2015; Krok, 2015; Zou et al., 2016). The Chinese version of the Life Orientation Test–Revised consists of five positive phrased items, five negative phrased items and two filler items. Participants answered these items on a five-point scale (1 = strongly disagree, 5 = strongly agree). Item responses were summed and averaged to form a scale score, with higher scores indicating higher optimism. In the present study, the index of CFA showed a good fit of the scale model: χ2/df = 5.34, RMSEA = 0.06, CFI = 0.94, NFI = 0.93, GFI = 0.97. Cronbach's α for the scale for the present study was 0.72.
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Table 1 presents the descriptive statistics and correlation matrix. Upward social comparison on SNSs was positively correlated with depressive symptoms, and negatively correlated with self-esteem and optimism. Self-esteem was negatively correlated with depressive symptoms and positively correlated with optimism. Optimism was negatively correlated with depressive symptoms. 3.2. Testing for the proposed model Our hypotheses include how (mediating effect), when (moderating effect) and when of the how (moderated mediating effect) upward social comparison on SNSs influences depression. We used the SPSS macro PROCESS (http://www.afhayes.com) suggested by Hayes (2013) to test our model. This macro PROCESS is specifically developed for path analysis-based moderation and mediation analysis as well as their combination (moderated mediation and mediated moderation). It has been widely used to examine moderated mediation models or mediated moderation models in previous studies (e.g., Chardon, Janicke, Carmody, & Dumont-Driscoll, 2016; Nyadzayo & Khajehzadeh, 2016). The main results generated by Hayes' (2013) SPSS macro PROCESS were presented in Table 2 consisting of three parts: mediator and dependent variable model, conditional direct effect analysis and conditional indirect effect analysis. As can be seen from the mediator and dependent variable model, after controlling for gender and age, upward social comparison on SNSs negatively predicted self-esteem (β = −0.17, p b 0.001), self-esteem negatively predicted depressive symptoms (β = −0.26, p b 0.001), and upward social comparison on SNSs positively predicted depressive symptoms (β = 0.12, p b 0.001). These results indicated self-esteem partially mediated the relationship between social comparison on SNSs and depressive symptoms. Therefore, H1 was supported. Besides, the interaction of upward social comparison on SNSs and optimism showed significant effects on symptoms of depression (β = − 0.09, p b 0.01) and self-esteem (β = 0.12, p b 0.001). These findings indicated both the association between upward social comparison on SNSs and depressive symptoms and the association between upward social comparison on SNSs and self-esteem were moderated by optimism (see Figs. 2 and 3). Furthermore, as can be seen from the conditional direct effect analysis and conditional indirect effect analysis, two of the three conditional direct effects (based on the moderator values at the mean and at −1 standard deviation) and two of the three conditional indirect effects (based on the moderator values at the mean and at − 1 standard deviation) were positively and significantly different from zero. Namely, the direct effect of upward social comparison on SNSs on depressive symptoms and the indirect effect of upward social comparison on SNSs on depressive symptoms through self-esteem were observed when optimism was moderated to low, but not when optimism was high. Therefore, both H2 and H3 were supported. 4. Discussion
Table 1 Descriptive statistics and intercorrelations between variables. Variables
M
SD
1
2
3
4
1. USC on SNSs 2. Self-esteem 3. Optimism 4. Depression
2.72 2.73 3.16 1.86
0.84 0.48 0.56 0.48
– −0.21⁎⁎⁎ −0.07⁎ 0.20⁎⁎⁎
– 0.48⁎⁎⁎ −0.44⁎⁎⁎
– −0.43⁎⁎⁎
–
Note. N = 1205. USC = upward social comparison. SNSs = social network sites. ⁎ p b 0.05. ⁎⁎⁎ p b 0.001.
The present study constructed a moderated mediation model to analyze the mechanism underlying the association between upward social comparison on SNSs and depression. The results demonstrated the mediating effect of self-esteem and the moderating effect of optimism in the relation between upward social comparison on SNSs and depressive symptoms. Furthermore, the moderated mediation model showed that the mediating effect of self-esteem was different at different values of optimism. Firstly, our study found that self-esteem mediated the relationship between upward social comparison on SNSs and depressive symptoms. This result is consistent with prior research indicating the effect of
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Table 2 Conditional process analysis.
Mediator variable model for predicting self-esteem Constant Gender Age USC on SNSs Optimism USC on SNSs × Optimism Dependent variable model for predicting depression Constant Gender Age USC on SNSs Self-esteem Optimism USC on SNSs × Optimism
Conditional direct effect analysis at IA = M ± SD M − 1 SD (2.60) M (3.16) M + 1 SD (3.72) Conditional indirect effect analysis at IA = M ± SD M − 1 SD (2.60) M (3.16) M + 1 SD (3.72)
β
SE
t
p
0.88⁎ 0.05 −0.05⁎ −0.17⁎⁎⁎ 0.44⁎⁎⁎ 0.12⁎⁎⁎
0.44 0.05 0.02 0.03 0.03 0.03
2.01 0.94 −2.26 −6.12 14.98 4.72
b0.05 0.35 b0.05 b0.001 b0.001 b0.001
−0.67 −0.02 0.03 0.12⁎⁎⁎ −0.26⁎⁎⁎ −0.28⁎⁎⁎ −0.09⁎⁎
0.39 0.05 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.04 0.03
−1.73 −0.40 1.87 4.63 −6.77 −7.76 −3.17
0.08 0.69 0.06 b0.001 b0.001 b0.001 b0.01
β
Boot SE
BootLLCI
BootULCI
0.21⁎⁎⁎ 0.12⁎⁎⁎ 0.03
0.04 0.03 0.03
0.12 0.07 −0.04
0.29 0.17 0.09
0.07⁎⁎⁎ 0.04⁎⁎⁎ 0.01
0.01 0.01 0.01
0.05 0.03 −0.003
0.10 0.06 0.03
Note. N = 1205. USC = upward social comparison. SNSs = social network sites. Bootstrap sample size = 5000. LL = low limit, CI = confidence interval, UL = upper limit. ⁎ p b 0.05. ⁎⁎ p b 0.01. ⁎⁎⁎ p b 0.001.
upward social comparison on SNSs on self-esteem (Lee, 2014) and the effect of self-esteem on depression (Bajaj et al., 2016; Michalak et al., 2011; Sowislo & Orth, 2013). Besides, the mediating effect of self-esteem in the relationship between upward social comparison on SNSs and symptoms of depression also coincides with the viewpoints of social comparison theory and Beck's cognitive theory of depression. Based on these studies, our study makes a further investigation by documenting that comparing with others who are better off on social network sites would lead to lower self-esteem, and further leads to depression. In addition, our study indicated that the direct effect that upward social comparison on SNSs itself exerted on depressive symptoms and the indirect effect that upward social comparison exerted on depressive symptoms through self-esteem were both moderated by optimism. The two effects were more potent for individuals with low optimism than for those with high optimism. These results are consistent with
the diathesis-stress model of depression which argues that individuals with different traits will deal with stress or negative experiences differently (Monroe & Simons, 1991). In our study, individuals with different levels of optimism responded differently to upward social comparison on SNSs, and optimists were less vulnerable to the negative factors. These results were also in accordance with the studies demonstrating the important role of optimism in protecting mental health (Qi et al., 2012; Riolli & Savicki, 2003; Tucker et al., 2013). The moderating effects of optimism in the relations between upward social comparison on SNSs and its outcomes (self-esteem and depressive symptoms) suggest that the way individuals' process information of upward social comparison is impacted by optimism. Optimism is a dispositional trait focusing on future-oriented positive expectations, and optimists often have positive expectation of future (Carver & Scheier, 2005; Scheier et al., 1987). They may thus believe that they can make the same achievement as that of others in the future.
Fig. 2. Plot of the relationship between upward social comparison on SNSs and depressive symptoms at two levels of optimism.
Fig. 3. Plot of the relationship between upward social comparison on SNSs and self-esteem at two levels of optimism.
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In addition, individuals with high dispositional optimism are more likely to use approach coping strategies (e.g., task-oriented coping) rather than avoidance coping strategies (e.g., distract coping) (Hatchett & Park, 2004; Nes & Segerstrom, 2006). Therefore, optimists may make efforts to catch up with others in many aspects of life. These reasons are also consistent with the expectancy-value models of motivation which argue that positive expectations can boost motivation and enhance successful coping with potential failures in the process of goal pursuit (Austin & Vancouver, 1996; Barnett & Martinez, 2015; Carver & Scheier, 2005). Therefore, optimism influences the way individuals' process comparative information and thus alleviates the negative effects of upward social comparison on SNSs. 5. Limitations and implications Several limitations of this study should be noted. First, there are different kinds of social network sites, but this study did not take the types of social network sites into account. Future studies may test whether the associations between upward social comparison and its consequences as well as the underlying mechanisms differ on diverse social network sites. Second, since all participants in our study were undergraduate students, it remains unknown whether these findings are applicable to other groups. As social network sites are also popular among adolescents, future studies may examine the moderated mediation model in adolescents. Third, this study is a cross-sectional survey research. The results should be interpreted with caution in terms of causality. Future studies may conduct longitudinal research or experimental research to strictly confirm the causal relationships among variables. In spite of these limitations, this study is the first attempt to test the mediating role of self-esteem and the moderating role of optimism in the relationship between upward social comparison on SNSs and depressive symptoms. It deepens prior studies by examining the mechanisms underlying this relationship. Specifically, it explains how, when, and when of the how upward social comparison on SNSs influences depressive symptoms. Besides, this study has important practical implications. Since both self-esteem and optimism can be significantly enhanced through learning and training (Chen et al., 2016; Snyder & Shane, 2002), it would be effective to diminish the negative effects of upward social comparison on SNSs by enhancing self-esteem and optimism. Acknowledgements This work was supported by Major Program of National Social Science Foundation of China [project number: 11&ZD151], Fundamental Research Funds of Central China Normal University [project number: CCNU14Z02004; CCNU15A05047], Research Program Funds of the Collaborative Innovation Center of Assessment toward Basic Education Quality at Beijing Normal University [project number: 2016-04-003BZK01], and Open Project Program of Key Laboratory of Adolescent Cyberpsychology and Behavior (CCNU), Ministry of Education (project number: 2014B08). No competing financial interests existed. References Appel, H., Crusius, J., & Gerlach, A. L. (2015). Social comparison, envy, and depression on Facebook: A study looking at the effects of high comparison standard on depressed individuals. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 34(4), 277–289. Austin, J. T., & Vancouver, J. B. (1996). Goal constructs in psychology: Structure, process, and content. Psychological Bulletin, 120(3), 338–375. Bai, X. J., Liu, X., & Liu, H. J. (2013). The mediating effects of social comparison on the relationship between achievement goal and academic self-efficacy: Evidence from the junior high school student. Journal of Psychological Science, 36(6), 1413–1420. Bajaj, B., Robins, R. W., & Pande, N. (2016). Mediating role of self-esteem on the relationship between mindfulness, anxiety, and depression. Personality and Individual Differences, 96, 127–131. Barnett, M. D., & Martinez, B. (2015). Optimists: It could have been worse; pessimists: It could have been better: Dispositional optimism and pessimism and counterfactual thinking. Personality and Individual Differences, 86, 122–125.
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