Urban design for post-earthquake reconstruction: A case study of Wenchuan County, China

Habitat International 41 (2014) 290e299

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Urban design for post-earthquake reconstruction: A case study of Wenchuan County, China Lixiong Liu a, Yanliu Lin b, *, Shifu Wang a a

State Key Laboratory of Subtropical Building Science, School of Architecture, South China University of Technology, Guangzhou 510640, China Spatial Planning Section, Faculty of Geoscience, Utrecht University, Willem C. Van Unnik building (Office: 420C), Heidelberglaan 2, 3584 CS Utrecht, the Netherlands b

a b s t r a c t Keywords: Urban design Post-earthquake reconstruction Strategies Safety Institutional arrangements

Urban design for post-earthquake reconstruction emphasizes strategies, safety, memorials and institutional arrangements. It is closely related to earthquake recovery plans. This article reviews general studies on urban design for post-earthquake reconstruction, before focussing on the case of Weizhou Town in Wenchuan County, which in 2008 was severely damaged by a magnitude-8 earthquake. Unique institutional arrangements, however, led to a rapid recovery and reconstruction process. The urban design for post-earthquake reconstruction in Weizhou Town was an integrated approach that promoted both long-term and short-term developments and combined the creation of public space with the provision of public facilities. It created four interwoven systems, namely a safety system, a memorial system, a tourism system and a network of open spaces. This study shows that the urban design for postearthquake reconstruction in Weizhou Town greatly improved the safety and vibrancy of the town, whereas the topedown approach and the rapid reconstruction process resulted in new problems. Ó 2013 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Introduction On 12 May 2008, a magnitude-8 earthquake hit Sichuan Province, causing catastrophic damage. Wenchuan County was the epicentre of the quake and thus one of the most severely hit areas. The county covered an area of 4084 km2 and had a population of 106,119 in 2005. The earthquake devastated the local people’s livelihood. It caused 15,941 deaths and injured 34,583 persons; 7474 persons were missing (Song & Hu, 2008). Over 70% of the buildings were destroyed or devastated; 200,000 houses collapsed and 300,000 were badly damaged (interviews with officers in Wenchuan County, 2008). Public facilities and the county’s infrastructure, such as hospitals, schools and roads, were severely damaged. The local industry was wrecked and about 80% of the farmland was damaged. Some put the economic loss at more than RMB 100 million (
GBP 1 million/EUR 1.25 million) (Guo, 2008). There were many challenges for urban design and planning for post-earthquake reconstruction in Wenchuan County. The areas affected by the earthquake had to be restored or reconstructed as soon as possible. New homes and facilities for the habitants had to

* Corresponding author. Tel.: þ31 302533739. E-mail addresses: [email protected] (L. Liu), [email protected], [email protected] (Y. Lin), [email protected] (S. Wang). 0197-3975/$ e see front matter Ó 2013 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.habitatint.2013.09.001

be provided, while also promoting long-term economic development. A new urban form that was safer and more resilient to disasters had to be created. A topedown approach was applied to deal with these challenges. It was related to the counterpart support plan established by the State Council of the People’s Republic of China in 2008. Guangzhou City in Guangdong Province was assigned as the corresponding city to support the post-earthquake reconstruction of Weizhou Town. Through unique institutional arrangements and a huge investment from Guangzhou Municipal Government, Weizhou Town experienced a rapid recovery and reconstruction processes. The urban design for the reconstruction of Weizhou Town was embedded in the town’s Earthquake Recovery and Reconstruction Plan. It was a future-oriented integrated approach that promoted both long-term and short-term developments and combined public spaces with public facilities. It created a new urban form that was safer and more resilient to disasters and greatly enhanced the quality of life in the town. The topedown approach and the rapid reconstruction process, however, created new problems. The existing literature mainly focuses on housing reconstruction after earthquakes (Steinberg, 2007; Tanaka, Benjamin Abramson, & Yamazaki, 2009) and on earthquake or disaster recovery plans (Foster, 1980; Han, Ge, & Cheng, 2008, pp. 21e23; Healy, 1969; Hu, 2008; Murphy & Bayley, 1989). Urban design for post-earthquake reconstruction has received little academic interest. The present

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study is an attempt to bridge this research gap through literature studies and a specific case study. This article presents a general literature review on urban design for post-earthquake reconstruction and its relationships with earthquake recovery plans, and then focuses on a case study of Wenchuan County, China. The conclusion is that research and practices in this field should pay particular attention to institution, design process and mixed land use. The materials for the case study were mainly collected during two intensive periods of fieldwork, the first of which was in 2008e 2010. This research surveyed Weizhou Town by means of questionnaires, semi-structured interviews, site visits, observations, photographs and mapping. In order to understand the requirement intent of residents for post-earthquake reconstruction, 150 copies of questionnaires were distributed in 3 main neighbourhoods of the county town in 2008. With the assistance of local governments, the overall rate of successful interviews was higher than 95%. In the questionnaire, there was a series of questions, ranging from construction priority to economic conditions. A number of face-to-face semi-structured interviews with residents and representatives of public authorities were also conducted to understand the extent of the damage and development issues of the town. Furthermore, the authors were involved in a design competition that led to the formulation of the ‘Urban Design for the Reconstruction of Weizhou Town’ (2009). Questionnaires were also sent to 6 design units which were involved in the urban design project and the recovery plan to know expert’s opinions on the design process. Moreover, many internal documents (e.g. policies, reports, and urban design and planning documents) were obtained from the Guangzhou Aid Working Group. The second period of fieldwork was in 2013. The authors visited the newly-established public spaces and buildings in the town, and conducted several semi-structured interviews with the town’s inhabitants and representatives of public authorities to understand the utility of the newly-established public spaces and buildings as well as the new urban dynamics. Based on these two periods of fieldwork, the article analysed and evaluated the urban design for post-earthquake reconstruction in Weizhou Town. Literature review: urban design for post-earthquake reconstruction Urban design is a matter of collaboration between various disciplines, resulting in three-dimensional urban forms and an enhancement of the quality of urban life (Waterman & Wall, 2009). The “quality of life” associated with the built environment includes not only the physical characteristics of the place, such as the diversity of open space (Allan & Bryant, 2010), but also the social attributes of the environment, such as the sense of neighbourhood (Chapman & Larkham, 2007), increased vitality and safety, available amenities and facilities (Carmona, De Magalhaes, Edwards, Awuor, & Aminossehe, 2001). Contemporary urban design theories are concerned with shaping city and urban spaces to encourage social activities within the urban fabric, create positive social interactions, satisfy ecological needs, mitigate the negative effects of urbanization and promote economic growth (Clancy, 2011). The key principles of such theories include places for people, enriching the existing, making connections, working with the landscape, mixing uses and forms, managing the investment and designing for change (Davies, 2007). Some recent urban design literatures also focus on vision development, strategy-making and the role of key stakeholders in the production of space (Lin & De Meulder, 2012; Salet, 2006). These urban design theories have become the foundation of urban design for post-earthquake reconstruction. It should be recognized however, that urban design for post-earthquake

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reconstruction is closely related to earthquake recovery plans, which emphasize safety and long-term development. Earthquake and other disasters can cause serious damage to the spatial forms in which economic activities and social networks are embedded. Urban design for post-disaster reconstruction is an opportunity to create a new urban form that is safer and more resilient to disasters, as well as to develop strategies for promoting economic development and enhancing the quality of life in urban areas. Urban design also pays attention to the emotional and psychological needs of those who lost their families or were injured during the earthquake. Moreover, the design and planning process is strongly influenced by institutional arrangements and the role of key stakeholders. In sum, urban design for post-earthquake reconstruction emphasizes strategies, safety, memorials and institutional arrangements. For planning purposes, disasters can be classified into four stages, namely assessment, warning, impact and recovery (Foster, 1980). The recovery process can take decades, depending on local conditions, and requires a large amount of funding and federal or even international assistance (Murphy & Bayley, 1989). The recovery stage can be divided into four periods: the emergency period, which lasted until the essential services had been restored and the danger of secondary effects (e.g. earthquake aftershocks) had passed; the restoration period, during which refugees returned and normal economic and social activities resumed; the reconstruction period, during which the destroyed facilities were rebuilt and living conditions were improved through redevelopment; and the final betterment and commemorative period, in which a new and improved community fashioned from the rubble of its predecessor arose, something that is often noted on monuments commemorating the disaster as a turning point in local history (Murphy & Bayley, 1989). A disaster recovery plan is usually made for the recovery stage. Urban design for post-earthquake reconstruction is properly embedded in a disaster/earthquake recovery plan. It is related to the third and fourth periods of the recovery stage. Visions and development strategies are often developed in urban design for post-earthquake reconstruction (Ciborowski, 1982). For example, the urban design for post-earthquake reconstruction in three neighbourhoods of Nagata Ward addressed both short- and long-term visions for specific sites and the entire study area of each neighbourhood (Tanaka et al., 2009). Driven by the economic restructuring and deindustrialization on the global scale, the growth of tourism has been stimulated worldwide as an urban redevelopment strategy that is adopted by cities in their postdisaster redevelopment processes (Qu, 2011). The theme of “urban safety” encompasses a wide range of concerns and issues, from basic needs through impacts of natural disasters (such as earthquake) to collective security needs (UNHABITAT, 2007). A renewal programme for old urban fabric must offer higher levels of safety and earthquake resistance, through limiting vulnerability of urban fabric, components and structure, building in effective systems of preparedness for a catastrophe, and facilitating emergency and post-disaster rescue operations (Ciborowski, 1982). Urban design in earthquake-prone areas should ensure the safety of a city as a whole, the safety of all urban interiors and their occupants, and the safety of the operational capabilities of the settlement as a functional entity (Ciborowski, 1982). In order to prevent or mitigate disaster damage, urban design measures should include: safeguarding the operational capacity of major components of transport routes (streets, intersections, squares) against being blocked by falling debris; green and open spaces as evacuation routes and evacuation zones; and emergency exit routes from inner-city blocks (Ciborowski, 1982). However, the requirement to provide safe refuge and recovery in times of emergency is sometimes at odds with the needs of liveable cities (Allan & Bryant,

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2010). Large quantities of unstructured open space are created in many post-earthquake reconstruction processes. This can result in dispersed rather than compact urban forms, making it difficult to achieve liveable, diverse and sustainable urban environments. There has been criticism of the reconstruction of Tangshan City, China. The city may now be less vulnerable to earthquakes, but its wide streets, low-rise buildings and lack of an identifiable centre has left it without ‘urbane refinements’ (Michell, 2004). Nevertheless, “urban resilience” provides a way of designing for the adaptability of cities while accommodating everyday use (Allan & Bryant, 2010). The concept of “resilience” is strongly influenced by systems thinking and defined here as the capacity of a system to respond to disturbance while still maintaining structure and function (Holling, 1973). Diversity and variability are important characteristics of resilience and are crucial concepts in urban design theory. The key to the successful integration of recovery plan and urban design lies in a shift of thinking that sees a city’s open spaces as a ‘second city’: a network of open spaces is designed not only to contribute to the quality everyday urban life, but also to act as essential life support system and an agent of recovery in the event of an earthquake (Allan & Bryant, 2010). The study of place-making and landscape has recently been linked to the study of memorialization and social memory (Gordon, 2001). What might be called the ‘memory business’ (e.g. the production of memorials) is a necessary enterprise at a time when traditional mechanisms for the dissemination of memories are dying out (Simpson & Corbridge, 2013). A large part of the work of memory has been performed through the many public competitions that preceded the construction of a particular memory site (Nolan, 2004). Memorials are usually created after catastrophes (e.g. earthquakes, wars and tsunamis) have destroyed cities and led to the loss of lives. For example, numerous architectural memorials, museums and squares were constructed in Europe after the Second World War, many memorials were built in Japan to commemorate the lives lost during the 2011 tsunami (MacLeod, 2012) and an earthquake memorial park was constructed in Tangshan after the 2008 earthquake (Hao, 2009). Institutional arrangements and the role of key stakeholders have greatly influenced the design and planning processes for postdisaster reconstruction. For example, after Hurricane Katrina devastated New Orleans, public participation contributed to the formulation and implementation of the Citywide Strategic Recovery and Rebuilding Plan of New Orleans (Hu, 2008). However, government structures operating on three levels (federation, state and locality) and the self-governance of locality were criticized for their inefficiency in the planning and design processes. As a result, it took about 20 months to devise the plan, which delayed the reconstruction process. The involvement of many stakeholders (e.g. multilevel governments, national and international NGOs, the private sector and citizens) can lead to a reconstruction process that is much slower than intended (Steinberg, 2007). In other cases, governments play dominant roles in the reconstruction process. Although this can lead to the rapid recovery of areas affected by earthquakes, the faster delivery of assistance can lead to the abandonment of the community-based development approach, the shedding of environmental safeguards, or the disregard for indigenous architectural and cultural traditions (Steinberg, 2007). A case study of Weizhou Town, Wenchuan County Weizhou Town has a rich history and a vibrant culture, and is the political, economic and cultural centre of Wenchuan County. Located in a valley, the county town is surrounded by mountains and its built-up areas are concentrated along Minjiang River. Two national roads bypass the town and connect it with other areas in

Aba Prefecture. There are a number of beautiful traditional Qiang stockade villages in the nearby area of the town. Before the earthquake, Weizhou town had a population of 45,000. It covered an area of 134.38 km2, of which the county town had a total area of 1.29 km2. Weizhou economy largely depended upon agriculture (10.81 km2 of arable land) rather than industry (0.48 km2 of mining land). There were also few public facilities and amenities in the town. The spatial structure of human settlement in Weizhou Town was usually very compact, because there was severe land scarcity in the town. In the county town, built forms were intensive, leaving only small patches of open space. A main street through the built-up area on the eastern side of the river was the town’s main evacuation route and public space. The waterfront, which was the safest area in the town, was densely built-up (Fig. 1). The town was lack of a “safety” system, such as green and open spaces as evacuation routes and evacuation zones (see Ciborowski, 1982). Weizhou Town was severely damaged by the 2008 earthquake, which killed 131 of its inhabitants and injured a further 7129 people; 42 inhabitants are still missing. Officials interviewed in Weizhou Town in 2008 reported that the earthquake had destroyed 85% of the town’s residential buildings (a total gross building area of 498,000 m2) and 93% of its industrial buildings (a total gross building area of 127,000 m2). About 14% of arable land (with an area of 153.67 ha) was lost and 17 km of municipal roads collapsed. The questionnaires which were distributed in 3 main neighbourhoods of the county town in 2008 showed that about 87% of residents had economic difficulties. How to promote further economic development thus became a key issue for post-earthquake reconstruction. Public service facilities (e.g. schools, hospitals and commercial buildings) comprising a total gross building area of 270,000 m2 were also severely destroyed, while 400,000 m2 required immediate renovation. Therefore, the town encountered many challenges, including housing reconstruction, economic development, the provision of public facilities, the memory of the deaths, and so on. Institutional arrangements A topedown approach was applied to the post-earthquake recovery and reconstruction process in Wenchuan County (Fig. 2). In 2008, the State Council of the People’s Republic of China established a counterpart support plan, whereby 19 eastern and central provinces and municipalities would help 18 counties on a ‘one province to one affected county’ basis. The plan spanned three years and cost each province/municipality 1% of its total budget. This topedown approach and the prompt delivery of assistance contributed to the rapid recovery of areas affected by the earthquake. As a result, most of the construction tasks were completed ahead of schedule (Qu, 2011). Guangzhou City was assigned as the corresponding city to support the reconstruction of Weizhou Town. Guangzhou Municipal Government invested RMB 2.8 billion in the recovery and reconstruction of Weizhou Town, a sum that exceeded the requirement laid down by the central government (RMB 1 billion) (Guangzhou Municipal Government, 2009) and allowed the support programme to be completed in March 2010, less than 2 years after the earthquake. The counterpart support programme comprised 60 reconstruction and recovery projects and 17 subsidized projects. These projects included three resettlement areas (2191 units), upgraded housing (5074 units), three schools, two hospitals, a sewage treatment plant, two squares and several upgraded roads (Guangzhou Municipal Government, 2010). The Guangzhou Aid Working Group was established by Guangzhou Municipal Government to support the recovery and reconstruction

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Fig. 1. Weizhou Town before the earthquake. Photographer: Yi Chen.

of Weizhou Town. The working group played a crucial role in the formulation of urban design projects. It communicated with Guangzhou Municipal Government about finance and counterpart support projects. It also organized a design competition, which led to the formulation of a professional project titled Urban Design for the Reconstruction of Weizhou Town (2009), based on the Recovery and Reconstruction Plan of Weizhou Town (2008e2020). The recovery and reconstruction plan emphasized the creation of safe areas, evacuation routes, resettlement housing, facilities, industrial areas, and so on. The urban design for the post-earthquake reconstruction in Weizhou Town mainly focused on the organization of public spaces, which were usually combined with the provision of

facilities, the design of safe areas and evacuation routes, and other structures. The urban design for post-earthquake reconstruction was consequently embedded in the recovery and reconstruction plan. The urban design project was mainly developed by public officials from Guangzhou Municipal Government, the Guangzhou Aid Working Group and Weizhou Government, and members of the expert community and design units. Unique institutional arrangements and a huge investment from Guangzhou Municipal Government contributed to the rapid reconstruction and recovery of the town. The arrangements also resulted in high-quality buildings. The professional project fundamentally transformed the previous

Fig. 2. Institutional arrangements in the formulation of urban design project for the reconstruction of Weizhou Town. (Source: authors’ drawing.)

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dense spatial structures into a new urban form that is safer and more resilient to disasters. It created many lively public spaces and greatly enhanced the quality of life in the town. It was an integrated approach that promoted both long-term and short-term developments, and that combined open spaces with public facilities. However, many problems remained. Although the unique institutional arrangement contributed to the rapid recovery of the town, it was not feasible for public participation and the involvement of other stakeholders. The rapid reconstruction process also exhausted most of available land in the town. In 2010, questionnaires for experts in 6 design units which were involved in the projects showed that there was a lack of involvement of experts from other fields (e.g. folklorists and anthropologists) and local technicians in project formulation. There was little room for public participation or the involvement of market parties. This led to the emergence of new issues in the town after the completion of the counterpart support programme and the withdrawal of Guangzhou Municipal Government and the Guangzhou Aid Working Group. There are now conflicts between urban resilience and the dynamics of the real estate market, and between the daily need of habitants and a large number of open spaces. Visions and strategies Weizhou Town was severely destroyed during the earthquake. In the process of reconstruction, priority was given to “higher levels of safety and earthquake resistance” that is one of the main concerns of urban design in earthquake-prone areas (see Ciborowski, 1982). As a considerable amount of arable land was lost and the majority of industrial facilities were damaged, how to promote economic development became a key issue of the town. Considering that there were many tourism attractions in the surrounding area (such as traditional Qiang stockade villages) and the town became famous after the earthquake, the development of tourism was thus adopted as a new strategy to promote economic growth. Consequently, three visions were proposed in the Urban Design for the Reconstruction of Weizhou Town (2009). Firstly, Weizhou Town was to be the ‘Sunshine Gokseong’ of Sichuan Western Qiang areas e a safe and ecological town. In order to realize this vision, a series

of actions (e.g. the creation of three large evacuation squares and the recovery of the ecosystem in the surrounding mountains) were performed. Second, Weizhou Town was to be an important node of the Xiqiang Cultural Corridor. It was not only the memorial base of the earthquake, but also a cultural and historical town with traditional Qiang stockade villages. Third, Weizhou Town was comprised of a part of the Western Sichuan tourism system. The construction of memorials and tourism facilities and the improvement of the infrastructure fulfilled the demands of both tourism development and the town’s inhabitants. The three visions of the urban design project were related to the town’s long-term vision, namely to become ‘a provincial level historicalecultural site, a tourism town, a traffic hub, a political centre and an ecological zone’ (Recovery and Reconstruction Plan of Weizhou Town (2008e2020)). These visions led to a series of specific interventions. The urban design for the reconstruction of Weizhou Town was future-oriented and used reconstruction projects as strategic interventions for the future development of the town. Urban design for safety, memorial, tourism and the public As mentioned, the previous building density of Weizhou Town was too high and the spatial structures were not resilient to such disasters as earthquakes. The town’s commercial street was the main evacuation route (Fig. 3). There was a lack of evacuation zones and routes. During the earthquake, the spatial structures were severely damaged. The urban design for post-earthquake reconstruction was an opportunity to create a new urban form that would be safer and more resilient to disasters. Collapsed or lowquality houses and old industrial buildings were demolished and replaced by public facilities, open spaces and commercial buildings. Resettlement housing was built on three main sites on the periphery of the town. The new spatial structure of the town comprises one belt, two axes, multi-clusters, multi-corridors and several nodes (Fig. 4). One belt is the waterfront landscape belt. The axes are the central axis (yuwang axis) and the commercial axis (jiaochanglu axis). The multi-clusters are resettlement areas and old districts. The multi-corridors are several visual landscape corridors that connect mountains and rivers. Several big squares (including

Fig. 3. A commercial street as the main open space in Weizhou Town. (Source: authors’ drawing based on fieldwork in 2008 and the Aviation Remote Sensing Map of Weizhou Town in 2008.)

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Fig. 4. New spatial structures in Weizhou Town. (Source: authors’ drawing based on fieldwork in 2013 and an existing map of Weizhou Town.)

three disaster prevention squares/parks) form several nodes. A safety system, a memorial system, a tourism system and a network of public spaces were created in the town. These four systems are interwoven with each other.

Safety system According to Ciborowski (1982), urban design measures that offer higher levels of safety and earthquake resistance should include green and open spaces as evacuation routes and evacuation zones as well as emergency exit routes from inner-city blocks. In the process of reconstruction in Weizhou Town, a safety system was established. It was comprised of a series of interrelated squares, streets and open spaces. Besides the commercial street, a pedestrian street on the eastern side of Minjiang River became another important evacuation route. Several secondary roads were established to connect the commercial street and the pedestrian street. They functioned as emergency exit routs from inner-city blocks. The pedestrian street was also connected with two squares for disaster prevention and a series of open spaces. Three big squares/ parks for disaster prevention were constructed in this small town (Urban Design for Weizhou Central Town, Wenchuan, 2009). One of these squares is in front of the new museum. It covers an area of 14,000 m2. As it is located in the middle of the central axis, it functions as the town’s central square. Another square for disaster prevention is in front of the town hall and next to the new stadium. It covers nearly 20,252 m2. The square is paved and planted with trees, and provides children’s playgrounds and sports facilities. It is an important node of the landscape corridor on the eastern side of the river. A park near the new People’s Hospital and two of the resettlement areas was also established for disaster prevention. According to the urban design proposal, these three squares/parks

could become evacuation zones during disasters and also be used for day-to-day leisure activities. The fieldwork in 2013, however, revealed that the two lastmentioned squares were rarely used and do not conform with the proposal of the urban design project. There were few activities in the large square, which was in front of the town hall and connected with the waterfront landscape belt. As most people were attracted by the commercial activities and leisure facilities on the waterfront, few used this square. There were also few people in the park near the People’s Hospital and a resettlement area. As the function of this area was very simple, the park attracted only some of the residents who lived in the surrounding areas. In contrast, the pedestrian street (a new evacuation route) on the waterfront was used for all kinds of activities. This was primarily attributable to the mixed land use in this area. People who lived in the surrounding residential areas and other areas of the town were attracted by the commercial, recreational and cultural facilities as well as by the landscape near the pedestrian street. Memorial system Memorials are usually created after catastrophes (e.g. earthquakes) have destroyed human settlements and led to the loss of lives. A particular memory site can be used for condolence, education of disaster prevention for survivors and posterities, and rethinking the relationship between urban development and disaster mitigation (Wang & Liu, 2008). The significance of the establishment of a memorial system in the town lay in the remembrance of lost lives, the earthquake ruins that have a high scientific value and the important elements of the tourism system (Urban Design for the Reconstruction of Weizhou Town, 2009). The memorial system includes two earthquake ruins parks, Bell Tower Square, Love Square and Red Arm Bridge. The earthquake ruins

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parks are important nodes of the town’s tourism route. Bell Tower Square and Love Square were built on the old site of the Aba Teachers College, which was destroyed during the earthquake and is now located outside the town. These memorial squares are also important public spaces in the town. Tourism system The development of tourism has been stimulated worldwide as an important strategy for post-disaster redevelopment, as tourism can bring visitors and revenue back to disaster affected areas (Qu, 2011). According to the long-term visions of Weizhou Town addressed by both the Urban Design for the Reconstruction of Weizhou Town (2009) and the Recovery and Reconstruction Plan of Weizhou Town (2008e2020), Weizhou Town is to become an important tourism town. It is located at the middle section of the western Sichuan tourism route and can provide service for tourists. The town is an important attraction of the Xiqiang Cultural Corridor (Yingxiu e 213 Life Road e Weizhou), which contains numerous earthquake memorials and many beautiful Qiang stockade villages. The urban design for post-earthquake reconstruction in Weizhou therefore included the establishment of a tourism system (Fig. 5). Firstly, the construction of a new long-distance bus terminal improved the connections between Weizhou Town and other towns and cities in the region. Second, a number of tourism attractions (e.g. earthquake ruins parks, a cultural museum and a folk cultural tourism zone) were established. The ecological park and the waterfront landscape belt on the eastern side of Minjiang River also became a part of the tourism system. Third, new hotels and tourism facilities were built. The attractions and tourism facilities were connected by main roads and pedestrian streets in the town. The fieldwork in 2013 revealed that there had indeed been a growth of tourism in the town. The earthquake had made Weizhou Town well known. A considerable number of tourists were drawn by the tourism facilities and attractions. The growth of tourism had contributed to the town’s economic development. Network of open space Diversity and variability of open space are important characteristics of “quality of life” and “resilience”. A network of open space is designed not only to contribute significantly to the quality of everyday urban life, but with the latent capacity to act as essential life support and an agent of recovery in the event of an earthquake (Allan & Bryant, 2010). In the post-earthquake reconstruction process of Weizhou Town, a network of open space was established, comprised of the waterfront landscape belt on the eastern side of Minjiang River, two axes, several squares and pedestrian streets. The waterfront landscape belt is now the town’s most important public space. It is comprised of many diverse and lively open spaces

and commercial facilities which attract a large number of people. After the earthquake, buildings that had collapsed or were of low quality were demolished and replaced by a series of interrelated open spaces and new buildings. A pedestrian street was constructed on the eastern side of the river to connect several squares (e.g. two of the squares for disaster prevention and a cultural square), green areas, commercial buildings and tourism facilities. The pedestrian street is also linked with the central axis. The central square is located in the middle of the central axis and is used for leisure activities and disaster prevention. The network of open space is consequently integrated with the safety system, the memorial system and the tourism system. The network comprises evacuation squares and routes, memorials and tourism facilities. Open spaces can be used for various purposes, such as evacuation, daily activities and commercial activities. The observations and interviews with residents in 2013 revealed that the establishment of a large amount of open space had greatly enhanced the quality of life in the town. Some squares (e.g. the cultural square) were used for various activities, for example dancing and playing. The waterfront, once a densely built-up area, had become the new public realm, attracting a large number of users. It is still questionable, however, whether it is necessary to have such a large number of open spaces in Weizhou Town. As mentioned, the daily use of three large squares for disaster prevention was rare and inefficient. Moreover, because the town is located in a valley, land for urban construction is extremely rare and thus valuable. How to effectively use large amounts of open spaces is worthy explored. Urban design for post-earthquake reconstruction as an integrated approach The urban design for post-earthquake reconstruction in Weizhou town applied an integrated approach. As mentioned before, public buildings and facilities were severely damaged during the earthquake. The questionnaires about the requirement intent of residents for post-earthquake reconstruction in 2008 showed that construction priority was given to public facilities, such as infrastructure, water supply, education and cultural facilities. The provision of public buildings and facilities thus became one of the key concerns in the urban design project and recovery plan. The provision of public facilities and infrastructure and the construction of public buildings were usually combined with the establishment of open space (Liu, 2011). The integrated approach can improve the daily use of open space and create mix land use patterns. For example, the regeneration of the central axis was an integrated project. Guangzhou Municipal Government invested RMB 20 million in the regeneration of the central axis, which covers a total area of 14,100 m2 (Guangzhou Municipal Government, 2010). Thirty-six low quality or collapsed buildings were demolished and replaced by public facilities and open spaces. This integrated

Fig. 5. The tourism system. Source: authors’ drawing based on Architectural Design & Research Institute of South China University of Technology (2009).

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regeneration project had several subprojects, such as water supply, road construction, greening projects and lighting projects. The central square for leisure activities and disaster prevention was constructed in front of the new cultural museum. This project greatly improved the environment in the city centre by creating open spaces and providing public facilities. Another integrated project was the regeneration of the eastern side of Minjiang River. The length of the upgraded area is 2.6 km. The project occupies a total area of 90,917 m2, and has 4,200 m2 of gross floor area (Guangzhou Municipal Government, 2010). Collapsed and low quality buildings were demolished and replaced by public spaces and facilities. This integrated project had several subprojects, such as greening projects, square and road projects, municipal pipe network and lighting projects, and embankment reinforcement projects. The project fundamentally transformed the densely built-up waterfront into mixed land use that comprised open space, public facilities and commercial buildings. The fieldwork in 2013 revealed that the integrated project for the regeneration of the eastern side of Minjiang River had successfully created lively and vibrant open spaces on the waterfront by introducing mixed land use (Fig. 6). The inhabitants of the nearby residential areas and other areas of town were attracted by the commercial activities and leisure facilities on the waterfront. Discussion and conclusion Urban design for post-earthquake reconstruction in Weizhou Town was a topedown rather than a bottomeup or participative approach. It was embedded in the counterpart support plan

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established by the Chinese Central Government. In the counterpart plan, Guangzhou City was assigned as the corresponding city of Weizhou Town. Unique institutional arrangements and a huge investment from Guangzhou Municipal Government contributed to the rapid reconstruction of the town. The Guangzhou Aid Working Group was established by Guangzhou Municipal Government to support the recovery and reconstruction of Weizhou Town, and it played a crucial role in the formulation and implementation of the urban design project. It communicated with Guangzhou Municipal Government about finance and counterpart support projects. It also organized a design competition, which led to the formulation of a professional project titled Urban Design for the Reconstruction of Weizhou Town (2009). In these institutional arrangements, the urban design for post-earthquake reconstruction was mainly developed by public authorities and experts. There were few room for public participation or the involvement of market parties. The urban design for post-earthquake reconstruction fundamentally transformed the previous dense spatial structures into a new urban form that was safer and more resilient to disasters. It was an integrated project that promoted both long-term and shortterm developments, and combined the establishment of public space with the creation of public facilities. The Urban Design for the Reconstruction of Weizhou Town (2009) project was embedded in the Recovery and Reconstruction Plan of Weizhou Town (2008e 2020). Three visions developed in the urban design project were related to visions addressed in the recovery plan. These visions led to a series of specific interventions in the town. The new spatial structures incorporate four interwoven systems, namely a safety system, a memorial system, a tourism system and a network of

Fig. 6. Lively and vibrant open space on the waterfront. (Source: authors’ photograph, 2013.)

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open spaces. The urban design project offered higher levels of “urban safety”, through creating open spaces and squares as evacuation zones and emergency exit routes from inner-city blocks. A safety system was established in Weizhou Town. It comprises three big squares, a waterfront evacuation route and several interrelated open spaces for disaster prevention. A memorial system was established to commemorate lost lives and promote tourism. It comprises several tourism attractions, facilities and routes. It is embedded in the system of tourism, which was established to promote economic development of the town. A network of open spaces was also created. It includes the waterfront landscape belt on the eastern side of Minjiang River, two axes, several squares and pedestrian streets. The integration of the four systems greatly contributes to the daily use of evacuation zones and routes. It leads to the integration of everyday urban life, disaster prevention and economic development. Many lively squares were created and the waterfront became the new public realm. To a certain extent, the urban design for post-earthquake reconstruction in Wenchuan Town not only enhances “urban safety” by establishing a safety system, but also facilitates future development by promoting tourism growth. Furthermore, it contributes to “the quality of life” by creating pleasant facilities and amenities as well as a diverse range of open spaces. Many open spaces are lively and can be used for various purposes. They enhance “urban resilience”, as they can act as essential life support system and an agent of recovery in the event of an earthquake. Many problems remain, however. The topedown approach and the rapid delivery of assistance led to the emergence of new issues. For example, the reconstruction took up almost all of the available land, preventing further development in the town. Furthermore, there have been conflicts between urban resilience and the dynamics of the real estate market. There was little room for the involvement of market parties and inhabitants in the counterpart support programme. After the completion of the counterpart support programme and the withdrawal of Guangzhou Municipal Government, real estate companies became involved in the modification of the previous urban design project. They were attracted by a gradual increase in land value stimulated by the counterpart support projects. The fieldwork in 2013 revealed that several highrise buildings had been constructed by real estate companies in this small town. There was a trend towards more and more low-rise buildings (which had been preserved during the reconstruction process) being replaced by high-rise buildings. The new buildings did not conform with the original urban design project. They were mainly developed by market parties, which play a significant role in the transformation of Chinese cities. As in many cases in China, it is easy for market parties to modify urban projects due to the lack of enforcement power. The adjustment of urban projects can also be influenced by other factors, such as corruption. The powerful market forces consequently have the potential to destroy the newly-established spatial structures that are safer and more resilience to disasters. This leads to the question how one can create a continuing and transparent design and planning process that considers the involvement of different stakeholders (not only public authorities and experts, but also market parties and residents), and how one can protect the safety system and maintain urban resilience in the long term. As is the case with post-disaster reconstruction in many cities in the world, there is a conflict between the requirements of safe refuge and the needs of liveable cities, and there is the issue of the need for large numbers of open spaces for disaster prevention. Although open spaces in Weizhou Town are well structured and designed for various uses, there are still questions about the large number of open spaces and their efficient utility. The daily use of two of the three large squares for disaster prevention was rare and

inefficient. In contrast, open spaces on the waterfront were used for all kinds of activities. This was mainly due to the mixture of land use on the waterfront and the surrounding urban areas. The commercial activities, amenities, facilities and open spaces on the waterfront attracted a large number of people from the surrounding residential areas and other areas of the town. We may therefore say that mixed land use can help to bridge the gap between the need for safe refuge and the needs of liveable cities. Suggestions can then be given to the adjustment of the other two large squares for disaster prevention. These squares can be transformed to be multifunctional open spaces. New parking and recreation facilities can be added, while some green areas can be transformed to paved areas to accommodate public gatherings, events and activities. Some buildings around the squares can also be adapted for commercial use. Adjusting the surrounding areas which are used for a single function to mixed use areas in the future can contribute to the effective use of these squares. Besides institutional arrangements and design process, mixed land use can be another important focus for further research on urban design for post-earthquake (ordisaster) reconstruction. Acknowledgements The research underpinning this paper was sponsored by the National Planning office of Philosophy and Social Science (11&ZD154) and the State Key Laboratory of Subtropical Building Science in China. The authors appreciate the assistance provided by the Guangzhou Aid Working Group and Weizhou Government officials. Many thanks go to the residents of Weizhou Town for sharing so many of their experiences. The authors are grateful to the editor and reviewers for their very constructive comments and assistance. References Allan, P., & Bryant, M. (2010). The critical role of open space in earthquake recovery: A case study. Paper presented at the NZSEE Conference, 26e28 March 2010, New Zealand. Architectural Design & Research Institute of South China University of Technology. (2009). Urban design for the reconstruction of Weizhou Town (2009). Project document. Carmona, M., De Magalhaes, C., Edwards, M., Awuor, B., & Aminossehe, S. (2001). The value of urban design: A research report commissioned by CABE and DETR to examine the value added by good urban design. London: Thomas Telford Publishing. Chapman, D. W., & Larkham, P. J. (2007). Urban design, urban quality and the quality of life: reviewing the department of the environment’s urban design campaign. Journal of Urban Design, 4(2), 211e231. Ciborowski, A. (1982). Physical development planning and urban design in earthquake-prone areas. Engineering Structures, 4(3), 153e160. Clancy, J. (2011). The origins of the principle of contemporary urban design theory. www.Academia.edu. Davies, L. (2007). The urban design compendium. Urban Design Alliance. Foster, H. (1980). Disaster planning: The preservation of life and property. New York: Springer Verlag. Gordon, A. (2001). Making public pasts: The contested terrain of Montreal’s public memories. Montreal: McGill University Press. Guangzhou Municipal Government. (2009). The report on the recovery and reconstruction in Guangzhou counterpart support Weizhou Town in Wenchuan County. An unpublished document from Guangzhou Aid Working Group. Guangzhou Municipal Government. (2010). The revised table of post-earthquake reconstruction and recovery projects in Guangzhou counterpart support Weizhou Town of Wenchuan County. An unpublished document from Guangzhou Aid Working Group. Guangzhou Urban Planning & Design Survey Research Institute. (2008). Recovery and reconstruction plan of Weizhou town (2008e2020). Project document. Guo, P. (2008). The economic loss of Wenchuan County runs higher than 100 million yuan. There were still impassable roads in three towns. www.China.com.cn. Han, B., Ge, H., & Cheng, S. Q. (2008). Assessment on plan of disaster prevention in urban regions in China after Wenchuan earthquake. Guidance of Disaster Reduction, No. 5. Hao, W. G. (2009). The legacy of disaster-stricken memory-discussion of Tangshan earthquake memorial park planning and construction. Chinese Landscape Architecture, No. 12.

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