Urban planning perspectives on solid waste disposal

Conservation & HecycZing, Printed in Great Britain

Vo1.7,No.2-4,

pp.149-156,

1984

0361-3658/84 Pergamon

URBAN PLANNING

PERSPECTIVES

$03.00/O Press Ltd.

ON SOLID WASTE DISPOSAL,

PETER RILLS Centre of Urban Studies and Urban Planning University of Hong Kong, Pokfulam Road, Hong Kong

ABSTRACT on the role of urban planning and urban planners in the development This paper focusses The paper argues that an urban planning and implementation of solid waste disposal policies. in the design of solid perspective represents an important, indeed essential, component Given their central concern with the management of land resources waste disposal policies. and the regulation of land uses, urban planners have a direct interest in aspects of waste production as well as the formulation and implementation of specific Waste disposal options. The latter are frequently significant consumers of land, especially where tipping represents Planners also play a prominent role in formulating prothe main method of waste disposal. posals for the subsequent use of tipping sites where this is environmentally feasible. Solid waste disposal activities may exercise a very strong influence over urban development possibilities at the local level and may also have major adverse environmental impacts on The environmental legacy of certain types of industrial activity, existing built-up areas. in the form of contaminated land, may under seine circumstances render certain sites hazardous and therefore undevelopable. The paper reviews these issues and evaluates the potential contribution of urban planners The limitations of the planner's perspective in the overall process of solid waste disposal. and multi-professional are also examined and the paper argues that a multi-disciplinary In addition, the paper approach is needed to tackle contemporary waste disposal problems. argues that changes may be needed in the way that the waste disposal problem is handled within governmental organisations, particularly with regard to the coordination and implementation of waste disposal policies. In order to illustrate the points made from Hong Kong and the United Kingdom.

in

the

paper,

reference

is made

to examples

drawn

INTRODUCTION The scale of the contemporary waste disposal problem is impressive by any standards. In Hong Kong, for example, over 6,500 tonnes of waste are collected and disposed of each day. By the end of the decade this figure is expected to increase by over 50% to approximately To give another example, in England and Wales, waste authorities 10,000 tonnes per day[l]. accept approximately 27-28 million tonnes of domestic annually and industrial waste for The figure for the United Kingdom as a whole is probably in the order of 35 disposalC21. million tonnes per year. The growing scale of the waste problem, a trend which is by no means confined to the lmore affluent urban centres of the industrialised nations, has imposed various pressures on t;hose agencies charged with the responsibility for disposing of wastes, has highlighted shortwaste management systems, and has generated various pressures comings in established for both technical and procedural changes in approaches to waste management.

149

P. Hills

150

Waste disposal has become a sensitive environmental issue in a number of industrialised countries. Public concern has, for example, been aroused by a number of well-publicised cases involving less than adequate management of the disposal of toxic wastes and by urban development that has occurred on contaminated land, especially sites characterised by high concentrations of heavy metals. Perspectives on the waste disposal problem have tended to be dominated by technical and economic considerations. Increasingly, however, attention has also been directed to broader environmental aspects of the problem and to such issues as the most appropriate organisational and policy-making structures and procedures for tackling waste management. This broader perspective is to be welcomed as it suggests that the tendency to compartmentalise the waste problem is being progressively eroded. Waste production and the resulting need for its disposal in an environmentally, technically and economically feasible manner reflects a diversity of processes and raises a variety of issues, which demand a multi-disciplinary and multi-professional approach. The waste problem is inextricably linked with the utilisation of land, in terms of both waste arisings and disposal. In most countries, the responsibility for managing and regulating the use of land is assigned to a group of professionals variously labelled as "town planners", "physical planners", "urban and regional planners" or just simply "Urban planners",

I

The presen-t paper focusses on the waste problem from the viewpoint of the planner . The paper seeks to identify those aspects of the waste problem that are potentially of special concern to the planner and also to characterise the land-use planning inputs that are relevant to the formulation of waste management plans. In addition, the paper seeks to identify other aspects of the overall waste disposal problem which may generate future land-use planning issues.

THE SCOPE OF PLANNING

ACTIVITY:

GENERAL

OBSERVATIONS

At this point it would be useful to identify the major components of planning sion will provide a useful framework for subsequent sections of this paper.

as this discus-

As noted above, the type of planning with which this paper is concerned has been given a variety of labels but it is generally taken to be primarily concerned with the management It is rather difficult to generalise about the precise and regulation of the use of land. nature and modus operandi of planning in different national and local contexts as its StatUIt can however tory basis and organisational features vary considerably from place to place. be suggested that planning tends to operate at two particular levels: (i)

at the level of development control, where planning focusses on individual developmental proposals (e.g. a factory), assesses their compatibility with existing, adjacent land uses and may, under some circumstances, impose various conditions on physical characteristics of the development and the way in which it should operate;

(ii)

at the level of development planning,*where the objective iS to formulate land use policies for a broader geographical area Often over periods lo-15 years.

Both these levels management plans.

1

of

planning

activity

are

significant

in the context

Strategic Of Up to

of discussing

waste

The term "planner" will be used in this paper as a general label applicable to those involved in land use planning. This is not to suggest, however, that there are no other planning functions associated with the waste problem or that other professionals do not contribute to the formulation and implementation of waste management plans. 2 The use of this term in the present context should not be confused with its usage in the literature concerning economic development in the Third World where it is frequently equated with national economic planning.

Urban Planning

Perspectives

on Solid Waste

151

Disposal

Also of relevance in the present context is the disciplinary basis of planning itself. Until the late 1960s it was largely viewed as a "design" discipline, closely allied to architecture The activity but with some limited inputs from surveying, civil engineering and the law. of planning was generally confined to allocating land uses over space and to the layout Over the past 15 years planning in many countries has tended to eabrace of new developments. a wide range of economic and social issues which are inextricably linked with the use of As a consequence, planning is now widely interpreted as a social science discipline land. It is also and this is reflected in the type of training that intending planners receive. reflected in the intakes of postgraduate planning courses which draw many of their students from geography, economics and sociology. The major implication of the above discussion is clearly that the expertise of planners as a professional group does not in general equip them to deal with the "harder" aspects issues, among which we can certainly include the waste management of many environmental This suggests that although the planner's role in the land allocation and manageproblem. there are a variety of issues associated with this ment process is of great importance, process, the resolution of which requires more than just a conventional professional planning perspective. This itself raises questions about how problems are identified and Cackled Some of these questions are raised both from an organisational and professional viewpoint. in the following sections of the paper.

PLANNING

AND \?ASTE ARISINGS

(and involvement Insofar as waste arisings are concerned, the planner's perspective waste management process) may be viewed as comprising two main elements: 1.

A need to consider the locational implications of residential, commercial dustrial land uses in terms of the nature and volume of wastes produced consequent demand for waste collection and disposal services.

2.

A need to provide adequate facilities of individual developments and within

for waste storage and collection such developments.

in the

and inand the

at the level

The first element is essentially a strategic planning function and is clearly related to It may well be, however, that strategic the disposal phase of the waste management process. planning decisions relating, for example, to the location of new urban developments or industrial areas can profoundly influence the volume of waste arisings (e.g. requirements for for the amount of sewage sludge that has to be disposed sewage treatment and implications It is important to emphasise that sewage disposal is just one element in the very comof). plex decision problem relating to the location of new development. Planning decisions inevitably involve a variety of trade-offs; some explicit, some implicit. In the present context, the key issue would seem to be the extent to which waste management considerations are adequately taken into account in the planning process. The provision of adequate "on-site" facilities for waste storage and collection is, in conIt is closely linked with the design of intrast, primarily a development control matter. In many situations, planners find it useful to work with certain dividual developments. specified standards (i.e. "planning standards") which provide guidance on the nature and extent of the facilities that are required. Although planning standards are widely used in various contexts (e.g. housing, public facility provision) they may, under some circumFirstly, standards can become outdated or inappropriate stances, present certain problems. in specific locations. They must therefore be regularly reviewed. Secondly, where standards are, in effect, implemented through the mechanism of planning conditions imposed on a development, theree is no guarantee that they will actually be realised. This suggests thar. there must be a suitable and, above all, effective procedure for the enforcement of such conditions.

PLANNING

AND THE TRANSPORT

OF WASTES

The transport of wastes from their origin points to a disposal facility may generate a vceriety The extent to which these issues fall within the remit of urban of planning-related issues. planners is in part dependent on the allocation of responsibility for transport matters withVery often, land use and transport planning functions in a particular governmental system. are the responsibility of two discrete departments, although the linkages between them are now widely recognised.

152

P. Hills

The transport

of wastes

may raise

the following

concerns:

1.

The adequacy of the existing road/rail network access provided to waste disposal facilities;

2.

The acceptabiiity of hazardous materials;

3.

The adverse environmental impacts that may result from increased to existing waste facilities or traffic generated by new facilities.

waste

vehicle

PLANNING

routeing,

in

terms

especially

of its capacity

with

regard

and the

to

traffic

toxic/

flows

AND WASTE DISPOSAL

The aspect of the waste management problem that has tended to attract the greatest amount of attention from planners has, perhaps inevitably, been the land use implications of disposal options. These options may be broadly categorised into two main groups: "high" tech(Fig.1). nology and "low" technology Disposal of conventional domestic, commercial and industrial wastes is typically achieved through landfill, although this option may, as in Hong Kong, be supplemented by the use of incinerator facilities. The disposal of hazardous/ toxic industrial wastes is an acute problem in some countries and it is generally in response to the particular problems raised by these types of waste that various "high" technology disposal methods have been investigated. Although the siting of incinerators raises a variety of planning issues, especially in connection with the potential environmental issues associated with their operation, such facilities tend not to be particularly numerous but they are often located within built-up areas. The most significant disposal option in terms of the volume of solid waste handled tends The major difficulty encountered here is very often the identification to be land-filling. Suitability may be assessed against a range of criteria, including locaof suitable sites. with areas producing waste), infrastructure considerations tional factors (e.g. relationship (e.g. particularly road or rail links), site conditions (especially relevant where co-disposal of domestic and liquid industrial wastes is practised) and operational factors (eg capacity). There are clearly complex sets of interdependencies between the planning and provision of The land use planwaste disposal facilities and other land use planning related activities. should be cognisant ner, in setting out proposals for new urban or industrial developments, of the need for waste disposal facilities but at the same time will be concerned about possible competition for land between such facilities and other potential uses. In many situfor other purposes, although ations, land-fill takes place on sites which are undevelopable The actual development may ultimately be possible when disposal activities have ceased. type of use that may be made of former waste disposal sites may be somewhat constrained, depending on local conditions, but it is not uncommon, for example, for such sites to be landscaped and ultimately used for public open-space purposes. One problem that frequently arises in connection with land-fill is the impact of the activity Where such land uses include residential areas, the land uses. on adjacent, established As far as the role of planners in the disamenity effects of the activity may be severe. there clearly exists a need for detailed study of such disposal faiclities is concerned, evaluation - probably most effectively undertaken by means of Environmental Impact Assessment Conflicts may still arise however, and this would seem to emphasise - of siting options. the need for effective site management procedures.

CONTAMINATED

LAND

The issue of contaminated land is one that has risen to some prominence in a number of countIt is also an issue with very significant planning implications. Conries in recent years. a taminated land "is polluted with a sufficient quantity of toxic substances to present threat to the health and safety of users or occupiers of land, or of workers engaged in its As Smith points out, it is also possible to include land development or reclamation"[3]. amount of substances harmful to flora and fauna as well as land which has an "unacceptable" from which fodder or food crops may draw excessive quantities of substances harmful to animals or man. Hazards are not necessarily confined to specific contaminated sites as adjacent areas may be subject to the impact of toxic dusts, migrating liquid or gaseous pollutants and water

ISSUES:

v $t

RECYCLING

SIGNIFICANT

Fig.1.

waste

_-

Some considerations

on-site

ISSUES:

Health and safety at work, management pollution control

SOME OTHER

-T-

WASTE TRANSPORT I-

of waste e.g. hazardous

disposal.

Regulation novements, Jastes

Xoad network planning routing requirements

in waste

Industrial location policy, industrial infrastructure provision, planning control of site layout and provision of plant

SOME PLANNING

INDUSTRY TYPE & PROCESS

INDUSTRIAL WASTE

DOMESTIC WASTE

eg. sea disposal, underground storage, landfill lagooning of liquids and sludges

Waste facility management, supervision and monitoring pollution control e.g. incinerator emissions

Site identification/impact assessment for disposal technologies, reconciliation of competing land use demands, reclamation and utilization of disposal sites

eg. incineration, biological/physical treatment, chemical treatment (solidification or encapsulation)

AT DISPOSAL STAGE: eg. heat generation

P. Hills

154

course and aquifer pollution. In addition, may be threatened by contamination.

the

integrity

of buildings

or building

services

Smith's analysis, which is directed to identifying "standards" for the redevelopment of contaminated land affected by toxic metals, suggests that the hazards and problems associated with contaminated land can be classified in two ways: by a "target" oriented approach and by a hazard oriented approach (see Table 1). Irrespective of the nature of the contamination its target(s) or the nature of the hazard it represents, Smith argues that two basic questions have to be dealt with: (i)

What levels response?

of

contamination

(ii)

What are the appropriate

are

remedial,

"unacceptable"

protective

I.

1:

Contaminated

Land:

Based on who or what 1. ii. iii.

health

is at risk

of construction

animals,

plant

building

materials

financial

iii.

measures?

e.g.:

e.g. by corrosion;

of site closure/evacuation

of hazards

a. b.

explosion subsidence

inhalation

a. b.

dust toxic gases

direct

a.

from fingers children) contaminated

indirect ingestion

contact

is required.

to targets

physical

ingestion

and water

life, etc.;

and structures,

a. b.

v.

of

workers;

b. iv.

form

of Hazards/Problems[l].

("targets")

life, aquatic

investment

II. Based on the nature

ii.

some

waste disposal procedures or, for activities which are not directly

wider population due to pollution of aquifers courses, or aerial disposal of dust;

".

1.

require

eventual residents (housing) or users (schools, etc.) including particularly sensitive groups in the population;

iv.

vi.

Classifications

thus

or ameliorative

Contaminated land may represent the outcome of explicit example, it may result from production or other on-site waste disposal related.

Table

and

a. b. C.

etc.

(particularly

food

uptake of toxicants by edible plants contamination of water skin irritation etc. retardation or death of plants etc. corrosion of structures

The primary concern of the planner in this context relates to opportunities for redevelopment of such land for alternative issues. In older industrial areas it is not uncommon to find contaminatedland associated with sites, which in terms of their size and location have conThe planner's problem in such situations is essentially siderable redevelopment potential. twofold: firstly, establishing the environmental characteristics of the site, and secondly, determining whether redevelopment is feasible and safe given prevailing concentrations of contaminants or following remedial measures. In this context, it is only to be expected of environmental standards that considerable emphasis may be placed on the determination for contaminated land.

Urban Planning

Perspectives

on Solid Waste Disposal

155

The crux of the problem, however, is that planners are generally not in a position to determine many of the crucial considerations which relate to the redevelopment of contaminated The resolution of this difficulty may be achieved through the development of detailed land. land use inventory systems which can provide indications of potential problem sites. Similarsites identified for redevelopment should be subject to detailed environly, contaminated mental assessment so that possible problems are recognised prior to the design and implementation of new developments. Such analyses are however crucially dependent on inputs of scientific and technical expertise Environmental Impact Assessment can provide one which lay outside the scope of planning. important mechanism for drawing together the required interdisciplinary inputs.

ORGANISATIONAL

ISSUES

as this paper has suggested, involves a variety of "actors"'. Effective waste management, The role of public sector agencies is of crucial importance in the waste management process Within the as they are the key to the development of effective policies and procedures. public sector, however, the respective roles of different agencies or government departments Nor for that matter are their respective objectives and operational is not always clear. This suggests that waste management is likely to benefit from a problem-relate'd, timescales. corporate approach to planning and implementation rather than a more conventional departThis type of inter-departmental approach is, for example, reflected mentally based approach. in Hong Kong's Waste Disposal Plan and Waste Disposal Development Plan[l]. issues but one other that merits Waste management raises a variety of other organisational This issue has a mention is the provision and utilisation of waste disposal facilities. recently risen to prominence in the UK in the context of an on-going review of procedures for handling the disposal of toxic wastes. Toxic waste arisings in the UK tend to be conccntrated in particular regions but waste disposal authorities in those regions do not necessarThis has resulted in a considerable ily have access to appropriate disposal facilities. volume of long-distance movements to disposal sites elsewhere in the country. A suggested solution to this problem involves the development of regional waste disposal policies which The sigattempt to achieve a better match between waste arisings and disposal facilities. nificant point here is that the development of such policies would involve far greater cooperation and coordination of planning activities between a number of separate waste disposal authorities.

CONCLUSIONS This paper has attempted to draw attention to the role played by a particular activity and professional group in the resolution of the waste management problem. The paper has sought to demonstrate that planning occupies a central position with regard to what could be termed the "use and abuse of land". It has been suggested that planners do have a direct interest in, and responsibilities relating to, certain aspects of the waste arisings dimensions of the problem. Their contribution to issues raised by the transport of waste is, in a direct sense, rather more limited. Disposal aspects of waste management are however potentially of considerable significance in the planning context. Most waste disposal options have some land use implications, coupled with a diversity of possible environmental impacts. The formulation and evaluation of such options requires an explicit planning input, especially in the context of site evaluation. The paper has also emphasised that a planning perspective, in isolation, does not provide the required level of scientific and technical competence demanded in the overall waste management process. As the problem of contaminated land admirably illustrates, in order to fully utilise the key resource for which they are responsible, planners are crucially dependent on inputs from their scientific colleagues. The essence of this paper is, therefore, that the formulation and implementation of waste management policies is very much a multidisciplinary process, the success of which is also strongly influenced by the organisational structures that are established to tackle the problem.

156

P. Hills

REFERENCES

1.

Kong Environmental Protection Agency (HKEPA), Environmental Protection in Hong Kong, EPA, Hong Kong (1983). UK Department of the Environment, Digest of Environmental Pollution and Water Statistics, N0.3, Stationery Office, London (1980). for the Redevelopment of Contaminated Land, Interdepartmental Smith, M.A. "Standards" Committee on the Redevelopment of Contaminated Land, Paper ICRCL 24/79, Department of the Environment, London (1979). Hong

1982-83,

2. 3.