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Urban spatial expansion and its impacts on island ecosystem services and landscape pattern: A case study of the island city of Xiamen, Southeast China
Ocean & Coastal Management 81 (2013) 90e96
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Urban spatial expansion and its impacts on island ecosystem services and landscape pattern: A case study of the island city of Xiamen, Southeast China Tao Lin a, b, *, Xiongzhi Xue c, Longyu Shi a, b, Lijie Gao a, b a b c
Key Lab of Urban Environment and Health, Institute of Urban Environment, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Xiamen 361021, China Xiamen Key Lab of Urban Metabolism, Xiamen 361021, China Coastal and Ocean Management Institute, Xiamen University, Xiamen 361005, China
a r t i c l e i n f o
a b s t r a c t
Article history: Available online 24 August 2012
Islands are indispensable part of coastal ecosystem, and many inhabited islands in China are now facing increasing stress from urbanization. This paper examines the 100-year history of urban spatial expansion of Xiamen Island, China. The island’s urban spatial expansion was analyzed by a land use changes matrix and a land use intensity index (LUII) with special focus on the last 30 years. The impacts of urban spatial expansion on the island ecosystem, in terms of ecosystem service and landscape pattern, were quantitatively studied. The results reveal that urban spatial expansion of Xiamen Island has utilized large areas of woodland, farmland, water area and coastal wetland, which caused continuous increase of LUII, the decrease in ecosystem service value, and significant fragmentation in the landscape pattern. Our study suggests landscape pattern analysis and ecosystem service valuation are two powerful tools that can ensure a holistic and integrative decision making in regulating spatial coastal urbanization. Ó 2012 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
1. Introduction Urbanization has become an important driver of climate change and pollution, altering both biotic and abiotic ecosystem properties at local and regional scales (Grimm et al., 2008a, 2008b; Montgomery, 2008). Since 1978, when China initiated its economic reform and adopted an open-door policy, rapid urbanization has taken place across the country, especially in the southeastern coastal areas, driven by industrialization (Seto and Fragkias, 2005; T. Li et al., 2010). As an indispensable part of the coastal area with a unique natural ecosystem, different from terrestrial ecosystems, islands are defined by the Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (MEA) as “lands isolated by surrounding water and with a high proportion of coast to hinterland” (Millennium Ecosystem Assessment, 2003). China possesses more than 460 islands from the Yellow Sea to the South China Sea, with more than 40 million inhabitants (Yang, 2000). Most of the population resides in highly urbanized large islands, including Taiwan, Hainan, Hong Kong, Macao and Xiamen Island. China’s ‘Eleventh Five-Year Plan’ emphasized the need to actively promote urbanization (The State Council of China, 2006). It * Corresponding author. Key Lab of Urban Environment and Health, Institute of Urban Environment, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Xiamen 361021, China. E-mail address: [email protected] (T. Lin). 0964-5691/$ e see front matter Ó 2012 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ocecoaman.2012.06.014
is expected that urban areas will expand significantly in the coming 30e50 years. This includes not only the big islands with permanent inhabitants, but also the small islands without inhabitants are under increasing stress from urban spatial expansion in China (The Committee of Integrated Investigation on Resources of Islands in Fujian Province, China, 1996). Rapid urbanization in coastal areas is always associated with environmental pollution, impediments to natural ecological processes, biodiversity loss and so on (Buraka et al., 2004; Ramjeawon and Beedassy, 2004; OrtizZayas et al., 2006; Ledee et al., 2008; Lin et al., 2008). Ecosystem responses to urban expansion are complex and interactive, occurring on all spatial and temporal scales (Grimm et al., 2008a). Up to the present, there has been little research on island urbanization and knowledge about it is rather limited. Cities can be viewed as heterogeneous, dynamic landscapes and as complex, adaptive, socio-ecological systems, in which the delivery of ecosystem services links society and ecosystems at multiple scales (Grimm et al., 2000; Pickett et al., 2001, 2005). Ecosystem services and landscape patterns are interrelated, and can be used to quantitatively assess the land use changes driven by urbanization (Cadenasso et al., 2007; Ran et al., 2006; X. Li et al., 2010). In this paper, a 100 year urbanization process of Xiamen Island was reconstructed by combining remote sensing images with historical data. Focusing on the last 30 years of rapid urbanization, the dynamic spatial expansion of the island was analyzed,
T. Lin et al. / Ocean & Coastal Management 81 (2013) 90e96
and the impacts of urban spatial expansion were studied from both ecosystem service and landscape pattern perspectives. 2. Method 2.1. Study area Xiamen is an island city, situated at the mouth of Jiulong River, and is connected to the mainland by a long causeway. To the east are the Quemoy Islands and Taiwan (Fig. 1). The total terrestrial area of Xiamen Island is 138.41 km2 and the coastline is 53.77 km. Xiamen Island has a mild, subtropical maritime climate with plenty of rainfall and sunshine and an annual average temperature of 20.8 C (The Committee of Integrated Investigation on Resources of Islands in Fujian Province, China, 1996). Due to its strategic position, Xiamen became a treaty port ruled by western colonizers in the later period of the 19th century and the embryonic form of the city emerged from then on. Since its establishment in 1980 as a Special Economic Zone, Xiamen has undergone rapid urbanization and its urbanization rate (the proportion of urban population to total population) reached 100% in 2004. In 2008, the resident population of Xiamen Island was 0.94 million (Xiamen Statistics Bureau, 2009). During the past three decades, the areas of woodland, cropland and wetland have significantly decreased, the urban area has expanded, and the island’s ecosystem service and landscape pattern have changed significantly. 2.2. Data collection and processing Historical data were derived primarily from chorography of Xiamen City, Xiamen Statistical Yearbook (1985e2008), and Xiamen Environmental Quality Reports (1990e2005). The historical maps (e.g., traffic maps, administration maps, and tourism maps) and satellite images (e.g., Landsat MSS of 1973 and Landsat-TM satellite imageries of 1987, 1995, 2004, 2007) on the other hand
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were edited, calibrated and coded together in Photoshop and ArcGIS software to rebuild the urban spatial expansion history during the past 100 years. Based on the five satellite imageries, the specific land use change information of Xiamen Island in the past 30 years were extracted with ERDAS software. To facilitate the spatial analysis and ecosystem service valuation at the same time, the land use types of Xiamen Island were classified and integrated into five categories, including urban area (e.g., industrial, commercial, residential, and transportation land uses), farmland (e.g., paddy field, irrigable land, vegetable field and a small portion of natural or manmade grassland), woodland (e.g., arbor, bamboo, bush forest and a small portion of orchard), water area (e.g., river, lake, reservoirs, and lagoons), and coastal wetland (e.g., sand beach, rocky beach, and mudflat). 2.3. Analysis of urban spatial expansion To dynamically analyze land use changes of Xiamen Island in the past 30 years, a cross-tabulation detection method was employed. A land use conversion matrix was produced by the ARCGIS software, providing information on the main types of changes in the study area. Quantitative data of the overall land use changes as well as gains and losses in each category from 1973 to 2007 were compiled. The ecosystems of Xiamen Island can be classified into natural ecosystem (e.g., woodland, water area, and coastal wetland), semi-natural ecosystem (e.g., farmland), and artificial ecosystem (e.g., urban area). The land use types were assigned the human land use intensity values of 1 for a natural ecosystem, 2 for a semi-natural ecosystem, and 3 for an artificial ecosystem. We calculated the land use intensity index (LUII) as:
LUII ¼
X ðGi Ci Þ 100%
(1)
i
where Gi is the human land use intensity value for land use category i, whereas Ci is the area ratio of land use category i in the whole
Fig. 1. Xiamen Island and surrounding seas.
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of Xiamen Island. The greater the value of LUII is, the more intensively people exploit the land resource.
extent of the natural ecosystems isolated by urban areas. The two landscape pattern indexes can be calculated by Eqs. (4) and (5), respectively.
2.4. Analysis of the impacts of urban spatial expansion on the island ecosystem
NEEIi ¼ ðLi þ Ui Þ=2
2.4.1. Ecosystem service evaluation Valuation of global ecosystem services has attracted the attention of researchers around the world in recent years. Costanza et al. (1997) classified the global biosphere into 16 types of ecosystems and 17 types of service functions and then estimated their ecosystem service value. However, it is unsuitable to directly adopt this method, which is intended for a global scale to a specific region, as some ecosystem services may be less valued or even ignored. Through the survey of 700 Chinese ecologists, Xie et al. (2008) extracted the equivalent weight factor of ecosystem services per hectare of various ecosystems in China (Table 1) to facilitate its practical application. One factor is equal to the economic value of average natural food production of cropland per hectare per year. Generally, the natural food production is proposed to be 1/7 of the actual food production. In Xiamen, the average actual food production of cropland was 5460 kg/ha from 2002 to 2007 and the average price for grain was 2.20 RMB/kg in 2007. The ecosystem service value of one equivalent weight factor for Xiamen is therefore 1714.9 RMB. The ecosystem service value of one unit area of each land use category in Xiamen Island is assigned based on the nearest equivalent ecosystems (Table 2). The ecosystem service value of different land use categories and the total ecosystem service value of Xiamen Island can be calculated by Eqs (2) and (3).
X
ESVi ¼
Ai VCif
(2)
(4)
where NEEIi refers to the extrusion stress of urban area on natural land use category I, Li is the length proportion (%) of the natural land use category i. bordering on urban area of its total boundary, and Ui is the patches (spatial elements of landscape which represent relatively discrete areas of relatively homogeneous environmental conditions) number proportion (%) of the natural land use category i. of its total patch number. The maximum of NEEI is equal to 1, representing all the natural ecosystems encircled by urban areas.
LIIi ¼
pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi. m=A 2Ai
(5)
where LIIi refers to the extent of the natural land use category i. isolated by urban areas, m is the total number of natural land use category i. A is the area of Xiamen Island, and Ai is the area of natural land use category i. 3. Results 3.1. Dynamic changes of urban spatial expansion in Xiamen Island 3.1.1. Urbanization process of Xiamen Island The embryonic form of the city of Xiamen emerged in the later period of the 19th century. From 1908 to 2007, the 100 year urbanization process of Xiamen Island can be divided into four stages (Fig. 2):
f
ESV ¼
X
ESVi
Early urbanization (1908e1949), the urban infrastructure was formed and the population increased remarkably. Slow but steady urbanization (1950e1979), the population and urban area grew slowly but the traffic system connecting the island to the mainland was constructed, which provided a firm foundation for future urban development. Rapid urbanization (1980e2003), Xiamen Island was established as a Special Economic Zone and socio-economic growth boomed. Saturated urbanization (2004e2007), the population kept growing and urban area reached saturation.
(3)
i
where ESV refers to the total ecosystem service value of Xiamen Island, Ai is the area (ha) for land use category “i” and VCif the value coefficient (Yuan ha1 a1) for land use category “i”, ecosystem service function type “f”. 2.4.2. Stress of urban expansion on ecological landscape Not only functions but also structures of natural and seminatural ecosystems in Xiamen Island are affected by the urban spatial expansion. In performing the landscape pattern change detection, two landscape pattern indexes were created and employed. Natural ecosystem eroded index (NEEI) describes the extrusion stress of urban spatial expansion on the neighboring natural ecosystem. Landscape isolation index (LII) describes the
Xiamen Island’s urbanization was interrupted from 1937 to 1949 by Japanese invasion and Chinese Civil War, from 1966 to 1976 by the 10-year Cultural Revolution. Fig. 3 shows the urban spatial expansion process and its impact on the island’s shape in the past 100 years.
Table 1 Equivalent values per unit area of ecosystem services in China (2007). First class
Second class
Woodland
Grassland
Farmland
Wetland
River/lake
Desert
Supply
Food production Raw materials Gas regulation Climate regulation Water regulation Waste treatment Soil formation Biodiversity Conservation Aesthetic landscape Total
0.33 2.98 4.32 4.07 4.09 1.72 4.02 4.51 2.08 28.12
0.43 0.36 1.50 1.56 1.52 1.32 2.24 1.87 0.87 11.67
1.00 0.39 0.72 0.97 0.77 1.39 1.47 1.02 0.17 7.9
0.36 0.24 2.41 13.55 13.44 14.40 1.99 3.69 4.69 54.77
0.53 0.35 0.51 2.06 18.77 14.85 0.41 3.43 4.44 43.35
0.02 0.04 0.06 0.13 0.07 0.26 0.17 0.40 0.24 1.39
Regulation
Support Culture
Source: Xie et al., 2008.
T. Lin et al. / Ocean & Coastal Management 81 (2013) 90e96
3.2. Impacts of urban spatial expansion on the ecosystem of Xiamen Island
Table 2 Values per unit area of ecosystem services in Xiamen. First class
Second class
Supply
Food production Raw materials Gas regulation Climate regulation Water regulation Waste treatment Soil formation Biodiversity conservation Aesthetic landscape Total
Regulation
Support
Culture
Woodland
Farmland
565.9 5110.4 7408.4 6979.6 7013.9 2949.6 6893.9 7734.2
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Water area
Coastal wetland
1714.9 668.8 1234.7 1663.5 1320.5 2383.7 2520.9 1749.2
908.9 600.2 874.6 3532.7 32188.7 25466.3 703.1 5882.1
617.4 411.6 4132.9 23236.9 23048.3 24694.6 3412.7 6328.0
3567.0
291.5
7614.2
8042.9
48223.0
13547.7
74340.9
93925.1
Unit: Yuan ha1 a1.
3.1.2. Dynamic changes of urban spatial expansion in the last 30 years The spatial-temporal land use changes in Xiamen Island are shown in Table 3 and Fig. 4. The data from Table 3 indicates that land use conversion was common among all the natural ecosystems. From 1973 to 1987, the urban area increased from 10.73 to 30.50 km2, mainly deriving from farmland and woodland. Farmland and coastal wetland were eroded greatly by urban expansion, 23% and 20%, respectively. From 1987 to 1995, the urban area nearly doubled in size. Farmland and woodland were still the major source of new urban area, reducing greatly by 38% and 20%, respectively. From 1995 to 2004, the urban area of Xiamen Island increased from 58.90 to 85.10 km2. The water area and coastal wetland changed noticeably. More than half of the water area and one third of coastal wetland were converted into urban areas. Both the conversion ratio and area of farmland and woodland changed into urban area decreased. From 2004 to 2007 the urban spatial expansion slowed down. Farmland and coastal wetland became the major source of urbanization, reduced by 37% and 39%, respectively. Woodland alone slightly changed while tidal land was reduced by 33% as a result of urban sprawl. Additionally, expansion of farmland played a secondary role in natural ecosystem reduction. From 1973 to 1987, 7.67 km2 woodland and 0.78 km2 water area changed into farmland. However, the numbers decreased from 1987 to 2004 and the expansion of farmland had ceased since 2004 (Table 3).
3.2.1. Changes of island ecosystem service value With the LUII rising from 1.36 in 1973 to 1.76 in 1987, 2.02 in 1995, 2.33 in 2004, and 2.45 in 2007, the island’s ecosystem service decreased continually. The total ecosystem services value of Xiamen Island was about 98.7 million RMB in 1973, 88.8 million RMB in 1987, 81.0 million RMB in 1995, 46.1 million RMB in 2004, and 34.6 million RMB in 2007 (Fig. 4). From 1973 to 1995, the decline in ecosystem service value caused by the decrease of woodland, coastal wetland and farmland was offset partly by the increase in the water area value. As a result, the total ecosystem service value decreased slowly by 17.7 million RMB, an average of 0.8 million RMB per year. However, the total ecosystem service value began to decrease sharply from 1995 to 2004 because of the simultaneous decrease of woodland, farmland, water area and coastal wetland. The trend of deterioration between 2004 and 2007 was alleviated, which may indicate that the urbanization of Xiamen Island is close to saturation. The loss in ecosystem service value was 11.5 million RMB, an average of 3.8 million RMB per year. Overall, the net decline in ecosystem service value was about 64.1 million RMB from 1973 to 2007, averaging 2.7 million RMB per year, mainly due to the decreasing areas of coastal wetland (56.4%), farmland (21.6%) and woodland (20.1%), respectively. 3.2.2. Stress of urban spatial expansion on the natural landscape During 30 years of rapid urban spatial expansion, the natural ecosystems were eroded and fragmented, resulting in significant changes to the island’s landscape pattern. The value of LSI of the urban area decreased from 0.0043 in 1973 to 0.00062 in 2007, indicating that the patches of urban areas tended to draw closer. However, the LSI of the four natural ecosystems increased more or less, indicating that they were separated and isolated accordingly (Fig. 5). Water area was the most separated ecosystem; its LSI was changed from 0.016 in 1973 to 0.052 in 2007. Coastal wetland and farmland were scattered rapidly from 1995 to 2007; their LSI increased from 0.0064 and 0.0096 to 0.040 and 0.032, respectively. The LSI of woodland kept a low value from 0.025 to 0.073 during the last 30 years, which indicated that the urbanization process did not break the spatial distribution of woodland. The dynamic changes of NEEI clearly showed the process of how urban spatial expansion nibbles at or swallows the natural ecosystems. The NEEI of the four natural ecosystems all increased rapidly between 1973 and 2004 with a similar increase pattern since 2004 (Fig. 5), which means all the natural ecosystems in Xiamen Island were inevitably fragmented by urbanization since 2004. 4. Discussion 4.1. Urban planning change and its impact on coastal management
Fig. 2. Dynamics of population growth and urban area development of Xiamen Island between 1908 and 2007.
Social and economic development is the driver while land is the vector of urban spatial expansion. To some extent, urban spatial expansion is a continuous process of using the suitable spatial resource for urban development. Urban planning had become the most influential tool in guiding urban spatial development in China. In the early phase of urbanization, Xiamen Island had no overall urban planning. The urban area was concentrated in southwestern part of the island, serving essentially the commercial port. Since the establishment of the People’s Republic of China, Xiamen Island had its first overall urban planning, which determined the major functions as port, recreation for retirees, tourism and national defense. As the military confrontation with Taiwan continued, the surrounding sea use was totally shelved until 1979
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T. Lin et al. / Ocean & Coastal Management 81 (2013) 90e96
Fig. 3. Urban spatial expansion and shoreline changes during the past 100 years.
when China set the Open Door Policy. During that time, large portions of the coastal area were reclaimed for urban development in the southwestern part of the island and for agriculture in the eastern part. Since 1980, the island’s major functions shifted into port and industrial development. Rapid urbanization used large coastal lands and the surrounding coastal wetlands. Coastal use conflicts among the different industrial and management sectors emerged (Lin et al., 2007). To coordinate the development and protection of coastal resources and environment, Integrated Coastal Management (ICM) system was introduced in Xiamen in 1994 and the first marine functional zoning in China was formulated in 1997 through the ICM program. Since then, the Xiamen Sea has been zoned into five subareas according to its ecological and economic functions, as well as traditional uses. For example, the predominant function of the Western Sea is for port development, because it connects with the industrial zone in the northwestern part of the island. The predominant function of the Eastern Sea is tourism, because a large area of forest and natural coast are reserved in the eastern part of the island. Both ecosystem service evaluation and landscape pattern analysis can provide valuable information to determine the spatial function zoning of the island and its surrounding sea area.
4.2. Land- and sea-use consideration in urban coastal planning A great challenge for Xiamen Island’s development is how to coordinate urbanization with natural conservation, thereby achieving sustainable development. It is untenable to control urban spatial expansion by simply considering the land use aspect. An island and its surrounding sea are an integrated system and both marine ecosystem services and land ecosystem services should be considered in urban coastal planning. With the increase of LUII, the ecosystem service value seems to decrease inevitably in Xiamen Island (Fig. 4). However, the land use changes driven by urbanization did not always lead to ecosystem service loss. For example, the decline in the ecosystem service value caused by the decrease of woodland, coastal wetland and farmland area was offset largely by the value increase in water area from 1973 to 1995. From a perspective of service value, conserving or restoring an ecosystem with high value coefficients, such as coastal wetland, contributes to maintaining ecosystem services during urban spatial expansion. Whilst the values may offset each other there is a change in types of ecosystem services provided. The coastal landscape change was also driven by the surrounding sea uses and marine ecosystem services which have received less attention in the past and may
Table 3 Conversion of different land use types between 1973 and 2007. Period
Area (ha) /rate
Urban area
Woodland
Farmland
Water area
Coastal wetland
1973e1987
Urban area Woodland Farmland Water Coastal wetland
10.73/1.00 0/0 0/0 0/0 0/0
4.26/0.08 38.32/0.76 7.67/0.15 0.29/0.01 0/0
11.31/0.23 3.63/0.07 34.70/0.70 0/0 0/0
2.18/0.39 0/0 0.78/0.14 2.70/0.48 0/0
3.50/0.20 0.35/0.02 0/0 0/0 13.65/0.78
1987e1995
Urban area Woodland Farmland Water Coastal wetland
30.50/1.00 0/0 0/0 0/0 0/0
8.66/0.20 29.79/0.70 3.86/0.09 0.38/0.01 0/0
17.67/0.38 1.53/0.03 25.94/0.55 1.96/0.04 0/0
1.37/0.17 0/0 0.37/0.05 6.36/0.79 0/0
2.73/0.20 0.15/0.01 0/0 1.35/0.10 9.27/0.69
1995e2004
Urban area Woodland Farmland Water Coastal wetland
58.90/1.00 0/0 0/0 0/0 0/0
6.46/0.20 24.12/0.73 2.52/0.08 0/0 0/0
13.45/0.49 0.86/0.03 13.39/0.48 0/0 0/0
5.34/0.54 0/0 0/0 4.56/0.46 0/0
4.54/0.33 0/0 0/0 5.35/0.39 3.81/0.28
2004e2007
Urban area Woodland Farmland Water Coastal wetland
85.10/1.00 0/0 0/0 0/0 0/0
2.01/0.07 25.19/0.93 0/0 0/0 0/0
6.02/0.37 0/0 10.07/0.63 0/0 0/0
3.08/0.39 0/0 0/0 4.78/0.60 0/0
1.28/0.31 0/0 0/0 0/0 2.83/0.69
T. Lin et al. / Ocean & Coastal Management 81 (2013) 90e96
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Fig. 4. Dynamic changes of land use intensity index and ecosystem service of Xiamen Island between 1973 and 2007.
Fig. 5. Dynamic changes of LSI and NEEI of Xiamen Island between 1973 and 2007.
compensate the ‘service loss’ from the land. Xiamen Island development is highly dependent on the functions of the surrounding seas. Coastal urbanization should therefore coordinate the relationship between land use and sea use. The ocean orienting the land may be the one of the basic principles for coastal urban planning. 5. Conclusion Islands are facing increasing stress from rapid urbanization in China. This paper uses Xiamen Island as a case study and traces its urbanization process for a period of 100 years. It focuses on the recent 30 years of rapid urban spatial expansion, where changes in landscape and its impacts on the ecosystem services were analyzed. The results show that the urban area of Xiamen Island increased rapidly since China established the Open Door Policy. Land use conversion was common among the various land use types. Urban spatial expansion utilized large areas of woodland, farmland, water area and coastal wetland, leading to the continuous increase of LUII, decrease in ecosystem service value and significant changes in the landscape pattern. While urban planning has played an important role in guiding urban spatial development in Xiamen, the overall urban planning process has lagged behind the urbanization process during the last 30 years. The multiple use conflicts among the different industrial and management sectors triggered the development and implementation of ICM and marine functional zoning in Xiamen. The island and its surrounding seas are an integral ecosystem. Our study shows that landscape pattern analysis and ecosystem service evaluation can be two powerful tools for coastal urban planning. Landscape pattern analysis will identify the most vulnerable ecosystem affected by spatial urbanization. Meanwhile, conserving and restoring the ecosystems with high value
coefficients, such as coastal wetlands, will contribute to maintaining overall ecosystem functions during rapid urbanization. Acknowledgment The authors gratefully acknowledge funding by the National Natural Science Foundation of China, China Postdoctoral Science Foundation, Fujian Provincial department of Science and Technology, Xiamen Municipal Bureau of Science and Technology, and the Chinese Academy of Sciences through the following Research Programs: 41201598, 20110490614, 2010I0014, 2011R0093, 3502Z20111049, KZCX2-YW-450 and KLUEH201109. We would like to thank the two anonymous reviewers for their helpful comments and constructive suggestions. References Buraka, S., Dogan, E., Gazioglu, C., 2004. Impact of urbanization and tourism on coastal environment. Ocean and Coastal Management 47, 515e527. Cadenasso, M.L., Pickett, S.T.A., Schwarz, K., 2007. Spatial heterogeneity in urban ecosystems: reconceptualizing land cover and a framework for classification. Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment 5, 80e88. Costanza, R., d’Arge, R., de Groot, R., Farber, S., Grasso, M., Hannon, B., Limburg, K., Naeem, S., O’Neill, R.V., Paruelo, J., Raskin, R.G., Sutton, P., van den Belt, M., 1997. The value of the world’s ecosystem services and natural capital. Nature 387, 253e260. Grimm, N.B., Grove, J.M., Picket, S.T.A., Redman, C.L., 2000. Integrated approaches to long-term studies of urban ecological systems. BioScience 50, 571e584. Grimm, N.B., Faeth, S.H., Golubiewski, N.E., Redman, C.L., Wu, J., Bai, X., Briggs, J.M., 2008a. Global change and the ecology of cities. Science 319, 756e760. Grimm, N.B., Foster, D., Goffman, P., Grove, J.M., Hopkinsion, C.S., Nadelhoffer, K.J., Pataki, D.E., Peters, D.P.C., 2008b. The changing landscape: ecosystem responses to urbanization and pollution across climatic and societal gradients. Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment 6, 264e272. Ledee, O.E., Cuthbert, F.J., Bolstad, P.V., 2008. A remote sensing analysis of coastal habitat composition for a threatened shorebird, the piping plover (Charadrius melodus). Journal of Coastal Research 24, 719e726.
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Ocean & Coastal Management journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/ocecoaman
Urban spatial expansion and its impacts on island ecosystem services and landscape pattern: A case study of the island city of Xiamen, Southeast China Tao Lin a, b, *, Xiongzhi Xue c, Longyu Shi a, b, Lijie Gao a, b a b c
Key Lab of Urban Environment and Health, Institute of Urban Environment, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Xiamen 361021, China Xiamen Key Lab of Urban Metabolism, Xiamen 361021, China Coastal and Ocean Management Institute, Xiamen University, Xiamen 361005, China
a r t i c l e i n f o
a b s t r a c t
Article history: Available online 24 August 2012
Islands are indispensable part of coastal ecosystem, and many inhabited islands in China are now facing increasing stress from urbanization. This paper examines the 100-year history of urban spatial expansion of Xiamen Island, China. The island’s urban spatial expansion was analyzed by a land use changes matrix and a land use intensity index (LUII) with special focus on the last 30 years. The impacts of urban spatial expansion on the island ecosystem, in terms of ecosystem service and landscape pattern, were quantitatively studied. The results reveal that urban spatial expansion of Xiamen Island has utilized large areas of woodland, farmland, water area and coastal wetland, which caused continuous increase of LUII, the decrease in ecosystem service value, and significant fragmentation in the landscape pattern. Our study suggests landscape pattern analysis and ecosystem service valuation are two powerful tools that can ensure a holistic and integrative decision making in regulating spatial coastal urbanization. Ó 2012 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
1. Introduction Urbanization has become an important driver of climate change and pollution, altering both biotic and abiotic ecosystem properties at local and regional scales (Grimm et al., 2008a, 2008b; Montgomery, 2008). Since 1978, when China initiated its economic reform and adopted an open-door policy, rapid urbanization has taken place across the country, especially in the southeastern coastal areas, driven by industrialization (Seto and Fragkias, 2005; T. Li et al., 2010). As an indispensable part of the coastal area with a unique natural ecosystem, different from terrestrial ecosystems, islands are defined by the Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (MEA) as “lands isolated by surrounding water and with a high proportion of coast to hinterland” (Millennium Ecosystem Assessment, 2003). China possesses more than 460 islands from the Yellow Sea to the South China Sea, with more than 40 million inhabitants (Yang, 2000). Most of the population resides in highly urbanized large islands, including Taiwan, Hainan, Hong Kong, Macao and Xiamen Island. China’s ‘Eleventh Five-Year Plan’ emphasized the need to actively promote urbanization (The State Council of China, 2006). It * Corresponding author. Key Lab of Urban Environment and Health, Institute of Urban Environment, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Xiamen 361021, China. E-mail address: [email protected] (T. Lin). 0964-5691/$ e see front matter Ó 2012 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ocecoaman.2012.06.014
is expected that urban areas will expand significantly in the coming 30e50 years. This includes not only the big islands with permanent inhabitants, but also the small islands without inhabitants are under increasing stress from urban spatial expansion in China (The Committee of Integrated Investigation on Resources of Islands in Fujian Province, China, 1996). Rapid urbanization in coastal areas is always associated with environmental pollution, impediments to natural ecological processes, biodiversity loss and so on (Buraka et al., 2004; Ramjeawon and Beedassy, 2004; OrtizZayas et al., 2006; Ledee et al., 2008; Lin et al., 2008). Ecosystem responses to urban expansion are complex and interactive, occurring on all spatial and temporal scales (Grimm et al., 2008a). Up to the present, there has been little research on island urbanization and knowledge about it is rather limited. Cities can be viewed as heterogeneous, dynamic landscapes and as complex, adaptive, socio-ecological systems, in which the delivery of ecosystem services links society and ecosystems at multiple scales (Grimm et al., 2000; Pickett et al., 2001, 2005). Ecosystem services and landscape patterns are interrelated, and can be used to quantitatively assess the land use changes driven by urbanization (Cadenasso et al., 2007; Ran et al., 2006; X. Li et al., 2010). In this paper, a 100 year urbanization process of Xiamen Island was reconstructed by combining remote sensing images with historical data. Focusing on the last 30 years of rapid urbanization, the dynamic spatial expansion of the island was analyzed,
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and the impacts of urban spatial expansion were studied from both ecosystem service and landscape pattern perspectives. 2. Method 2.1. Study area Xiamen is an island city, situated at the mouth of Jiulong River, and is connected to the mainland by a long causeway. To the east are the Quemoy Islands and Taiwan (Fig. 1). The total terrestrial area of Xiamen Island is 138.41 km2 and the coastline is 53.77 km. Xiamen Island has a mild, subtropical maritime climate with plenty of rainfall and sunshine and an annual average temperature of 20.8 C (The Committee of Integrated Investigation on Resources of Islands in Fujian Province, China, 1996). Due to its strategic position, Xiamen became a treaty port ruled by western colonizers in the later period of the 19th century and the embryonic form of the city emerged from then on. Since its establishment in 1980 as a Special Economic Zone, Xiamen has undergone rapid urbanization and its urbanization rate (the proportion of urban population to total population) reached 100% in 2004. In 2008, the resident population of Xiamen Island was 0.94 million (Xiamen Statistics Bureau, 2009). During the past three decades, the areas of woodland, cropland and wetland have significantly decreased, the urban area has expanded, and the island’s ecosystem service and landscape pattern have changed significantly. 2.2. Data collection and processing Historical data were derived primarily from chorography of Xiamen City, Xiamen Statistical Yearbook (1985e2008), and Xiamen Environmental Quality Reports (1990e2005). The historical maps (e.g., traffic maps, administration maps, and tourism maps) and satellite images (e.g., Landsat MSS of 1973 and Landsat-TM satellite imageries of 1987, 1995, 2004, 2007) on the other hand
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were edited, calibrated and coded together in Photoshop and ArcGIS software to rebuild the urban spatial expansion history during the past 100 years. Based on the five satellite imageries, the specific land use change information of Xiamen Island in the past 30 years were extracted with ERDAS software. To facilitate the spatial analysis and ecosystem service valuation at the same time, the land use types of Xiamen Island were classified and integrated into five categories, including urban area (e.g., industrial, commercial, residential, and transportation land uses), farmland (e.g., paddy field, irrigable land, vegetable field and a small portion of natural or manmade grassland), woodland (e.g., arbor, bamboo, bush forest and a small portion of orchard), water area (e.g., river, lake, reservoirs, and lagoons), and coastal wetland (e.g., sand beach, rocky beach, and mudflat). 2.3. Analysis of urban spatial expansion To dynamically analyze land use changes of Xiamen Island in the past 30 years, a cross-tabulation detection method was employed. A land use conversion matrix was produced by the ARCGIS software, providing information on the main types of changes in the study area. Quantitative data of the overall land use changes as well as gains and losses in each category from 1973 to 2007 were compiled. The ecosystems of Xiamen Island can be classified into natural ecosystem (e.g., woodland, water area, and coastal wetland), semi-natural ecosystem (e.g., farmland), and artificial ecosystem (e.g., urban area). The land use types were assigned the human land use intensity values of 1 for a natural ecosystem, 2 for a semi-natural ecosystem, and 3 for an artificial ecosystem. We calculated the land use intensity index (LUII) as:
LUII ¼
X ðGi Ci Þ 100%
(1)
i
where Gi is the human land use intensity value for land use category i, whereas Ci is the area ratio of land use category i in the whole
Fig. 1. Xiamen Island and surrounding seas.
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of Xiamen Island. The greater the value of LUII is, the more intensively people exploit the land resource.
extent of the natural ecosystems isolated by urban areas. The two landscape pattern indexes can be calculated by Eqs. (4) and (5), respectively.
2.4. Analysis of the impacts of urban spatial expansion on the island ecosystem
NEEIi ¼ ðLi þ Ui Þ=2
2.4.1. Ecosystem service evaluation Valuation of global ecosystem services has attracted the attention of researchers around the world in recent years. Costanza et al. (1997) classified the global biosphere into 16 types of ecosystems and 17 types of service functions and then estimated their ecosystem service value. However, it is unsuitable to directly adopt this method, which is intended for a global scale to a specific region, as some ecosystem services may be less valued or even ignored. Through the survey of 700 Chinese ecologists, Xie et al. (2008) extracted the equivalent weight factor of ecosystem services per hectare of various ecosystems in China (Table 1) to facilitate its practical application. One factor is equal to the economic value of average natural food production of cropland per hectare per year. Generally, the natural food production is proposed to be 1/7 of the actual food production. In Xiamen, the average actual food production of cropland was 5460 kg/ha from 2002 to 2007 and the average price for grain was 2.20 RMB/kg in 2007. The ecosystem service value of one equivalent weight factor for Xiamen is therefore 1714.9 RMB. The ecosystem service value of one unit area of each land use category in Xiamen Island is assigned based on the nearest equivalent ecosystems (Table 2). The ecosystem service value of different land use categories and the total ecosystem service value of Xiamen Island can be calculated by Eqs (2) and (3).
X
ESVi ¼
Ai VCif
(2)
(4)
where NEEIi refers to the extrusion stress of urban area on natural land use category I, Li is the length proportion (%) of the natural land use category i. bordering on urban area of its total boundary, and Ui is the patches (spatial elements of landscape which represent relatively discrete areas of relatively homogeneous environmental conditions) number proportion (%) of the natural land use category i. of its total patch number. The maximum of NEEI is equal to 1, representing all the natural ecosystems encircled by urban areas.
LIIi ¼
pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi. m=A 2Ai
(5)
where LIIi refers to the extent of the natural land use category i. isolated by urban areas, m is the total number of natural land use category i. A is the area of Xiamen Island, and Ai is the area of natural land use category i. 3. Results 3.1. Dynamic changes of urban spatial expansion in Xiamen Island 3.1.1. Urbanization process of Xiamen Island The embryonic form of the city of Xiamen emerged in the later period of the 19th century. From 1908 to 2007, the 100 year urbanization process of Xiamen Island can be divided into four stages (Fig. 2):
f
ESV ¼
X
ESVi
Early urbanization (1908e1949), the urban infrastructure was formed and the population increased remarkably. Slow but steady urbanization (1950e1979), the population and urban area grew slowly but the traffic system connecting the island to the mainland was constructed, which provided a firm foundation for future urban development. Rapid urbanization (1980e2003), Xiamen Island was established as a Special Economic Zone and socio-economic growth boomed. Saturated urbanization (2004e2007), the population kept growing and urban area reached saturation.
(3)
i
where ESV refers to the total ecosystem service value of Xiamen Island, Ai is the area (ha) for land use category “i” and VCif the value coefficient (Yuan ha1 a1) for land use category “i”, ecosystem service function type “f”. 2.4.2. Stress of urban expansion on ecological landscape Not only functions but also structures of natural and seminatural ecosystems in Xiamen Island are affected by the urban spatial expansion. In performing the landscape pattern change detection, two landscape pattern indexes were created and employed. Natural ecosystem eroded index (NEEI) describes the extrusion stress of urban spatial expansion on the neighboring natural ecosystem. Landscape isolation index (LII) describes the
Xiamen Island’s urbanization was interrupted from 1937 to 1949 by Japanese invasion and Chinese Civil War, from 1966 to 1976 by the 10-year Cultural Revolution. Fig. 3 shows the urban spatial expansion process and its impact on the island’s shape in the past 100 years.
Table 1 Equivalent values per unit area of ecosystem services in China (2007). First class
Second class
Woodland
Grassland
Farmland
Wetland
River/lake
Desert
Supply
Food production Raw materials Gas regulation Climate regulation Water regulation Waste treatment Soil formation Biodiversity Conservation Aesthetic landscape Total
0.33 2.98 4.32 4.07 4.09 1.72 4.02 4.51 2.08 28.12
0.43 0.36 1.50 1.56 1.52 1.32 2.24 1.87 0.87 11.67
1.00 0.39 0.72 0.97 0.77 1.39 1.47 1.02 0.17 7.9
0.36 0.24 2.41 13.55 13.44 14.40 1.99 3.69 4.69 54.77
0.53 0.35 0.51 2.06 18.77 14.85 0.41 3.43 4.44 43.35
0.02 0.04 0.06 0.13 0.07 0.26 0.17 0.40 0.24 1.39
Regulation
Support Culture
Source: Xie et al., 2008.
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3.2. Impacts of urban spatial expansion on the ecosystem of Xiamen Island
Table 2 Values per unit area of ecosystem services in Xiamen. First class
Second class
Supply
Food production Raw materials Gas regulation Climate regulation Water regulation Waste treatment Soil formation Biodiversity conservation Aesthetic landscape Total
Regulation
Support
Culture
Woodland
Farmland
565.9 5110.4 7408.4 6979.6 7013.9 2949.6 6893.9 7734.2
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Water area
Coastal wetland
1714.9 668.8 1234.7 1663.5 1320.5 2383.7 2520.9 1749.2
908.9 600.2 874.6 3532.7 32188.7 25466.3 703.1 5882.1
617.4 411.6 4132.9 23236.9 23048.3 24694.6 3412.7 6328.0
3567.0
291.5
7614.2
8042.9
48223.0
13547.7
74340.9
93925.1
Unit: Yuan ha1 a1.
3.1.2. Dynamic changes of urban spatial expansion in the last 30 years The spatial-temporal land use changes in Xiamen Island are shown in Table 3 and Fig. 4. The data from Table 3 indicates that land use conversion was common among all the natural ecosystems. From 1973 to 1987, the urban area increased from 10.73 to 30.50 km2, mainly deriving from farmland and woodland. Farmland and coastal wetland were eroded greatly by urban expansion, 23% and 20%, respectively. From 1987 to 1995, the urban area nearly doubled in size. Farmland and woodland were still the major source of new urban area, reducing greatly by 38% and 20%, respectively. From 1995 to 2004, the urban area of Xiamen Island increased from 58.90 to 85.10 km2. The water area and coastal wetland changed noticeably. More than half of the water area and one third of coastal wetland were converted into urban areas. Both the conversion ratio and area of farmland and woodland changed into urban area decreased. From 2004 to 2007 the urban spatial expansion slowed down. Farmland and coastal wetland became the major source of urbanization, reduced by 37% and 39%, respectively. Woodland alone slightly changed while tidal land was reduced by 33% as a result of urban sprawl. Additionally, expansion of farmland played a secondary role in natural ecosystem reduction. From 1973 to 1987, 7.67 km2 woodland and 0.78 km2 water area changed into farmland. However, the numbers decreased from 1987 to 2004 and the expansion of farmland had ceased since 2004 (Table 3).
3.2.1. Changes of island ecosystem service value With the LUII rising from 1.36 in 1973 to 1.76 in 1987, 2.02 in 1995, 2.33 in 2004, and 2.45 in 2007, the island’s ecosystem service decreased continually. The total ecosystem services value of Xiamen Island was about 98.7 million RMB in 1973, 88.8 million RMB in 1987, 81.0 million RMB in 1995, 46.1 million RMB in 2004, and 34.6 million RMB in 2007 (Fig. 4). From 1973 to 1995, the decline in ecosystem service value caused by the decrease of woodland, coastal wetland and farmland was offset partly by the increase in the water area value. As a result, the total ecosystem service value decreased slowly by 17.7 million RMB, an average of 0.8 million RMB per year. However, the total ecosystem service value began to decrease sharply from 1995 to 2004 because of the simultaneous decrease of woodland, farmland, water area and coastal wetland. The trend of deterioration between 2004 and 2007 was alleviated, which may indicate that the urbanization of Xiamen Island is close to saturation. The loss in ecosystem service value was 11.5 million RMB, an average of 3.8 million RMB per year. Overall, the net decline in ecosystem service value was about 64.1 million RMB from 1973 to 2007, averaging 2.7 million RMB per year, mainly due to the decreasing areas of coastal wetland (56.4%), farmland (21.6%) and woodland (20.1%), respectively. 3.2.2. Stress of urban spatial expansion on the natural landscape During 30 years of rapid urban spatial expansion, the natural ecosystems were eroded and fragmented, resulting in significant changes to the island’s landscape pattern. The value of LSI of the urban area decreased from 0.0043 in 1973 to 0.00062 in 2007, indicating that the patches of urban areas tended to draw closer. However, the LSI of the four natural ecosystems increased more or less, indicating that they were separated and isolated accordingly (Fig. 5). Water area was the most separated ecosystem; its LSI was changed from 0.016 in 1973 to 0.052 in 2007. Coastal wetland and farmland were scattered rapidly from 1995 to 2007; their LSI increased from 0.0064 and 0.0096 to 0.040 and 0.032, respectively. The LSI of woodland kept a low value from 0.025 to 0.073 during the last 30 years, which indicated that the urbanization process did not break the spatial distribution of woodland. The dynamic changes of NEEI clearly showed the process of how urban spatial expansion nibbles at or swallows the natural ecosystems. The NEEI of the four natural ecosystems all increased rapidly between 1973 and 2004 with a similar increase pattern since 2004 (Fig. 5), which means all the natural ecosystems in Xiamen Island were inevitably fragmented by urbanization since 2004. 4. Discussion 4.1. Urban planning change and its impact on coastal management
Fig. 2. Dynamics of population growth and urban area development of Xiamen Island between 1908 and 2007.
Social and economic development is the driver while land is the vector of urban spatial expansion. To some extent, urban spatial expansion is a continuous process of using the suitable spatial resource for urban development. Urban planning had become the most influential tool in guiding urban spatial development in China. In the early phase of urbanization, Xiamen Island had no overall urban planning. The urban area was concentrated in southwestern part of the island, serving essentially the commercial port. Since the establishment of the People’s Republic of China, Xiamen Island had its first overall urban planning, which determined the major functions as port, recreation for retirees, tourism and national defense. As the military confrontation with Taiwan continued, the surrounding sea use was totally shelved until 1979
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Fig. 3. Urban spatial expansion and shoreline changes during the past 100 years.
when China set the Open Door Policy. During that time, large portions of the coastal area were reclaimed for urban development in the southwestern part of the island and for agriculture in the eastern part. Since 1980, the island’s major functions shifted into port and industrial development. Rapid urbanization used large coastal lands and the surrounding coastal wetlands. Coastal use conflicts among the different industrial and management sectors emerged (Lin et al., 2007). To coordinate the development and protection of coastal resources and environment, Integrated Coastal Management (ICM) system was introduced in Xiamen in 1994 and the first marine functional zoning in China was formulated in 1997 through the ICM program. Since then, the Xiamen Sea has been zoned into five subareas according to its ecological and economic functions, as well as traditional uses. For example, the predominant function of the Western Sea is for port development, because it connects with the industrial zone in the northwestern part of the island. The predominant function of the Eastern Sea is tourism, because a large area of forest and natural coast are reserved in the eastern part of the island. Both ecosystem service evaluation and landscape pattern analysis can provide valuable information to determine the spatial function zoning of the island and its surrounding sea area.
4.2. Land- and sea-use consideration in urban coastal planning A great challenge for Xiamen Island’s development is how to coordinate urbanization with natural conservation, thereby achieving sustainable development. It is untenable to control urban spatial expansion by simply considering the land use aspect. An island and its surrounding sea are an integrated system and both marine ecosystem services and land ecosystem services should be considered in urban coastal planning. With the increase of LUII, the ecosystem service value seems to decrease inevitably in Xiamen Island (Fig. 4). However, the land use changes driven by urbanization did not always lead to ecosystem service loss. For example, the decline in the ecosystem service value caused by the decrease of woodland, coastal wetland and farmland area was offset largely by the value increase in water area from 1973 to 1995. From a perspective of service value, conserving or restoring an ecosystem with high value coefficients, such as coastal wetland, contributes to maintaining ecosystem services during urban spatial expansion. Whilst the values may offset each other there is a change in types of ecosystem services provided. The coastal landscape change was also driven by the surrounding sea uses and marine ecosystem services which have received less attention in the past and may
Table 3 Conversion of different land use types between 1973 and 2007. Period
Area (ha) /rate
Urban area
Woodland
Farmland
Water area
Coastal wetland
1973e1987
Urban area Woodland Farmland Water Coastal wetland
10.73/1.00 0/0 0/0 0/0 0/0
4.26/0.08 38.32/0.76 7.67/0.15 0.29/0.01 0/0
11.31/0.23 3.63/0.07 34.70/0.70 0/0 0/0
2.18/0.39 0/0 0.78/0.14 2.70/0.48 0/0
3.50/0.20 0.35/0.02 0/0 0/0 13.65/0.78
1987e1995
Urban area Woodland Farmland Water Coastal wetland
30.50/1.00 0/0 0/0 0/0 0/0
8.66/0.20 29.79/0.70 3.86/0.09 0.38/0.01 0/0
17.67/0.38 1.53/0.03 25.94/0.55 1.96/0.04 0/0
1.37/0.17 0/0 0.37/0.05 6.36/0.79 0/0
2.73/0.20 0.15/0.01 0/0 1.35/0.10 9.27/0.69
1995e2004
Urban area Woodland Farmland Water Coastal wetland
58.90/1.00 0/0 0/0 0/0 0/0
6.46/0.20 24.12/0.73 2.52/0.08 0/0 0/0
13.45/0.49 0.86/0.03 13.39/0.48 0/0 0/0
5.34/0.54 0/0 0/0 4.56/0.46 0/0
4.54/0.33 0/0 0/0 5.35/0.39 3.81/0.28
2004e2007
Urban area Woodland Farmland Water Coastal wetland
85.10/1.00 0/0 0/0 0/0 0/0
2.01/0.07 25.19/0.93 0/0 0/0 0/0
6.02/0.37 0/0 10.07/0.63 0/0 0/0
3.08/0.39 0/0 0/0 4.78/0.60 0/0
1.28/0.31 0/0 0/0 0/0 2.83/0.69
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Fig. 4. Dynamic changes of land use intensity index and ecosystem service of Xiamen Island between 1973 and 2007.
Fig. 5. Dynamic changes of LSI and NEEI of Xiamen Island between 1973 and 2007.
compensate the ‘service loss’ from the land. Xiamen Island development is highly dependent on the functions of the surrounding seas. Coastal urbanization should therefore coordinate the relationship between land use and sea use. The ocean orienting the land may be the one of the basic principles for coastal urban planning. 5. Conclusion Islands are facing increasing stress from rapid urbanization in China. This paper uses Xiamen Island as a case study and traces its urbanization process for a period of 100 years. It focuses on the recent 30 years of rapid urban spatial expansion, where changes in landscape and its impacts on the ecosystem services were analyzed. The results show that the urban area of Xiamen Island increased rapidly since China established the Open Door Policy. Land use conversion was common among the various land use types. Urban spatial expansion utilized large areas of woodland, farmland, water area and coastal wetland, leading to the continuous increase of LUII, decrease in ecosystem service value and significant changes in the landscape pattern. While urban planning has played an important role in guiding urban spatial development in Xiamen, the overall urban planning process has lagged behind the urbanization process during the last 30 years. The multiple use conflicts among the different industrial and management sectors triggered the development and implementation of ICM and marine functional zoning in Xiamen. The island and its surrounding seas are an integral ecosystem. Our study shows that landscape pattern analysis and ecosystem service evaluation can be two powerful tools for coastal urban planning. Landscape pattern analysis will identify the most vulnerable ecosystem affected by spatial urbanization. Meanwhile, conserving and restoring the ecosystems with high value
coefficients, such as coastal wetlands, will contribute to maintaining overall ecosystem functions during rapid urbanization. Acknowledgment The authors gratefully acknowledge funding by the National Natural Science Foundation of China, China Postdoctoral Science Foundation, Fujian Provincial department of Science and Technology, Xiamen Municipal Bureau of Science and Technology, and the Chinese Academy of Sciences through the following Research Programs: 41201598, 20110490614, 2010I0014, 2011R0093, 3502Z20111049, KZCX2-YW-450 and KLUEH201109. We would like to thank the two anonymous reviewers for their helpful comments and constructive suggestions. References Buraka, S., Dogan, E., Gazioglu, C., 2004. Impact of urbanization and tourism on coastal environment. Ocean and Coastal Management 47, 515e527. Cadenasso, M.L., Pickett, S.T.A., Schwarz, K., 2007. Spatial heterogeneity in urban ecosystems: reconceptualizing land cover and a framework for classification. Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment 5, 80e88. Costanza, R., d’Arge, R., de Groot, R., Farber, S., Grasso, M., Hannon, B., Limburg, K., Naeem, S., O’Neill, R.V., Paruelo, J., Raskin, R.G., Sutton, P., van den Belt, M., 1997. The value of the world’s ecosystem services and natural capital. Nature 387, 253e260. Grimm, N.B., Grove, J.M., Picket, S.T.A., Redman, C.L., 2000. Integrated approaches to long-term studies of urban ecological systems. BioScience 50, 571e584. Grimm, N.B., Faeth, S.H., Golubiewski, N.E., Redman, C.L., Wu, J., Bai, X., Briggs, J.M., 2008a. Global change and the ecology of cities. Science 319, 756e760. Grimm, N.B., Foster, D., Goffman, P., Grove, J.M., Hopkinsion, C.S., Nadelhoffer, K.J., Pataki, D.E., Peters, D.P.C., 2008b. The changing landscape: ecosystem responses to urbanization and pollution across climatic and societal gradients. Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment 6, 264e272. Ledee, O.E., Cuthbert, F.J., Bolstad, P.V., 2008. A remote sensing analysis of coastal habitat composition for a threatened shorebird, the piping plover (Charadrius melodus). Journal of Coastal Research 24, 719e726.
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