Usage and economic forms of the forests of the earth

Geoforum,

Vo1.7, pp.31-39,

1976.

Pergamon Press. Printed in Great Britain

Usage and Economic H.-W. WINDHORST,

Forms of the Forests of the Earth

Vechta”

It is shown that the usage of forests and their working

Summary: particular

on human societies with their distinctive

forests is shown by considering protective working

if a correct regional ordering of man’s forestry

here presented can serve as a basis. Regional

opens up a wide field of research.

In contrast

to agricultural

sensibly included

geography

forestgeography

has

investigations

economic

activity. From the geographical

side attempts

to create a globally-

A further

of forest-use and definition

Additionally

the attempt

investigations

forestry

types.

have centred (1933,

HASSINGER

lands subject to a robber employing

as criteria

practice.

p.336)

economy

from

on permanent

(1938a) This method

The author

permanent

for central

geography

attempted

European

to clarify

A regional

definition

the

on a world

scale is

but an attempt

(map) to show a generalised

or any attempt

(1970,

WINDHORST

definitions

of products

is here

distribution

of forestry.

is to be understood without

to ensure regeneration,

forms of usage are frequently

is not dominant.

has in many contributions

1972 a,b, 1974)

aims.

associated with the different

with many uncertainties,

simply the extraction

in order to deal with

forestry

their

is made to characterise

By forest usage (forest exploitation)

formations.

regions in which

form,

of their production

1. Forest Usage Forms

used the type of forestry

as the means for the division of forestry but must be amplified

should be the systematic

and forestry

lands,

a finer division.

is suitable

of forests,

distinguished forestry

undertaking conditions

made

the form of usage and the forestry

He did not undertake

MULLER-WILLE

mainly

forms.

limited

character

of forest goegraphy.

task for forest geography

description

forestry

system have been rare whereas in scientific

forestry

The system of usage and

are needed to refine the division, and here

various social life-styles applicable

in

by the

of forests from the geographical

is to be presented.

remains in the foreground

classification

by means of which it can be

with other forms of human

in any treatment

activities

It is nevertheless accepted that the multi-functional

expressing the wishes and needs of the community,

long lacked an ordering

forms. These depend

on one hand the slight usage by gathering and hunting people, on the other the

forests of industrial states. This must be considered

view-point

takes very distinctive

demand on the forest. The range of the contribution

extracted

products

different

and permit

any maintenance

although

harmful

and the form of extraction a further

such

ecologically.

The

are very

subdivision.

in forest

and to present a system of ordering.

Forest geography

(a)

is the science dealing with that part of

Collecting

and hunting

the Earth’s surface covered with forests used by man. In contrast

forestry

cultivated

forests,

and maintenance.

geography

is limited

being concerned

It is necessary to distinguish

to the study of

with their structure

Both are branches of economic

geowphv.

plantations

geography

is the ordering

of forests and

on the basis of use and economic

are characterised

by a distinct

form of the undertaking

production

form.

by aborigines

is directed

to sustenance

(flowers,

These

and small trees are employed

Universitat DriverstraRe

Osnabriick,

Abt. Vechta,

22, Germany

2848

peoples

insects and

rain forest,

to produce

Only

in

The

boughs

hunting

apparatus,

and to build wind shelters and huts. In the tropics each

Hunting Geographisches

shoots,

is met in tropical

attack on tree stands is itself unimportant.

goal and the

designed to reach that goal.

WINDHORST,

This form

or primitive

fruits,

savannas, and also in forest regions of mid-latitudes.

woodland Dr. Hans-Wilhelm

higher collector-

The collection

collector

l

from

economy.

small animals). The aim of forest

the lower collector-economy

on the margins of the ecumene

Seminar,

group (mostly

a clan) uses a definite

area of

that they look upon as their own district. and collecting

the establishment

trips are usually undertaken

of temporary

with

hutments.

Vechta,

The higher collector-economy

(WI.

31

in contrast

is no more a

Geoforum/Volume

32

pure subsistence

economy.

food there is a secondary improve

the economic

In addition

to the provision

employment

situation.

The gathered

of a very varied nature such as wild rubber, bark, berries, fungi, medicinal litter,

of

products

are

of Brazil

nuts by Indians

the other

the collection

in New England south-east

forest,

are the gathering

of fungi and berries present

of mid-latitudes.

The removal

in the forests

of brushwood

and litter

forestry.

Of more significance

of firewood.

is the removal low-growing

and sold in the local market. usage has a characteristic rising rate of removal reachable

bush firewood

effect

is

In wide is collected

This simple form

of forest

of firewood

and the breaking-off degraded

of

and soil

erosion promoted.

of primitive

pelts, hunting In general, central

the

peoples to sustain life, hunting

for

apart from

Europe,

physiognomy

the preservation

hunting

has had little

of the forest.

contributed

however

as for example America.

it is necessary to distinguish

for sport, and to control

Hunting

vermin effect

It established

on the

information

has gradually

essential

circumstances.

become

a pure

In industrial

sport or

status symbol.

Often the introduction general however

of sheep, goats and cattle

effects

on the growth

into the

of trees. In

grazing by pigs has less effect.

Europe

of pigs in forests in North

was of most importance

America

and in

in beech and oak stands.

supported

by the D.F.G.

here for that opportunity. A. PETERSON Forestry,

is extremely

yearly.

Thanks are also due to Prof. Th.

of Wisconsin

to the situation

in the U.S.A.

of the Department

(Madison)

in the Cutover

for their Regron, and

of

and extremely

U.S.A.

role as in India.

districts

Similarly

to 1962).

1972).

lands of the western

sheep-rearing

Next to

(see TICHY,

difficult,

(cf. MULLER-HOHENSTEIN,

plays an important

in

1962).

Re-afforestation costly,

forest-grazing

Also in the Australian

large forests areas are grazed

the African

savannas are so used, but

fires still more accelerate

the destruction

of

forest. The grazing of forests in the west of the U.S.A. by law so that forest destruction as occurred

farmers

up to the beginning ministry

of the 20th

specific

fodder

districts

1970,

specifies the period

themselves,

of the national

p.131

and the number

of animals.

These Basin.

of the assigned fodder

relationship

between

and the state forests.

Otherwise

The winning

transport

characteristics

secondary

from

The removal

from

and

In North

America

is known

woods, and frequent

as

in this

to complete

this is a growth

of more valuable

forest

this is described

Forests devastated

Mostly

forest

species with the best

and largest diameters

if not subject subsequently

valuable

by truck

is necessary.

of wood and wood products

re-establishment

leads to

exploitation

are left to their fate.

The

facilities

the farms and ranches

stands of only the boles of selected

valuable

forests,

used in the Great

The situation

over great distances

in a

licences to

et. seq.). The licence

are particularly

Selective

in

The

and the Forest Service can provide

opportunities

growth

avoided,

century

Region of the Mid-West.

sufficient

(cf. HOFMEISTER,

(c)

is regulated

is now generally

and graziers, who for at least two months

graze within

manner,

like to express my thanks

and Dr. H. KUBLER

University

rntroductron forestry

I should

trees.

forest grazing has contributed

as “cut out and get out”. Field studies took place in a visit in the summer of 1973,

This species

sites with podsols, and was

and karst development,

selective exploitation.

l

plateaux.

(cf. PARSONS,

can lead to their destruction. The running

part afforested,

soil degradation

railway

Forest-grazing

forest has damaging

districts,

By enclosed

on the lower

species for broadleafed

the reckless clearances,

a definite

(b)

sub-divided,

Large areas were and are used as forest grazing

year can provide

of trade posts reaching

on the geographical

moraine

a pioneer

agricultural

in North

from the east to the west coast, and provided

states hunting

ground

Mediterranean

the

woodlands

part in the peasant economy.

the east and the Cutover

of the boreal forests,

Bay Company

a network

estates in

for pelts has

to the opening-up

the Hudson’s

in forestry.

of hunting

Communal

the often-heathland

there yearly

With respect to history hunting

Pleistocene

In the federal

on tree stands. Due to the

boughs the forests are rapidly

such mast-bearing

and part cleared for arable or pasture,

considered

Other forms

carried on in areas with permanent

of the community.

tolerated

and bark in pine forests of

south France and the D.D.R.

areas of India with

and on

1 /I 976

not be felled without

usually with pine (Pinus sylvestisl

of maple syrup (Acer saccharuml

and Canada,

U.S.A.,

of

by on one hand the collection in the Amazonian

agreement

for example

andcould

over-use such woods were degraded,

cattle

tung oil and maple syrup. The range of this form

forest usage is exemplified

Germany

played an important

nuts, spices,

herbs, brushwood,

In north-west

trees were protected

that serves to

7/Number

clearance,

of less

fires prevent

the

stands.

pine stands of Wisconsin*

that led to the

GeoforumlVolu~

7fNumber

‘I /I 976

33

beginnings of industrialisation in the north-east, as well as the opening-up of the Prairies and Great Plains, lacking in

The whole opening-up of the region was due to the coming of the railway, but because of the reckless plundering of the forests and the growth of worthless

timber resources. Transport was by the Great Lakes, Mississippj and later the railway. Sawn timber reached very quickly very high levels. With the opening-up of the Rocky

secondary formations the possibilities of new economic

Mountain states wood production dropped, but woodpreparation industries remained. Since no reafforestation took place these industries are almost completely

this form of usage for a short period can bring a high return but over a long period the negative consequences are more important, and the multi-function quality of the

dependent upon imported timber (cf.

forests in no way advanced. Nevertheless in the foreseeable future this form of usage will continue in the Grand Chaco.

HOFMEISTER,

1970).

This phase of forest devastation which ended in about 1910-1915,

is of importance in areas which after being

worked bare are abandoned to the state. These regions with poor secondary forests (particularly in north Wisconsin and Michigan) belong to the problem areas of

potential were decisively lessened. It is recognised that

Tannin is an important export for Argentina, and an essential part of world trade. The total value of the production in 1971 was 17.9 million U.S.$ (60% of the world production of tannins).

the U.S.A. The flight from the land was and is widespread,

Selective expioitat~on, in tropical forest almost without

a consequence of the non-economic working of forests on

exception, and in the boreal forest particularly in

farm lots. The Area Redevelopment Act of 1961 (cf. SOLBERG,

1961) laid the guidelines for improvement. The

North America, is based on forest concessions.

This means

the permission given by a state to a private undertaking for

devastated forest and the clear-felled areas are to be

timber usage, or the working of a forest, or the determina-

systematically replanted. Other areas are to be set aside for

tion of the usage possibilities. Concessions are given

amenity forests, assisting farm settlement. From the timber stands resulting from the afforestation of marginal

particularly where forests are mainly controlled by the state but wood-usage and preparation is in private hands. Astudy of this system was given by SCHMITH&EN (1959).

soils there should be a supplementary income. The frequency of forest fires should fall, and the area opened-up for people from the conurbations in the south of the states seeking recreation, AUSDERAU

&.a/.,

1972).

1961, p.349 et seq., This example shows the effect

(SOLBERG,

an improvident plundering of forest can have on the complete economic structure of a region, quite apart from the effect on the geo-ecological balance. The Cutover Region, as it is called, can be seen as the prototype for the mistakes and the means to rectify them. This example is of a special significance in that in wide areas of the tropical rain forest, particularly in accessible parts of Africa and south Asia, similar processes are operative. Selective exploitation also predominates in large parts of the boreal forest of the U.S.S.R., whilst in Canada, Alaska and Scandinavia it is gradually being replaced by permanent forestry. A further example of forest plundering was investigated by BiSNSTORF (1971). He analysed the effects of tannin extraction in the Argentinian Grand Chaco west from the River Parana from the viewpoint of the problems for opening-up the land that resulted. The only economic aim from the beginning was the use of quebracho stands (Shinopsis balansae, Sh. Lorentzii). From 1895 to 1968 about 104,000 km’ was plundered in a strip about 80 km

Forest usage on the basis of concessions is of great importance, as for example in West Africa. On the Ivory Coast all timber exploitation is based on the so-called “Permis Temporaires d’Exploitation”, granted for 2500 hectares or multiples thereof. The period of usage ranges from 5-10 years according to the size of the area. The concessionaire pledges to complete works in the public interest (e.g. road building), to take out the timber and to introduce a “Cahier de Chantier” in which the cut-timber is recorded. Further forestry methods are not made incumbent upon the concessionaire in the Ivory Coast or other West African states. SCHMITHOSEN (1969, p.33) showed in his investigations that there is in East Africa a tendency to link concessions to a share in the growth and to a purchase of boles. That tendency had its origin in the first signs of a timber shortage, attempts at more accurate measurements for tax purposes and the increasing importance of coniferous plantations. 3. Field-forest economy In the field-forest economy agriculture takes always a more important position than forestry. The best known example of this form of forest usage is the Hauberg

economy, a few decades ago widespread in the Rhenish wide. A large part of the labour that entered the region for Uplands. Detailed investigations were made by tannin industry left it when the industry closed. A ~HMITH~SEN (1934) and M~LLER~WILLE (1938b). Not all permanent farming system was not established after the forms of coppice woodland can be considered as fieldforests were plundered. forest economy, but only those in which agricultural use

Geoforum/Volume

34

alternates

with forestry.

of ~~j~~e/~j~~c~a~r the fallow

There

is thus a regional

and Rottwirtschafr.

period,

owing to unfavourable

at heights, grass swards, heath,

broom

sites a coppice

woodland

destroyed.

develops.

shown that the differences

between

heathlands

stocked

first developed

economies

because of

after the demand

(1968,

Schiffel

for wood and tannin

had

due to increasing

population,

in a shortage of provisions and the consequent

more arable in former

of population,

process that is parallelled

in many tropical

a

developing

areas of forest were only rarely

since the short period of cropping

such an expenditure

of labour.

that they

remained

relatively

completely

animals

intensification

(See section

of agriculture

production

from

forest,

p.47)

together

and

As a result a parcel also suffers.

in Rhodesia

a population

a fallow

density

by pure

With

rotation

phases. The main work

period

period

an additional

becomes shorter

Fire-clearance

predominates

is arranged

in several

destruction

is in the early year when the

forest, of forest

peasant-holdings.

in effect

of both farmer

and

the sward is burnt together

The forests cannot

after persistent

burning,

the capital

to buy fertilisers

with leaves and twigs. The ashes are strewn over the field

vigorously

the remaining

and hoed in lightly.

means of life. This feed-back

usually almost is remarkable

Then follows

exclusively

the sowing of corn,

oats to begin with,

that here cereal cultivation

later rye. It

is continued

with

the hoe.

a food catastrophe

to the production

produces

during the fallow

products

for the farmer

poles and broom,

his cultivation

system.

coppice woodland

or coppice

fulfilling

where

forest shrub-rye

as described

form

even more

effect

must lead inexorably

to

unless the peasants can be convinced

taboos still prevent

in these lands the

stock keeping,

a necessary

of

function

in

2. Forestry Forms

of this type of

to the number

of

forms of forest

rye was planted

on the

involved the sowing of

by ZENNECK

Since the peasants have not they attack

forest in order to secure the

of regulated

In contrast degraded

to forest usage forms, forest,

(1960)

in

in forestry

related to the preservation yield-potential.

different

their protective

and the bearing potential

pre-condition.

burnt lands. somewhat

fulfill

The

with small

such as leaf

period

10 and 20 years. Similar in Sweden,

Rott field

an important

The rotation

Religious

development

phase a variety

and vine grower

varied according

between

usage are known

of food the

parts of the

that it is better to dung on the fields and use wood for heating.

In addition

in many

areas in India.

is there always linked

of the soil is thus diminished.

in the year’s activities

and the harvests become

in particular

fitting

In late summer

this form of

low degree of success, since the

function

admirably

land,

economic

increasing population

coppices are barked and the wood cut. This is well timed, vine grower.

in the

since fodder

areas could not be foregone.

in Rottwktschaft

2.5 hectares of Miombo

to the wide influence

insufficient.

south Asiatic The workyear

In addition

usage has an inescapably

this form

fE/eusine coracan) in

from

as much as 20 times the area of the cultivated

disadvantage.

bark in

26). With the gradual

not abandoned

the outfield

is brought

there is over a long period

against

the tannin

in the 18th century

of land use was nevertheless

Another

in central

system, bushes,

the cultivated

(1966,

of finger millet

wood

forest and burnt.

green and well lit. Later

in order to obtain

useable quantity.

Zambia,

were used for grazing so

in the sequence the coppices were protected browsing

For 1 hectare

did not justify

The root stocks re-shot.

The Rot? forests thus established

cuttings

the

widespread

a large area are brought

to GOUROU

upon

subsistence of not more than 2.6/km2.

The enclosed

litter,

depends

of the forest

As an example

of a rotation

period of 22 years supports

countries.

cleared,

period

the condition

large area of forest around According

A

is given by MANSHARD

&%itim.ene-system may be described, In this variant

are linked with

burnt on the plot selected for cultivation.

need to

common-woodland,

They

not being eradicated.

p.81 et. seq.). The rotation

boughs and bark from

establish

practised.

root-stocks

and the degree of soil erosion.

woodlands

been established. had its origins

where they survive, survive as

of the various forms

the density

Africa.

This usage form

under the trees, in a that led to soil improvement.

rain forest and savanna, field-forest

are still widely

hoe-cultivations presentation

has

the deserted coppice

system,

relicts, in the tropical

valley

p.27)

The rye is planted cropping

Whilst the above forms,

on the high surfaces is (1934,

Franconia. combined

conditions

only on

In addition

SCHMlTHuSEN

and the thickly

period

more-favourable

heavy grazing the young growth generally

climatic

and bush develops,

whereas in the second during the fallow the slopes or on the climatically

distinction

In the first during

7IINumber 1 I1 976

is concealed its functions,

that generally

lead to

forms the economic

activity

of the forests and their

Behind these forms of economic a completely

different

in any case generally

attitude a scientific

activity

to forest and plan and

is

36

trees either directly or by employing the peasants. The the adoption of forestry techniques. In all this group of forms it is general that forestry or silviculture prevails rather peasants are usually responsible for weeding and preserving the stand as long as they use it for crops. As the canopy than forest exploitation, and that the continual usage of the forests still permits the maintenance of an ecofogicaf

closes crop cultivation ceases. Forestry processes, including

balance. Three different forestry forms can be distinguished, maintaining the stand and felling, are then carried on by the forest authorities themselves or by means of day labour. (a) Combined arable farming and forestry This form of forest economic activity was originated by Dietrich BRANDS, a german forester from Bonn in English service in Burma in the middle of the 19th century (cf. HESMER, 1968). In 1855 he had to re-organise.Indian teak production. After a journey in the forest region of Pegu, inhabited by Karenes he organised from 1868 extensive teak planting on cleared areas. The term used by the Karenes for shifting cultivation was ~~~~gy~ (taung = hill, ya = field) was later applied to the combined farming-sifviculture, and is now generally used with this meaning. The combination of arable and high-value timber production spread at first to India and Java, and later to former English and French colonies in Africa

The commonest timber species are limba lir,,,i,,lia superba), okume ~~~co~~e~ ~JaJ~ea~a~‘ teak fTecruna grand&l, and eucalyptus spp. fEwaJyptus ~JQ~~Ju~* ESgrandis, E. sa/igns), the fast particularly in savanna woodlands. At high altitudes it is mainly coniferous, such as Cupressus lusitana, Pinus radiata, Pinus patula and Pinus elliottii.

Amongst the arable crops predominate maniac

~~~n~~o~ ~~j~j~j~a), yams ~~jo~co~ea), tar0 {Co&c&a escuJer?taafin addition to bananas, rice, beans, millet species, vegetables, linseed, mustard, rape, tobacco and cotton. The combination depends on the foodstuffs associated with the region, the tree species, the soil condition and the readiness of the peasants. The circumstances, successand organisation of this forestry

(cf. HESMER, 1966, 1970; WINDHORST, 19743.

form in Africa and Asia, is given in the above mentioned The combined farming and forestry system is linked to a

paper (HESMER). To the end of his statement on the

series of prerequisites withaut which success is not to be

African area he writes (1966, p.135): “The combined

expected. Thus the population is onfy willing to change

farming and forestry is in no way simply a forestry

from shifting cultivation to a new system when higher population density has made shifting cultivation or bush fallow difficult on the land available. When this does not apply the population continues with old practices. In order to prevent random squatting in the forest area set aside for the combined use, an observation body OTforest administration must be present, and this administration must plan and see that the plans are accomplished. The application of this forestry type is attractive if areas of degraded forest have resulted from fire clearance, so that both the improvement of stands and the provision of employment are necessary. Naturally produced timber must be present.

the demand

for the

The combined system is carried on as’follows (HESMER, 1966, p.66 etseq.). In Nigeria at first iianes, bush and trees from the lowest Together with leaves and twigs such trees as are inflammable unfelted are burnt. Finally towards the end of March the remaining trees are felled and after they have dried out are burnt. The land is storey are felled

in February.

then more carefully cleared as in shifting cultivation of the old type, but young growth of valuable timer is spared. Then follows either a combined cultivation of timber trees and crops or for two or three years only crops, For the real silvicufture, the forest authorities plant young nursery

practice for the cheap establjshment of new stands, but a land-use form that can promote the economic and social development of the forest population without separating them from their familiar surroundings.“ The taungya system is an afternative to shifting cultivation. it promotes food and timber cultivation at the same time, and avoids considerable forest degradation, soif erosion, etc. By such means large teak plantations have been established in southern Asia and fimba plantations in Africa. (bf Permanent forestry Rational silviculture or rationaf forestry has developed since the end of the 18th century, mainly in Germany. A continuation of the forest usage as had previously prevailed would have led quickly to the destruction of the forests. Timber production was poor and the first evidence of forest degradation in soil erosion and falling of the water table was noticeable. An exception was the forest set aside for hunting similarly

by the aristocracy

danger that the gradually would

and legally protected,

the forests near the free towns. devefoping

become dependant

There was a

wood industries

upon imports

in the foreseeable

future. Under these conditions

attempts

began to be made to

7iNumber 1/1976

Geoforum/Volume

36

place the use of forests on an economic this practise a permanent principle

forestry

of permanence

plantations

The

constancy

recommended

of the most intensive

(BO~NEMAN

and WHRIG,

The stands have a threefold protection

and recreation.

protection

and recreation

production

of timber

division of forestry

function:

according

to the form

and coppice

(K&XL.ER.

monsoon

at

To each corresponds

a distinct

is meant the practice

standards,

and RBHRIG,

with standards

level. Regeneration

there are tall growing

comes from

is

coppice and of coppice

undertakings

seed) or artificial method rotation

aims at the conversion

seedlings).

can take very different

of harvesting sequences.

is for example

with

block or strip felling

forests in which

isolated trees are removed,

areas. Similar

conditions.

plants and berried

shrubs) provide

a welcome

system or the shelter-wood

system,

and in the extra-tropical

used at the same time, as in

but the felling

later in the sequence

from the sun, outgoing

young.

protect

radiation,

longer period of removal

is spread over

for tree species (in particular The large trees

the selected saplings and wind.

With the

of trees only light damage

developed

in essentials by HARTIG phases are distinguished

to the BONNEMANN

and R&IRIG,

1972).

of

In the sequence

(1)

preparatory fruiting

felling

and (after

has the aim of stimulating

and breaking-up

(2)

seeding felling. varying

the raw humus soil cover.

in tropical

extra-tropical

This is done in a good mast year,

in extent

according

to the site conditions

and the light needs of the young growth.

small groups

by the varying geo-ecological

A few forms from

felled

can be of

forms are present

modified

since the

the following

and the stands

blocks, strips leaving windbreaks,

forests, but greatly

is not to be ruled

function

takes place and

are of various ages. In the first the felling qr peripheral

Clear felling

BORGGREVE

(by

interesting

a contrast

and is therefore

results from the actual felling.

is natural

forms according

and of regeneration, There

of

The forestry

forests in which

complete

Canada and the U.S.S.R.

beech) that can bear shade whilst

to high forest.

the regeneration

(by protected

climates,

out because of any recreational

years. This system is suitable

of tall trees lessens the value of the

with standards

cannot

in the boreal forests of Scandinavia,

the clear-felling

the need for timber

does not show good production

For this reason forestry

undertakings

level land in temperate

most widespread

the

practice

risk to the site. It is less risky on

system, used both in the tropics

trees that are left when the coppice

results since the growth

In high forest

without

In the regeneration-felling

is of firewood,

and faggots. Above the coppice

is cut. This type of forestry

ground

area, this forestry

areas, large areas are similarly

as well as for firewood

coppice.

and winter-rain

(flowering

bark and poles. Coppice

of a protective

change.

hardwood

from the stock. The production

is not to be

sloping land, in areas

cleared areas with their sequent plant communities

physiognomy.

of cutting

stands to the root stock at ground

with

relatively

by

or in areas with arid summers,

the establishment

be employed

of the

BONNEMAN

1950,

Clear felling

on strongly

layer. Thus for the forests of the inner tropics,

first. Then a

coppice

At the same time

cycling on the cleared area a good

however

with high rainfall, preventing

p.12).

will be later discussed the

consists of high forest,

vegetative

aimed

can be here considered

undertaking

By coppice

usage for

1972,

production,

Since forestry

the nutrient

root bed can be prepared.

laid down that forests and

and uniformity

sewing or planting.

intensifying

were to be used so that “Permanence,

all was secured”

1972).

simplifies

basis, and for

economy.

iiiumination

(3)

saplings.

and tropical

felling,

the removal

of trees above the

In order to avoid damage this is usually

done in snow-lie

conditions

but not in deep frost.

areas can be discussed here as examples. (4) Characteristic

of a c/ear-fe//i~g

the trees in a stand together time.

or over a short period

Only after the plot has been completely

measures taken by planting. advantage equal-aged simpler,

is in the yield from

disadvantages attached

the stand either

harvesting

with seed or

is debatable.

a relatively

The

small area of

and removal

to the optimum

harvesting

are made time there are

in that no trees can be left after the general

There are also both advantages to the regeneration.

and disadvantages

The complete

fe~~~~g~the last trees of the old stand are

removed.

of

cleared are

and scarcely any damage is done in the felling.

With reference felling.

to regenerate

This type of harvesting timber,

clearance

system is the felling of all

renewal

The regeneration

period

clearance felling)

varies between

disadvantage

(from

preparatory

of this felling sequence

upon seed years, which of its irregular

felling

to the

10 and 40 years. A

in particular

is the dependence with beech because

mast years makes necessary the use of large

areas (large scale regeneration there is periodically

felling).

an overproduction

As a consequence of timber

and low

prices. TAYLOR

(1962,

the tropical

p.82 et. seq.) distinguished

she/terwo~d

system.

four phases in

GeoforumlVolume

(1)

initial

7/Number

canopy

climbing killed. (2)

1 I1 976

opening.

plants

At the .beginning

are cut away

This is repeated

From

the stand

is cleared

in order

for young

growth.

exploitation. cut,

and the undergrowth

the second

In the sixth

but young

growth

or felled

young

growth.

from (4)

felling

clearing

trees are

Worthless

to avoid

clearing.

of the stand

many

between

similarities

the tropical

of this process, the valuable

there

form

in particular

belt system

(German:

(German:

any division.

This superficially

exploitation

but contrasts

obtain

1972,

pp.242-248).

definite

stand

opened

by felling

Both

differences form

to the felling

of

after

and the stand

composition

established

blocks,

with

conditions

in the canopy removed.

thus the production

system

the young against

Felling

the prevailing

of the northern

areas. In

is increased

wind

Characteristic

of this form

physiognomy

of the forest,

one-sided

clearance

in wind-damage

different

requirements.

Both

strips

clear-felled

*

The strip

wood

Plenrerwald

of numerous

system

is of value

there

employed

it is employed the prevailing

spruce

employ

in the form wind.

a stand

(Picea abies) and beech

is to be contrasted

It is characterised

with

by the felling

several cutting sections, staggered to give protection wind and sun

a good water

peasant

In total

yield

clear-felled

there

forests

of Europe

to

to establish

other

conditions

of high forest

P/enter

than the natural

have been almost

since geo-ecological to the form

of

any distinction

Attempts

regions

supply

belonging

one of the usual

is scarcely

high forest.

in forested

costs compared

in forests

this is nevertheless

deep

is a well

Where a regular

as for example

farmers,

the shade-

supply,

Necessary increases

high forests.

is required,

(cl

Protective

all are extremely

undertakings.

forestry

A management

from both

of forests

with

undertaken

in societies

(economic,

geo-ecological,

recognised.

On these grounds

particularly

developing introduce

protective

in which

this practice

in the developed

of protective

forests

in the U.S.A.

where

widespread

similar

Region) phenomena

supervising increasing

forests

national

and destroyed. was favoured

after

by

the destruction

were established of the west,

usage. In these forests

to prevent

the state

recreation

has today

an

significance.

The protective

forests

conservation

can be divided or their

protective

These protective

function.

diverse.

They

include

and water

into

those

on the grounds

species composition quite

to

with

in the east and middle-west forests

in the forests

aside for active

conditions,

In the

of arable

degraded

The development

(Cutover

states.

in connection

bitter

of many

is distributed

industrial

is seen as the enemy

to be unthinkingly

experience

systems are

are being made by legislation

it, but here the forest,

shifting-cultivation,

aims is only

multi-functional

and social-ecological)

lands attempts

husbandry,

is the

recently

of undertaking

high forest.

in mid-latitudes

the consequence

of fir (Abies albal,

(Fagussilvarica).

oriented

and east.

of undertaking

againt

to protect

in strips

north

* Usually

orientated

of these types

mixture

from

areas, but is only

as Blendersaumschlag. of broad

old stands

and radiation,

sequences.

force,

In addition

species,

until

of good growth

is generally

hemisphere

preserves

which

labour

clear-felled

The

to other

advantaged.

informed with

important

The aim of this form

uses laterally-sited

growth.

system

generally

changes.

contents.

today The Strip

belong

trees

irregular.

is

of ecologically-different

for tree species with

of trees.

of trees, the required

in the cleared

is the creation

the aim is to

in the stock

is therefore

soils and high nutrient

unsuccessful

of

felling

trees are unequally

spruce-fir

the canopy

and felling

trees growing

undertakings

ROHRIG.

In Femelschlag

is completely

of undertaking

shelter-

system

and

an equilibrium

scattered,

The P/enter

have as aim regeneration

of small groups

steps the opening

the old stand

subject

are often

bearing

five years,

and strip

(cf. BONNEMANN

compositions.

species being then further

and maintain

resembles

in that

the useful

are the irregular

Femelschlag)

Saumschlag)

processes

selective

forms. in operation

are very

as permanent

exploitation,

trees.

complicated

and rejuvenation

without

from More

Harvesting and continue

result

or the

to selective

to the

European

reference

linked

that

the middle

forests,

are recognisable

with

storey.

of trees from

trees are

of climbing

and the central

lowest

in the

in the canopy

in primaeval

plants). Despite

by the growth

trees anywhere

the fact that

(in particular

of weeds and cutting-down

are filled closely

of individual

area. The breaks

stems from

to.

For a further

continues,

period stand

The difference

year damage resulting

is attended

in a short complete

trees of

later damage

In the following

year

the ground

and middle-height

and rebounds

destruction

to the fifth

year the valuable

in order

post-exploitation

year.

to prepare

the same species are protected. killed

of the rains

in the following

c/earing operation.

(3)

37

fauna,

and those

stabilisation

budget,

forests

of their

functions

with

of climatic

maintenance

a

can be

of soil

set

Geoforum/Vorume

38

fertility,

protection

cultivation erosion,

of land, buildings,

and forestry

installations,

nurseries in particular

rock falls, shingle accumulation,

sand accumulation, breaking

dessication,

of levees, avalanche,

need therefore entailing

a suitable

are protection

Many forests worked producing

protective

functions

by normal timber

and are therefore

forests. This added function example

exclude

particular

forest undertakings

felling

example

effects are also due to specially

of North

America

of previously plantings.

production

the siting of windbreaks and the U.S.S.R.,

forested

of definite

AUSDERAU,

to high

Department

adapted

forests

in the grasslands

species, but presents no

more and more important

in industrialised

In recreational

forests other of forest

is termed

~~/dbode~

by the German forest plannersabso/~~e a whole sequence of investigations

to establish the demands on the forest (DCJRK, 1965,

primaevat demands

1967,

Hamburg.

and the lack of human

forests with clearings,

present, tended

forest”

extent.

meadows,

DINSDALE,

EM.

DURK,

(1971172):

A., Waldbau.

Auswirkungen,

Waldbau.

2 vois.

und Landerschliegung

Spatial patterns

of technological

of northern

This

New York,

EHLERS.

f. (1967):

Economic

Europe,

seekers

small scale working

the selection

of timber

in its combination

(cf. BONNEMANN

with

period that the needs of

are met. Large scale enterprises

for felling

species

and harvesting

the timber

and RC)HRIG, 1977,

with are not

p.224).

Beriicksichtigung

order to fulfill

circles than that of farm

its recreational

function

is far more lands. In

it is even more

und

Geogr. Z. 55,

E. (1967):

Der wirtschaftende

Mensch a/s Gestalter

der

Erde. Stuttgart. T. (1953):

GOUROU,

P. 11966):

Rome

Grazing and Forest Economy.

K. (1903): Die Forstbenutzung. The Tropical

S. et al.,

Berlin.

World.

feds.1 (19%):

London.

A World Geography

of

Nevv Y 01 k.

U. (1967): U&r die Gewohnheiten, A//gem.

Ansirhten Forstzeitschrift 22.

und

465.467. HASEL,

K. (1971 i: Waldwirts&haft

und Umwelf.

Hamburg,

Berlin. HASSINGER, Handbuch KLUTE). HESMER,

H. (1933): pp.167.542.

und subtropisches

Jh. Decheniana

Wisconsin,

Geogr.

Der kombinierte

Anbau.

in:

II ted. F

land- und

1. Tropisches Afrika,

If. Trapisches

Asien. Stuttgart.

H. and F.-G. SCHROEDER

HOFMEISTER,

des Menschen,

Potsdam.

H, (19661197,O).

forstwirtschaftli~he

HESMER,

Die Geographie

d. Geogr. Wiss., vol. Allgem.

Belheft

B. (1960):

(1963):

im Niedersixhsischen

der Weser und in der mijnsterschen

in official

in Finniand

Wirtschaftsraum;

297322.

Wald.?usammenset.?ung

The higher social value of forests and waters

des Waldes in

Doct. Thesis.

Das boreale Waldland

Wiinsche der Waldbesucher,

range of coniferous

des Waldes und

und forstpolitischen

Freiburg.

Kanada als Siedlungsund

Forest Resources.

to

Funktion

bkonomischen

mit besonderer

HADEN-GUEST.

are tended

Diehygienische

den Erholungsgebieten.

influences.

are well adapted

types. The dominating

care and a long rotation

huge machines

accepted

Methodlsche

4th ed.)

Tanningewinnung

(1956):

K.P. (1965):

FRANCOIS,

forests already

in their

being related to the site, guarantees

suitable

(19701:

Ber. z. dt. fandeskonde

Gran Chaco, Geogr. Z. 59, 177-204.

ihre soriologischen.

GAYER,

lakes and rivers.

forests,

needs, particularly

and broadleafed

recreation

A. and E. RdHRlG

change: the lumber industry

by its

meets recreational

Preferible

the economic

as permanent

of forests in central intensive

Univ. of Wisconsin,

and Forestry.

(= DENGLEA, J. (1971):

HANSTEIN, In these circumstances recreational

of Farms wifh Forest

Madison,

zur Forstgeographie,

im argentinischen

FELS,

WEIMANN,

is determined

for the “primaevat

only to a limited

place

begin by assuming that the

value of a forest character

have taken

by the seekers of

HANSTEIN,

The forest authorities

is a mistake

Management

44 121, pp.267-292.

BONNEMANN, BUNSTORF,

forest science exact knowledge

lands as a means of recreation.

1969).

Hamburg.

J. and H.-W. WINDHORST

Betrachtungen

forms of usage take second place. This category

recreational

Europe.

Geogr. 41, 252-274.

Forests become

recreation

of Economics

BLUTHGEN,

of timber.

real problem.

Already

E.J. et al. (1972):

Resources in Western Wisconsin.

or the re-afforestation

timber

to central

the forests even

K.V. (1966): Forest econ~mv in the USSR, Srudia Foresfalia Suecica, 39. Stockholm.

areas by means of reclamatory

This requires from

of the suitability

stimulus

ALGVERE,

but this can have

Protection

as for example

return

necessary to open-up

ABETZ, K. (1955): EX&er/iche k%‘a/dwirfschJft.

and

practices from

(clear-felling)

with a further

response

and the forests of

References

also protective

value to the continued

forests of the U.S.A.

places and and found

against air

practice

additional

Sweden,

parking

happened,

more for men.

have a range of

may from

establish

these

aspects.

forestry

nevertheless

litter,

This has already

It is nevertheless

practice

and noise, as well as recreational

primarity

and

of other ends. Amongst

forms related to public health pollution

of forestry

shelters, remove

in the national

In addition

on public health

necessary to buitd roads in the state forests, seats and

footpaths.

inundation,

frost and winds.

form

the renunciation

wind erosion,

swampiness,

many forests have a desired effect

and

against soil

7/Number 1 /1976

Waldbehandlungund Tiefland

westlich

Buch t bis zum Ende des 18.

11. Bonn. Forst- und Holzwirtschaft

Die Erde 91, 258-276.

im Staate

Geoforum/Volume

HOFMEISTER,

7/Number

6. (1963):

in: Die GroSe Illustr.

1 /1976

39

Die Vereinigten

Landerkunde,

Staaten von Amerika,

vol. 2. Gutersloh.

HOFMEISTER,

B. (1970):

Nordamerika.

HORNSMANN,

E. (1958):

Allen hilft der Wald. Mtinchen.

KNIGGE,

W. and H. SCHULZ

forstbenutzung. KOCH,

l/am

KGSTLER,

J. (1950):

KGSTLER

(1967):

Tropen. MANTEL,

Urwaldzum

Waldbau.

W. (1968):

K. (1969):

MULLER-HOHENSTEIN, Aufforstung

MULLER-WILLE,

R. (1956):

Forestry

im Rheinischen

Economy

of the oak

Spain. Geogrl. Rev. 52.21

Bestockungsaufbau

nordischer

Urwelder,

l-235.

zum forstwiss.

6. Hamburg.

J.F.V.

in the Tropics: Patterns,

of Agriculture

and

Problems and Promise.

London.

Erholungswald. SCHMITHUSEN,

J. (1934):

Schiefergebirges, SCHMITHUSEN,

E.D. (1961):

University

Der Niederwald

und

des linksrheinischen

d. Rheinl.

Untersuchung

Sihriftenreihe

Baden-Wurttemberg, SOLBERG,

WECK,

J. and C. WIEBECKE

4, Bonn.

iiber forstliche

der Landesforstverwaltung

~01.30. Stuttgart. New Laws for New Forests.

(1961):

Weltforstwirtschaft

Forst- und Holzwirtschaft.

F. (1969):

of Wisconsin Press, Madison.

und

Munchen.

Wald und Erholung.

Inst. f. Weltforstwirtschaft,

forst-

und

ted.) (1951ff):

Weltforstatlas.

Hamburg-Reinbek. H.-W. (1971a):

forstgeographische

Der Stemweder

Untersuchung.

Spieker,

WINDHORST,

der Gegenwart.

H.-W. (1972a):

WINDHORST.

Geogr. Rdsch. 432-437.

Die Nutzung

H. -W. (197213): Gedanken der Forstwirtschaft.

WINDHORST.

H.-W. (1974):

geographie. ZENNECK,

Berg. Eine 19. Miinster.

H.-W. (1971 b): Der Wald der BRD im

WirtschaftsprozeR

Beihefte

W. (1960):

und Bewirtschaftung

Paderborn. zur rlumlichen

Geogr. Z. 60. 357-374.

Studien zur Waldwirtschafts

zur Geogr. Z., 39, Wiesbaden. Der Veldensteiner

Forst. Mitt.

d. Frank.

Geogr. Ges. 6, 75-136. ZUNDEL,

The

4).

Die Walder der Erde. Berlin.

24, 42-45.

Ordnung

Beitr. z.Landesk.

F. (1969):

Konzessionen,

a/s Wirtschafts-

Miinchen.

Forstliche

Berlin. (=

der Walder der Erde, in: Fragenkreise.

RUPPE RT, K. (1960) : Der Stadtwald

Trends in the

und Landschaftspflege,

J. (1957):

WEITMANN,

Timber

A. Frh. v. (1940):

Landschaftsschutz

WINDHORST,

(1961 I: The Development

des

D.C.

Neudamm,

WECK,

WINDHORST.

und

Beihefte

in: Schriften

(ed.1 (1965):

Washington,

Landschaftsgestaltung.

Holzwirt

1, 51-85.

The Acorn-Hog

of southwestern

Centralblatt,

der

Geogr. Arb. 8. Heidelberg.

Forstwirtschaftsrates.

Deutschlands

Der Niederwald

Westf. Forsch.

Baumartenwandel

PHILLIPS,

Aspekte

in: Biogeographica,

Den Haag.

J.J. (1962):

PLOCHMANN,

der Toskana,

Gkologische

Mittelmeerraum,

W. (1938b):

Schiefergebirge;

woodlands

Die Wilder

K. (1972):

im westlichen

vol. 1, pp. 97.117.

Heidelberger

Die Stellung des Waldes in den deutschen

VIETINGHOFF-RIESCH,

Geogr. Ges. 15116. 47-81.

London.

Man’s Role in Changing the face of

und Wirtschaftslandschaften,

deutschen

UnitedStates.

1, l-10

Forestry.

Braunschweig.

Hamburg/Berlin.

Die Walder der Basilicata und ihre Entwaldung

US Dept. of Agriculture, Der Wald in der Raumordnung,

MULLER-HOHENSTEIN,

PARSONS,

der

Lander.

Forstbetrieb.

Chicago.

C. (1962):

Kultur-

Hamburg/Berlin.

in die Agrargeographie

und Raumordnung

d. Frank.

Tropical

ted.) (1956):

F. (1962):

TROLL,

Mannheim. W. (1968):

C.J. (1962): W.L.

im 19. Jahrhundert.

Hamburg.

Die Nordischen

Planungim

THOMAS,

the Earth.

der

Forst. Stuttgart.

Einfuhrung

G. (1972):

TAYLOR,

TICHY,

Wald, Mensch, Kultur.

Raumforschung

Mitt.

Stuttgart.

Grundri8

A., fed.1 (1967):

SPEIDEL,

Hamburg/Berlin.

W. 11957):

MANSHARD,

(1966):

SGMME,

R. (1967):

Abgrenzungs-und 22,45-49.

Die Schutzfunktion Behandlungsprobleme,

des Waldes-8egriffe, Forst- und Holzwirt