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Use of pymarc as a nitrogen source for grazing dairy calves
Livestock Production Science 96 (2005) 233 – 238 www.elsevier.com/locate/livprodsci
Use of pymarc as a nitrogen source for grazing dairy calves J.M. Wawerua, S.A. Abdulrazaka,T, T.A. Onyangob, T. Fujiharac a
Department of Animal Science, Egerton University, PO Box 536, Njoro, Kenya b National Animal Husbandry Research Centre, PO Box 25, Naivasha, Kenya c Laboratory of Animal Science, Shimane University, Matsue-shi 690, Japan
Received 21 October 2003; received in revised form 21 January 2005; accepted 3 February 2005
Abstract A study was conducted to determine optimal levels of pymarc inclusion as a protein supplement to Chloris gayana during the dry season. Forty Friesian dairy calves of 65 F 7 kg weight, 20 each of males and females, were randomly allocated to a 10diet treatment in a completely randomized design in a factorial arrangement. The treatment diets were: control, 7.5, 15, 22.5, and 30 g DM/kg W0.75 pymarc, with (PBM) or without molasses (PB). Live weight gains, intake, diet digestibility, rumen pH, and rumen ammonia nitrogen were assessed in the 60-day experiment. Herbage intake did not differ ( P N 0.05) among the treatments. Total intake was in the range of 2072–2636 g/day, diet digestibility 565–582 g/kg, and ADG 157–330 g/day, and differed ( P b 0.05) with supplementation. The results showed that rumen pH did not differ significantly ( P N 0.05) between the treatments, ranging between 6.97 and 7.17. Rumen NH3–N control groups PB and PBM had 109.9 and 106.5 mg/l, respectively, while those supplemented increased linearly ( P b 0.05) to 166.5 and 177.14 mg/l, respectively, at the highest level of supplementation. The nutritional profile and potential degradation level of pymarc as well as the performance of calves indicate the latent value as a supplement in providing nitrogen to poor-quality basal diets in the dry season. D 2005 Published by Elsevier B.V. Keywords: Pymarc; Molasses; Calves; Intake; Average daily gain
1. Introduction The demand for animal products in human diet is steadily and substantially increasing with the increasing population, which is expected to be
T Corresponding author. Division of Research and Extension, Egerton University, PO Box 536, Njoro, Kenya. Tel.: +254 51 62550; fax: +254 51 62442. E-mail address: [email protected] (S.A. Abdulrazak). 0301-6226/$ - see front matter D 2005 Published by Elsevier B.V. doi:10.1016/j.livprodsci.2005.02.004
higher than the production by the year 2010. This demands an increase of livestock production (output) and productivity (output per unit input) (Delgado et al., 2001). However, lack of adequate quantity and quality of feed is a major constraint especially in the dry season (Walshe et al., 1991). This is evidenced by high calf mortality (15–20%), morbidity, and low body weight gain of calves at farm levels (Gitau et al., 1994). This scenario has led to diminishing replacement stocks, while delaying age at first service, or more likely the servicing
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of heifers with a poor weight for age, which inevitably results in poor heifer conception and lactation. By-products like pymarc may have potential to mitigate feed shortage during the dry season. Pyrethrum marc (pymarc) produced in large quantities in Kenya is the waste product after dried pyrethrum flowers have been ground and pyrethrins extracted with petro ether. The material is further treated by steam to remove any residual petro ether and to destroy the very small percentage of pyrethrins remaining after extraction (Ayre-Smith, 1956). Extensive work has been done on the nutritional value of by-products such as fishmeal, oilseeds, molasses, and bran; however, limited work has been reported on pymarc as a supplement for growing calves. The objective of this experiment was to determine the potential nutritive value of pymarc based on chemical composition, fibre, minerals, phenolic concentration in vitro, in sacco degradation, and the effects of incremental levels of pymarc as a protein supplement to Rhodes grass pasture by Friesian dairy calves.
2. Materials and methods 2.1. Chemical analysis Dry matter (DM), ash, and nitrogen (N) content were measured according to AOAC (1990). Neutral detergent fibre (NDF), acid detergent fibre (ADF), and acid detergent lignin (ADL) were determined according to Van Soest et al. (1991). Mineral content was determined by atomic absorption spectrophotometry (Varma, 1991). Phenolic compounds were determined as described by Julkunen-Titto (1985). Chromium oxide content in faeces was determined by atomic absorption spectroscopy according to the method of Williams et al. (1962).
where the degradation curve is described as: within a lag time T, y = A, which is the initial washing loss; beyond the time T, y = a + b (1 e ct) where: y = percent degraded time t, a = an intercept representing the portion of dry matter at initiation of incubation (time 0), b = the portion of dry matter potentially degraded in the rumen, c = a rate constant of degradation of fraction b, and t = time of incubation. Samples were incubated in vitro in rumen fluid– buffer mixture in calibrated glass syringes following the procedure of Menke and Steingass (1988). Rumen liquor was obtained from two steers maintained on a similar diet to those of degradability studies. Air-dried and ground (1.0 mm) pymarc samples of about 200 F 5 mg were weighed. The syringe pistons were lubricated with VaselineR petroleum jelly to ease movement and to prevent escape of gas. Thirty (30) milliliters of the mixed rumen fluid plus buffer was used to inoculate the 200 F 5 mg samples placed in the 100-ml gas-tight graduated glass syringes. The syringes were incubated in a water bath maintained at 39 F 0.1 8C, and gently shaken every hour during the first 8 h of incubation. Readings were recorded during 0, 3, 6, 12, 24, 48, 72, and 96 h after incubation. Organic matter digestibility and metabolizable energy values of feeds were calculated using 48-h gas production values as described by Abdulrazak and Fujihara (1999). 2.3. Feeds and supplements The calves were grazed on Chloris gayana pasture, supplemented with 100 g of bran and increasing level of pymarc at control, 7.5, 15, 22.5, and 30 g DM/kg W0.75 with or without molasses (PBM and PB), respectively. The calves were offered a complete mineral lick (Afya BoraR stock Lick) and clean water at all times.
2.2. In sacco and in vitro digestibility 2.4. Measurement of intake and digestibility The rate and extent of degradation of the pymarc were determined in fistulated Friesian steers using the nylon bag technique (arskov et al., 1980) as described by Abdulrazak and Fujihara (1999). The DM disappearance values were fitted to the exponential equation of arskov and McDonald (1979),
Each day, the calves were dosed with two paper capsules containing 2.5 g of powdered chromium (III) oxide during each supplementation. After 6 days of adaptation, two faecal grab samples were taken daily during supplementation for a period of 5 days. The
J.M. Waweru et al. / Livestock Production Science 96 (2005) 233–238
daily samples were bulked and dried in an oven at 65 8C and analysed for DM, OM, and chromium oxide content. Intake was estimated from the ratio between the faecal output collected for the portion attributable to the concentrate and indigestibility of the herbage using the equation of Malossini et al. (1996): HI (kg OM day 1) = (D R /F 1c (1 OMDc))/ 1 OMDh), where HI is herbage intake; D is the quantity of Cr2O3 administered; R is the recovery of the marker in faeces; F is its concentration in faeces (g/kg OM); and 1c is the quantity of concentrate fed (kg OM). The term 1c (1 OMDc) represents faecal output from concentrate; OMDh was determined in vivo where three calves were confined for 10 days. The total amount of faeces excreted each day was recorded and a sample of 10% was taken for DM and OM analysis, respectively. The digestibility of the supplemented animals was calculated by fitting the values to the formulae OMD = 1 (D R/F)/HI (kg OM day 1) (Malossini et al., 1996). 2.5. Statistical analysis The data on dry matter intake (DMI), average daily gain (ADG), and diet digestibility were subjected to analysis of covariance using the general linear model of SAS computer package (SAS, 1987). Initial liveweight was used as a covariant in the analysis of DMI and liveweight changes. The model included the effect of molasses. An F test at 5% probability level was used to test for significance and
Table 2 In vitro gas production (ml/200 mg DM) and DM degradation characteristic of pymarc and Rhodes grass Gas production
24 h 48 h a + b (ml) OMD48 (h)
Pymarc Rhodes grass
49.1 27.7
CP OM EE NDF ADF ADL
TEPH 5.19 Ca TET 2.57 Mg CT 0.03 P S Al
14.00 92.69 3.12 36.95 33.91 10.50
Minerals Macrominerals (% DM) 0.37 0.14 0.08 0.09 0.06
Microminerals (ppm) Zn Cu Fe Mn Co
36.95 45.00 671.00 33.60 3.89
CP = crude protein; NDF = neutral detergent fibre; ADF = acid detergent fibre; ADL= acid detergent lignin; OM = organic matter; EE = ether extract; TEPH = total extractable phenolics; TET = total extractable tannins; CT = condensed tannins.
70.6 53.6
74.3 57.0 B
A+B
Pymarc Rhodes grass
51.6 46.4
61.7 49.9
24.9 23.5
36.7 31.5
10.1 3.5
a and b are constants in the equation (arskov and McDonald, 1979). OMD48 (h) = in vitro organic matter digestibility calculated from the equation: OMD (%) = 18.53 + 0.9239 gas production (at 48 h) + 0.054 CP (Menke and Steingass, 1988). A = washing loss; B = portion degraded with time (arskov and McDonald, 1979).
significantly different means separated using orthogonal contrasts.
3. Results The results of chemical composition, phenolic concentration, and mineral concentration of pymarc supplement and Rhodes grass are presented in Table 1. The results of the in vitro gas production and dry matter degradability of pymarc supplement and Rhodes grass roughage are shown in Table 2, while results of the in sacco dry matter degradability of pymarc supplement and Rhodes grass roughage are demonstrated in Fig. 1. Table 3 shows the mean DMI, OMI, ADG, diet digestibility, rumen pH, and rumen NH3–N obtained in the experiment. Low acceptability 100
Degradability
Phenolics (% DM)
60.4 41.6
DM degradability 24 h 48 h A
Table 1 Chemical composition, phenolic concentration, and mineral concentration in pymarc Composition (% DM)
235
80 60 40 Pymarc Rhodes grass
20 0 0
3
6
12
24
48
72
96
Incubation (Hrs) Fig. 1. In sacco DM degradation of pymarc and Rhodes grass hay (basal diet) used in the study.
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Table 3 Intake, ADG, digestibility, pH, and rumen NH3–N in calves grazed Rhodes grass pasture supplemented with pymarc Level of supplement (g DM/kg W Molasses Diet intake DMI (kg/day)
B + T +
OMI (kg/day)
B + T +
ADG (g/day) + Digestibility DMD (g/kg DM) + OMD (g/kg DM) + pH + Rumen NH3–N (mg/l) + a,b,c
0.75
)
0
7.5
15
22.5
30
S.E.M.
2.00a 2.02a 2.07c 2.11c 1.70a 1.72a 1.79c 1.79c 157a 169a
2.12 2.15a 2.30bc 2.34bc 1.83a 1.87a 2.01b 2.19b 228b 241b
2.13a 2.03a 2.50 ab 2.41ab 1.91a 1.93a 2.29a 2.36a 276c 289c
2.05a 2.06 2.60a 2.64a 1.93a 1.91a 2.48a 2.54a 293c 308cd
1.96a 1.89a 2.60a 2.63a 1.86a 1.90a 2.34a 2.62a 296c 330d
0.014
565c 565c 571.26e 570.26e 7.06a 7.11a 109.9a 106.3a
570b 570b 581.29d 580.85d 7.04a 7.14a 138.2b 148.8b
570b 570b 597c 596c 7.07a 7.08a 155.9bc 155.9bc
570b 571b 611b 612b 6.97a 6.99a 170.1c 166.5c
582a 573b 624a 625a 7.17a 6.99a 166.5c 177.1c
0.050
0.014 0.012 0.012 4.770 3.970
0.070 0.03 8.530
Means within a row with different superscript are significantly different ( P b 0.05); B = basal diet; T = total diet (B + supplement).
of pymarc was observed during the first 3 weeks of the experiment; however, during the subsequent weeks, all pymarc offered in all treatments was consumed except at the level of 30 g DM/kg W 0.75 without molasses. Supplementation did not have a significant effect on basal diet (B) intake. TDMI, TOMI, and ADG were different ( P b 0.05) (Table 3). The values for apparent digestibility indicated that the control groups had the lowest DM and OM digestibility. The pH value ranged between 6.97 and 7.17, while rumen NH3–N ranged between 106.5 and 177.1 mg/l and was different.
4. Discussion The results of chemical composition (Table 1) were within the reported ranges of 11.8–14.38% crude protein in other works on pymarc (Irungu et al., 1981; Kitilit et al., 1996; Muiruri et al., 2001). Mineral concentration compares and also contrasts with what has been reported in other works with pymarc (Griffin, 1974; Thomas, 1975). Calcium is closely related to phosphorus metabolism and a
dietary Ca:P ratio of 1:1 to 2:1 is assumed to be ideal for growth and bone formation (Underwood, 1981). Griffin (1974) reported a ratio of 1.88:1, while ratios of 4.6:1 were obtained in this work. Factors such as soils, climate, and season contribute to variation in the concentration of minerals (Spears, 1994). This ratio, however, does not affect the performance of calves; Ca:P ratios in the range of 1:1 to 7:1 have been shown to have no effect on calves’ performance (Underwood, 1981). Iron requirements of ruminants are not well established (Underwood, 1981); however, NRC (1989) suggested 30–100 ppm. Although a level of 671 ppm was obtained, the level is below the maximum tolerable level of 1000 ppm for cattle (NRC, 1989). Nevertheless, iron is rarely of practical concern in grazing animals, except in circumstances involving blood loss or disturbance of iron metabolism as a consequence of parasitic infestation or disease (McDowell, 1985). A copper concentration of 45 ppm was obtained; although higher than that reported by Griffin (1974), this level is within the minimum requirement and the maximum tolerable limit of 10–100 ppm, respectively, reported in cattle (NRC, 1989). Other minerals
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compare favourably with the reported work (Griffin, 1974; Thomas, 1975). Supplementation of C. gayana pasture with pymarc diets with (PBM) or without molasses (PB), respectively, was different although not significant, ranging from 1699 to 1899 g/day. The lack of increase in intake of the basal diet is suggested to be due to adequate content of CP in the basal diet of C. gayana (72 g/kg DM), which meant that intake was not limited. Therefore, since the rumen microbe requirements for nitrogen had been met, additional high-quality pymarc had no further stimulating effect on the intake of the basal diet. Gulbransen (1974) reported that supplements substitute part of the basal diet; however, he showed further that the degree of substitution was greater for poor-quality forage than high-quality forage. The increases in total DMI results are consistent with other works (Irungu et al., 1981; Kitilit et al., 1996). An increase in intake could probably be due to the small particle size of pymarc, which increases the outflow rate and reduces the rumen retention time, hence boosting intake. Minson (1982) reported increased intake by 14–77% following provision of supplementary protein. An establishment of a suitable rumen environment that aids digestion could also explain the increased intake. Improvement of ADG and diet digestibility probably occurred as a result of the higher nutritive value of pymarc and the reduction on the fibre and improved rumen environment. Improved liveweight gains have also been reported on roughage diets supplemented with pymarc (Irungu et al., 1981; Kitilit et al., 1996). The better response of PBM to PB could be attributed to a more suitable rumen environment as a result of supplying readily available source of energy (molasses) to micro-flora, which in turn leads to a high microbial activity leading to higher NH3–N, increased TDMI and TOMI, and improved diet digestibility. This is a phenomenon of synchronization of energy and protein, which results in a better supply of energy and protein to microbes and hence a more efficient microbial protein synthesis (Sinclair et al., 1995). It could also be explained by the elevation of feed intake and improved diet digestibility. Total gas production varied, with pymarc showing higher gas production than Rhodes grass, which was also reflected in higher OMD (48 h) of 74.34% and
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56.97%, respectively. The OMD shows that pymarc has the potential to supply metabolisable energy more efficiently than Rhodes grass, adding to its value as a nitrogen supplement. Changes in digestibility (in vitro dry matter digestibility—IVDMD) are associated with increasing NDF (fibre) content. The higher rate of potential degradation (Table 2) observed may be related to the higher content of NDF in Rhodes grass (72%) relative to 37% in pymarc. Similar trends in degradation have been reported (Kitilit et al., 1996) using pymarc and sorghum silage with NDF of 53.3% and 77.8%, respectively. The nutritional profile and potential degradation level of pymarc is an indicator of the latent value as a supplement in providing nitrogen to poor-quality basal diets. The rumen pH was above 6.2, a value suggested to be a critical level in initiating cellulosis (Mould and arskov, 1984) for PBM and PB diets. Rumen NH3–N ranged from 106.5 to 177.14 mg/l. This value is well above the stipulated threshold of 45–60 mg/l (Kanjanapruthipong and Leng, 1998). It is possible that the supplement diet created a more suitable rumen environment in supplying a ready source of energy for microflora, which in turn led to higher microbial activity and NH3–N turnover. It was concluded that pymarc is a good nitrogen source for dry season feeding.
Acknowledgement Financial assistance for this research from EgertonKARI collaboration is gratefully acknowledged.
References Abdulrazak, S.A., Fujihara, T., 1999. Animal Nutrition. A Laboratory Manual. Kashiwagi Printing Company, Matsue-shi, Japan, p. 44. Association of Official Analytical Chemists (AOAC), 1990. Official Methods of Analysis. Washington, DC. Ayre-Smith, R.A., 1956. Pyrethrum waste as a stock feed. Field and Farm, 1956. Delgado, C.L., Rosengrant, M.W., Meyer, S., 2001. Livestock 2020: the revolution continues. Paper Presented to the International Agricultural Trade Research Consortium, Auckland, New Zealand, January 2001. Gitau, G.K., McDermott, J.J., Adams, J.E., Lissemore, K.D., Walter-Toews, D., 1994. Factors influencing calf growth and
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dairy weight gain on smallholder dairy farms in Kiambu District, Kenya. Prev. Vet. Med. 21, 179 (190). Griffin, S.C., 1974. Mammalian toxicology of pyrethrum. Pyrethrum Post 12 (2). Gulbransen, B., 1974. Utilization of grain supplements by roughage-fed cattle. Proc. Aust. Soc. Anim. Prod. 10, 74 – 77. Irungu, K.R.G., Kayongo-Male, H., Karue, C.N., 1981. Use of pyrethrum marc for growing heifers. National Animal Husbandry Research Station. Naivasha and The University of Nairobi. Julkunen-Titto, R., 1985. Phenolic constituents in the leaves of northern willows: methods for the analysis of certain phenolics. J. Agric. Food Chem. 33, 213 – 217. Kanjanapruthipong, J., Leng, R.A., 1998. The effects of dietary urea on microbial populations in the rumen of sheep. Asia-Aust. J. Agric. Sci. 11 (6), 661 – 672. Kitilit, J.K., Irungu, K.R.G., Kariuki, J.N., Indetie, D., Changwony, K., 1996. Feeding sorghum silage and pyrethrum marc for sustained growth of boran steers. Focus of Agricultural Research for Sustainable Development in a Changing Economic Environment. Proceedings of the 5th KARI Scientific Conference 14th–16th October, 1996. KARI Headquarters, Nairobi, Kenya. Malossini, F., Bovolenta, S., Piasentier, E., Piras, C., Martillotti, F., 1996. Comparison of n-alkanes and chromium oxide methods for estimating herbage intake by grazing dairy cows. Anim. Feed Sci. Technol. 61, 155 – 165. McDowell, L.R., 1985. In: McDowell, L.R. (Ed.), Nutrition of Grazing Ruminants in Warm Climates. Academic Press, Orlando, Florida. Menke, K.H., Steingass, H., 1988. Estimation of the energetic feed value obtained from the chemical analysis and in vitro gas production using rumen fluid. Anim. Res. Dev. (Ger.) 28, 7 – 55. Minson, D.J., 1982. Effects of chemical and physical composition of herbage eaten upon intake. In: Hacker, J.B (Ed.), Nutritional Limits to Animal Production from Pastures. CAB, Farnham Royal, UK, pp. 167 – 182. Mould, F.L., arskov, E.R., 1984. Manipulation of rumen pH and its influence on the cellulosis in sacco, dry matter degradation and rumen microflora of sheep offered either hay or concentrate. Anim. Feed Sci. Technol. 10, 1 – 4.
Muiruri, H.K., Warui, C.M., Sum, K.S., 2001. Potential of pyrethrum marc as a feed resource for poultry. The Challenges of Drought to Livestock Production in Kenya. Proceedings of the APSK 2001 Annual Symposium on 7–8 March at Egerton University, Njoro, Kenya. NRC, 1989. Nutrient Requirements of Dairy Cattle, 6th revised edn. National Academic Press, Washington, DC. arskov, E.R., McDonald, I., 1979. The estimation of protein degradability in the rumen from incubation measurements weighed according to rate of passage. Agric. Sci. Camb. 9, 499 – 503. arskov, E.R., Hovell, F.D., Mould, F., 1980. The use of nylon bag technique for the evaluation of feedstuffs. Trop. Anim. Prod. 5, 213 – 295. Sinclair, L.A., Garnsworthy, P.C., Newbold, J.R., Buttery, P.J., 1995. The effect of synchronizing the rate of dietary energy and nitrogen release in diets with similar carbohydrate composition and rumen fermentation and microbial protein synthesis in sheep. J. Agric. Sci. Camb. 120, 251 – 263. Spears, J.W., 1994. Minerals in forage. In: Fahey Jr., G.C. (Ed.), Forage Quality, Evaluation and Utilization. National Conference on Forage Quality, Evaluation, and Utilization, Lincoln, pp. 281 – 317. Statistical Analysis System (SAS), 1987. Guide for Personal Computers, Version 6. Statistical Analysis Systems Institute, Cary, NC, pp. 551 – 640. Thomas, C., 1975. The value of pyrethrum marc as a supplement to hay. Pyrethrum Post 14 (2), 53 – 55. Underwood, E.J., 1981. Mineral Nutrition of Livestock, 2nd ed. Commonwealth Agricultural Bureau, Slough, UK. Van Soest, P.J., Robertson, J.B., Lewis, B.A., 1991. Methods for dietary fibre, neutral detergent fibre and non-starch polysaccharides in relation to animal nutrition. J. Dairy Sci. 74, 3588 – 3597. Varma, A., 1991. Handbook of Inductivity Coupled Plasma Atomic Emission Spectroscopy. CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL, p. 380. Walshe, M.J., Grindle, J., Nell, A., Bachman, 1991. Dairy development in Sub-Saharan Africa: a study of issues and options. World Bank Technical Paper, vol. 135. Africa Technical Department Series. Williams, C.H., David, D.J., Lismaa, O., 1962. The determination of chromium oxide in faeces sample by atomic adsorption spectrophotometry. J. Agric. Sci. 59, 381 – 385.
Use of pymarc as a nitrogen source for grazing dairy calves J.M. Wawerua, S.A. Abdulrazaka,T, T.A. Onyangob, T. Fujiharac a
Department of Animal Science, Egerton University, PO Box 536, Njoro, Kenya b National Animal Husbandry Research Centre, PO Box 25, Naivasha, Kenya c Laboratory of Animal Science, Shimane University, Matsue-shi 690, Japan
Received 21 October 2003; received in revised form 21 January 2005; accepted 3 February 2005
Abstract A study was conducted to determine optimal levels of pymarc inclusion as a protein supplement to Chloris gayana during the dry season. Forty Friesian dairy calves of 65 F 7 kg weight, 20 each of males and females, were randomly allocated to a 10diet treatment in a completely randomized design in a factorial arrangement. The treatment diets were: control, 7.5, 15, 22.5, and 30 g DM/kg W0.75 pymarc, with (PBM) or without molasses (PB). Live weight gains, intake, diet digestibility, rumen pH, and rumen ammonia nitrogen were assessed in the 60-day experiment. Herbage intake did not differ ( P N 0.05) among the treatments. Total intake was in the range of 2072–2636 g/day, diet digestibility 565–582 g/kg, and ADG 157–330 g/day, and differed ( P b 0.05) with supplementation. The results showed that rumen pH did not differ significantly ( P N 0.05) between the treatments, ranging between 6.97 and 7.17. Rumen NH3–N control groups PB and PBM had 109.9 and 106.5 mg/l, respectively, while those supplemented increased linearly ( P b 0.05) to 166.5 and 177.14 mg/l, respectively, at the highest level of supplementation. The nutritional profile and potential degradation level of pymarc as well as the performance of calves indicate the latent value as a supplement in providing nitrogen to poor-quality basal diets in the dry season. D 2005 Published by Elsevier B.V. Keywords: Pymarc; Molasses; Calves; Intake; Average daily gain
1. Introduction The demand for animal products in human diet is steadily and substantially increasing with the increasing population, which is expected to be
T Corresponding author. Division of Research and Extension, Egerton University, PO Box 536, Njoro, Kenya. Tel.: +254 51 62550; fax: +254 51 62442. E-mail address: [email protected] (S.A. Abdulrazak). 0301-6226/$ - see front matter D 2005 Published by Elsevier B.V. doi:10.1016/j.livprodsci.2005.02.004
higher than the production by the year 2010. This demands an increase of livestock production (output) and productivity (output per unit input) (Delgado et al., 2001). However, lack of adequate quantity and quality of feed is a major constraint especially in the dry season (Walshe et al., 1991). This is evidenced by high calf mortality (15–20%), morbidity, and low body weight gain of calves at farm levels (Gitau et al., 1994). This scenario has led to diminishing replacement stocks, while delaying age at first service, or more likely the servicing
234
J.M. Waweru et al. / Livestock Production Science 96 (2005) 233–238
of heifers with a poor weight for age, which inevitably results in poor heifer conception and lactation. By-products like pymarc may have potential to mitigate feed shortage during the dry season. Pyrethrum marc (pymarc) produced in large quantities in Kenya is the waste product after dried pyrethrum flowers have been ground and pyrethrins extracted with petro ether. The material is further treated by steam to remove any residual petro ether and to destroy the very small percentage of pyrethrins remaining after extraction (Ayre-Smith, 1956). Extensive work has been done on the nutritional value of by-products such as fishmeal, oilseeds, molasses, and bran; however, limited work has been reported on pymarc as a supplement for growing calves. The objective of this experiment was to determine the potential nutritive value of pymarc based on chemical composition, fibre, minerals, phenolic concentration in vitro, in sacco degradation, and the effects of incremental levels of pymarc as a protein supplement to Rhodes grass pasture by Friesian dairy calves.
2. Materials and methods 2.1. Chemical analysis Dry matter (DM), ash, and nitrogen (N) content were measured according to AOAC (1990). Neutral detergent fibre (NDF), acid detergent fibre (ADF), and acid detergent lignin (ADL) were determined according to Van Soest et al. (1991). Mineral content was determined by atomic absorption spectrophotometry (Varma, 1991). Phenolic compounds were determined as described by Julkunen-Titto (1985). Chromium oxide content in faeces was determined by atomic absorption spectroscopy according to the method of Williams et al. (1962).
where the degradation curve is described as: within a lag time T, y = A, which is the initial washing loss; beyond the time T, y = a + b (1 e ct) where: y = percent degraded time t, a = an intercept representing the portion of dry matter at initiation of incubation (time 0), b = the portion of dry matter potentially degraded in the rumen, c = a rate constant of degradation of fraction b, and t = time of incubation. Samples were incubated in vitro in rumen fluid– buffer mixture in calibrated glass syringes following the procedure of Menke and Steingass (1988). Rumen liquor was obtained from two steers maintained on a similar diet to those of degradability studies. Air-dried and ground (1.0 mm) pymarc samples of about 200 F 5 mg were weighed. The syringe pistons were lubricated with VaselineR petroleum jelly to ease movement and to prevent escape of gas. Thirty (30) milliliters of the mixed rumen fluid plus buffer was used to inoculate the 200 F 5 mg samples placed in the 100-ml gas-tight graduated glass syringes. The syringes were incubated in a water bath maintained at 39 F 0.1 8C, and gently shaken every hour during the first 8 h of incubation. Readings were recorded during 0, 3, 6, 12, 24, 48, 72, and 96 h after incubation. Organic matter digestibility and metabolizable energy values of feeds were calculated using 48-h gas production values as described by Abdulrazak and Fujihara (1999). 2.3. Feeds and supplements The calves were grazed on Chloris gayana pasture, supplemented with 100 g of bran and increasing level of pymarc at control, 7.5, 15, 22.5, and 30 g DM/kg W0.75 with or without molasses (PBM and PB), respectively. The calves were offered a complete mineral lick (Afya BoraR stock Lick) and clean water at all times.
2.2. In sacco and in vitro digestibility 2.4. Measurement of intake and digestibility The rate and extent of degradation of the pymarc were determined in fistulated Friesian steers using the nylon bag technique (arskov et al., 1980) as described by Abdulrazak and Fujihara (1999). The DM disappearance values were fitted to the exponential equation of arskov and McDonald (1979),
Each day, the calves were dosed with two paper capsules containing 2.5 g of powdered chromium (III) oxide during each supplementation. After 6 days of adaptation, two faecal grab samples were taken daily during supplementation for a period of 5 days. The
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daily samples were bulked and dried in an oven at 65 8C and analysed for DM, OM, and chromium oxide content. Intake was estimated from the ratio between the faecal output collected for the portion attributable to the concentrate and indigestibility of the herbage using the equation of Malossini et al. (1996): HI (kg OM day 1) = (D R /F 1c (1 OMDc))/ 1 OMDh), where HI is herbage intake; D is the quantity of Cr2O3 administered; R is the recovery of the marker in faeces; F is its concentration in faeces (g/kg OM); and 1c is the quantity of concentrate fed (kg OM). The term 1c (1 OMDc) represents faecal output from concentrate; OMDh was determined in vivo where three calves were confined for 10 days. The total amount of faeces excreted each day was recorded and a sample of 10% was taken for DM and OM analysis, respectively. The digestibility of the supplemented animals was calculated by fitting the values to the formulae OMD = 1 (D R/F)/HI (kg OM day 1) (Malossini et al., 1996). 2.5. Statistical analysis The data on dry matter intake (DMI), average daily gain (ADG), and diet digestibility were subjected to analysis of covariance using the general linear model of SAS computer package (SAS, 1987). Initial liveweight was used as a covariant in the analysis of DMI and liveweight changes. The model included the effect of molasses. An F test at 5% probability level was used to test for significance and
Table 2 In vitro gas production (ml/200 mg DM) and DM degradation characteristic of pymarc and Rhodes grass Gas production
24 h 48 h a + b (ml) OMD48 (h)
Pymarc Rhodes grass
49.1 27.7
CP OM EE NDF ADF ADL
TEPH 5.19 Ca TET 2.57 Mg CT 0.03 P S Al
14.00 92.69 3.12 36.95 33.91 10.50
Minerals Macrominerals (% DM) 0.37 0.14 0.08 0.09 0.06
Microminerals (ppm) Zn Cu Fe Mn Co
36.95 45.00 671.00 33.60 3.89
CP = crude protein; NDF = neutral detergent fibre; ADF = acid detergent fibre; ADL= acid detergent lignin; OM = organic matter; EE = ether extract; TEPH = total extractable phenolics; TET = total extractable tannins; CT = condensed tannins.
70.6 53.6
74.3 57.0 B
A+B
Pymarc Rhodes grass
51.6 46.4
61.7 49.9
24.9 23.5
36.7 31.5
10.1 3.5
a and b are constants in the equation (arskov and McDonald, 1979). OMD48 (h) = in vitro organic matter digestibility calculated from the equation: OMD (%) = 18.53 + 0.9239 gas production (at 48 h) + 0.054 CP (Menke and Steingass, 1988). A = washing loss; B = portion degraded with time (arskov and McDonald, 1979).
significantly different means separated using orthogonal contrasts.
3. Results The results of chemical composition, phenolic concentration, and mineral concentration of pymarc supplement and Rhodes grass are presented in Table 1. The results of the in vitro gas production and dry matter degradability of pymarc supplement and Rhodes grass roughage are shown in Table 2, while results of the in sacco dry matter degradability of pymarc supplement and Rhodes grass roughage are demonstrated in Fig. 1. Table 3 shows the mean DMI, OMI, ADG, diet digestibility, rumen pH, and rumen NH3–N obtained in the experiment. Low acceptability 100
Degradability
Phenolics (% DM)
60.4 41.6
DM degradability 24 h 48 h A
Table 1 Chemical composition, phenolic concentration, and mineral concentration in pymarc Composition (% DM)
235
80 60 40 Pymarc Rhodes grass
20 0 0
3
6
12
24
48
72
96
Incubation (Hrs) Fig. 1. In sacco DM degradation of pymarc and Rhodes grass hay (basal diet) used in the study.
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Table 3 Intake, ADG, digestibility, pH, and rumen NH3–N in calves grazed Rhodes grass pasture supplemented with pymarc Level of supplement (g DM/kg W Molasses Diet intake DMI (kg/day)
B + T +
OMI (kg/day)
B + T +
ADG (g/day) + Digestibility DMD (g/kg DM) + OMD (g/kg DM) + pH + Rumen NH3–N (mg/l) + a,b,c
0.75
)
0
7.5
15
22.5
30
S.E.M.
2.00a 2.02a 2.07c 2.11c 1.70a 1.72a 1.79c 1.79c 157a 169a
2.12 2.15a 2.30bc 2.34bc 1.83a 1.87a 2.01b 2.19b 228b 241b
2.13a 2.03a 2.50 ab 2.41ab 1.91a 1.93a 2.29a 2.36a 276c 289c
2.05a 2.06 2.60a 2.64a 1.93a 1.91a 2.48a 2.54a 293c 308cd
1.96a 1.89a 2.60a 2.63a 1.86a 1.90a 2.34a 2.62a 296c 330d
0.014
565c 565c 571.26e 570.26e 7.06a 7.11a 109.9a 106.3a
570b 570b 581.29d 580.85d 7.04a 7.14a 138.2b 148.8b
570b 570b 597c 596c 7.07a 7.08a 155.9bc 155.9bc
570b 571b 611b 612b 6.97a 6.99a 170.1c 166.5c
582a 573b 624a 625a 7.17a 6.99a 166.5c 177.1c
0.050
0.014 0.012 0.012 4.770 3.970
0.070 0.03 8.530
Means within a row with different superscript are significantly different ( P b 0.05); B = basal diet; T = total diet (B + supplement).
of pymarc was observed during the first 3 weeks of the experiment; however, during the subsequent weeks, all pymarc offered in all treatments was consumed except at the level of 30 g DM/kg W 0.75 without molasses. Supplementation did not have a significant effect on basal diet (B) intake. TDMI, TOMI, and ADG were different ( P b 0.05) (Table 3). The values for apparent digestibility indicated that the control groups had the lowest DM and OM digestibility. The pH value ranged between 6.97 and 7.17, while rumen NH3–N ranged between 106.5 and 177.1 mg/l and was different.
4. Discussion The results of chemical composition (Table 1) were within the reported ranges of 11.8–14.38% crude protein in other works on pymarc (Irungu et al., 1981; Kitilit et al., 1996; Muiruri et al., 2001). Mineral concentration compares and also contrasts with what has been reported in other works with pymarc (Griffin, 1974; Thomas, 1975). Calcium is closely related to phosphorus metabolism and a
dietary Ca:P ratio of 1:1 to 2:1 is assumed to be ideal for growth and bone formation (Underwood, 1981). Griffin (1974) reported a ratio of 1.88:1, while ratios of 4.6:1 were obtained in this work. Factors such as soils, climate, and season contribute to variation in the concentration of minerals (Spears, 1994). This ratio, however, does not affect the performance of calves; Ca:P ratios in the range of 1:1 to 7:1 have been shown to have no effect on calves’ performance (Underwood, 1981). Iron requirements of ruminants are not well established (Underwood, 1981); however, NRC (1989) suggested 30–100 ppm. Although a level of 671 ppm was obtained, the level is below the maximum tolerable level of 1000 ppm for cattle (NRC, 1989). Nevertheless, iron is rarely of practical concern in grazing animals, except in circumstances involving blood loss or disturbance of iron metabolism as a consequence of parasitic infestation or disease (McDowell, 1985). A copper concentration of 45 ppm was obtained; although higher than that reported by Griffin (1974), this level is within the minimum requirement and the maximum tolerable limit of 10–100 ppm, respectively, reported in cattle (NRC, 1989). Other minerals
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compare favourably with the reported work (Griffin, 1974; Thomas, 1975). Supplementation of C. gayana pasture with pymarc diets with (PBM) or without molasses (PB), respectively, was different although not significant, ranging from 1699 to 1899 g/day. The lack of increase in intake of the basal diet is suggested to be due to adequate content of CP in the basal diet of C. gayana (72 g/kg DM), which meant that intake was not limited. Therefore, since the rumen microbe requirements for nitrogen had been met, additional high-quality pymarc had no further stimulating effect on the intake of the basal diet. Gulbransen (1974) reported that supplements substitute part of the basal diet; however, he showed further that the degree of substitution was greater for poor-quality forage than high-quality forage. The increases in total DMI results are consistent with other works (Irungu et al., 1981; Kitilit et al., 1996). An increase in intake could probably be due to the small particle size of pymarc, which increases the outflow rate and reduces the rumen retention time, hence boosting intake. Minson (1982) reported increased intake by 14–77% following provision of supplementary protein. An establishment of a suitable rumen environment that aids digestion could also explain the increased intake. Improvement of ADG and diet digestibility probably occurred as a result of the higher nutritive value of pymarc and the reduction on the fibre and improved rumen environment. Improved liveweight gains have also been reported on roughage diets supplemented with pymarc (Irungu et al., 1981; Kitilit et al., 1996). The better response of PBM to PB could be attributed to a more suitable rumen environment as a result of supplying readily available source of energy (molasses) to micro-flora, which in turn leads to a high microbial activity leading to higher NH3–N, increased TDMI and TOMI, and improved diet digestibility. This is a phenomenon of synchronization of energy and protein, which results in a better supply of energy and protein to microbes and hence a more efficient microbial protein synthesis (Sinclair et al., 1995). It could also be explained by the elevation of feed intake and improved diet digestibility. Total gas production varied, with pymarc showing higher gas production than Rhodes grass, which was also reflected in higher OMD (48 h) of 74.34% and
237
56.97%, respectively. The OMD shows that pymarc has the potential to supply metabolisable energy more efficiently than Rhodes grass, adding to its value as a nitrogen supplement. Changes in digestibility (in vitro dry matter digestibility—IVDMD) are associated with increasing NDF (fibre) content. The higher rate of potential degradation (Table 2) observed may be related to the higher content of NDF in Rhodes grass (72%) relative to 37% in pymarc. Similar trends in degradation have been reported (Kitilit et al., 1996) using pymarc and sorghum silage with NDF of 53.3% and 77.8%, respectively. The nutritional profile and potential degradation level of pymarc is an indicator of the latent value as a supplement in providing nitrogen to poor-quality basal diets. The rumen pH was above 6.2, a value suggested to be a critical level in initiating cellulosis (Mould and arskov, 1984) for PBM and PB diets. Rumen NH3–N ranged from 106.5 to 177.14 mg/l. This value is well above the stipulated threshold of 45–60 mg/l (Kanjanapruthipong and Leng, 1998). It is possible that the supplement diet created a more suitable rumen environment in supplying a ready source of energy for microflora, which in turn led to higher microbial activity and NH3–N turnover. It was concluded that pymarc is a good nitrogen source for dry season feeding.
Acknowledgement Financial assistance for this research from EgertonKARI collaboration is gratefully acknowledged.
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