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Users in systems development projects
55
Users in systems development projects Marja-Terttu
Tyynel~i
Carelcomp Oy, Ki~ydenpunojankatu 10 B, SF-00180 Helsinki, Finland
Some principles are very important in the systems development process: - users participate in every phase; - management is involved in the process and supports it; - working methods are practical and easy to learn. So end-users are the key factors in the systems development and they have to have proper education and support.
Keywords: Systems development, Working methods, Users, Participants.
Marja-Terttu Tyynei~i was a systems analyst, special researcher and production manager in the DP Office of the Finnish State Railways between 1965 and 1968. Since then she has been a consultant in Carelcomp. Oy. She has shared in many co-operative tasks in the area of education and methods development, being a member of the DP education planning group of the state administration (1978-1986) and member and president of the board of the Computer Society in Helsinki. Education & Computing 6 (1990) 55-57 Elsevier Elsevier Science Publishers B.V.
Approaches
to
systems
development
There have been four main approaches to specifying systems. All these approaches are needed, depending on the objectives of the systems. The first approach is to automate routines. Earlier, these kinds of systems were made by data professionals with some understanding of the world of users. The second approach is to concentrate on the data and data structure, with the objective of building general databases. In this case, more understanding of the real world of users is required. The third approach is user-oriented systems development. This approach has become important because computers are now tools for everyone, and systems development consists not only of specifying the data structure and handling the data, but also the designing of processes and jobs. The fourth approach to development is based on what we have to offer to our customers. All this means that developers have to know the business area thoroughly, since the systems are not only a part of the business but they can also create new business ideas. The result of this is a growing pressure for ever more sophisticated, responsive and complex systems. There is a need for flexibility and rapid changes in systems. It still costs too much, and takes too long, to build systems, and there are often application backlogs of several years. One of the greatest problems in the systems development area has been management's remoteness, both to understanding the development requirements and controlling the development process. An other problem has been how to make users, of all kinds, participate in every phase of the development process. There are some main principles on how to manage and succeed in the process: -the end-users and adp-professionals work closely together in every phase of the process; the project team uses concrete and practical methods which are easy to learn; - the project is divided into manageable units; - the project is organized well and the team can work effectively; and - the project is supported by management.
56
M.T. Tyynelii / Users in systems development projects
Methods
The start of the project is very important. A good way to start is to arrange a brush-up seminar for the project team and its leading group. In this seminar, data professionals are trained to understand the functions of the system and users are taught to understand the methods used. The main goal in training methods is not to teach theories in detail, but to teach working t e c h n i q u e s - - c o n centrating on how to seek new solutions and ideas creatively, and how to visualize them. During the seminar, the project team and the leading group check the goals and the boundaries of the target system and decide the check points for the project. The working method we are applying, based on the wall chart technique developed by Kari Saaren-SeppRl~i, is widely used in Finland. This technique is used in every phase, but especially in that part of the process where users are participating. The main idea is to visualize the target system and all of its components, using large wall charts. On charts, the project team constructs images by using pieces of coloured cardboard with text. These pictures are very easy to understand and to change. We use this technique in problem analysis, function analysis, conceptual schemas, time schedules, data flows, job and organization design, etc. It can be the first version of a system prototype. The wall chart technique is most effective at the beginning of the work, where creativeness is needed. The more technical tools, such as CASE, are useful in proceeding with the project.
Development phases and participants
Our model consists of several phases which are organized in separate projects: - planning the information strategy; - analysis of functions and systems; - design of systems; - construction of systems; - implementation; and - design of jobs. The job design phase runs parallel in time with other phases. Often, the implementation phase also begins at the same time as the earlier phases. Information strategy must be planned by top management. If management is not participating in this phase, it can be expected that the informa-
tion strategy will reflect technical and data-modelling considerations, rather than any real perception of the future needs of the business. The commitment of management in tiffs plan is the key factor, so that development projects get the resources and support needed. Management needs some help for information on working methods and technical possibilities, but the most important matter is to turn the planning phase into action. In this work, a consultant is often needed (inside or outside of the enterprise). The construction phase is mainly work for data professionals, but in other phases, users have to participate. Conceptual analysis can be done in several phases, and I have often been told how difficult it is to do. In my opinion, the best results are obtained when we trust the capabilities of users to form models of their own real world. This analysis work must also start in a seminar where the team is trained in wall chart techniques and the principles of data structures. Practical guidance should be given in normalization techniques. It is important to differentiate the design of jobs and organization from the development phases, because it often leads to reorganization and training in new jobs. After the implementation phase, the steady time of production begins. But that means that normal maintenance is taking place. Is is said that all computer systems are made at least twice. Maintenance is an exhaustive fight using minimal human resources, who are often frustrated in their work. The organization of maintenance can be critical in using systems effectively. In many organizations, there is a special job of system manager or support person. This person is a semi data professional and needs special skills in understanding computer techniques, user needs and communication between different kinds of people.
H o w to s u c c e e d w i t h t h e c h a n g e
In the beginning of the project, it is important that all the parties concerned should be adequately informed about the goals of the project. But flow of information is necessary all through the project. Results of the system design can be demonstrated on the wall charts. Demonstration can be organized like a show, where users are
M.T. Tyynelii / Users in systems development projects
informed about the techniques and the solution and are asked to evaluate it and give their expectations of the system. In the same show, the project can test designs and begin to train users in the incoming system. If the users are against the change, this kind of step-by-step information can help to diminish their resistance.
57
Informing and training users in adequate scheduling and designing implementation tasks carefully are the key factors in acceptance of the change. It is important that we should be able to develop good and flexible systems, but we also have to be prepared for change and convinced that the change is to the right direction.
Users in systems development projects Marja-Terttu
Tyynel~i
Carelcomp Oy, Ki~ydenpunojankatu 10 B, SF-00180 Helsinki, Finland
Some principles are very important in the systems development process: - users participate in every phase; - management is involved in the process and supports it; - working methods are practical and easy to learn. So end-users are the key factors in the systems development and they have to have proper education and support.
Keywords: Systems development, Working methods, Users, Participants.
Marja-Terttu Tyynei~i was a systems analyst, special researcher and production manager in the DP Office of the Finnish State Railways between 1965 and 1968. Since then she has been a consultant in Carelcomp. Oy. She has shared in many co-operative tasks in the area of education and methods development, being a member of the DP education planning group of the state administration (1978-1986) and member and president of the board of the Computer Society in Helsinki. Education & Computing 6 (1990) 55-57 Elsevier Elsevier Science Publishers B.V.
Approaches
to
systems
development
There have been four main approaches to specifying systems. All these approaches are needed, depending on the objectives of the systems. The first approach is to automate routines. Earlier, these kinds of systems were made by data professionals with some understanding of the world of users. The second approach is to concentrate on the data and data structure, with the objective of building general databases. In this case, more understanding of the real world of users is required. The third approach is user-oriented systems development. This approach has become important because computers are now tools for everyone, and systems development consists not only of specifying the data structure and handling the data, but also the designing of processes and jobs. The fourth approach to development is based on what we have to offer to our customers. All this means that developers have to know the business area thoroughly, since the systems are not only a part of the business but they can also create new business ideas. The result of this is a growing pressure for ever more sophisticated, responsive and complex systems. There is a need for flexibility and rapid changes in systems. It still costs too much, and takes too long, to build systems, and there are often application backlogs of several years. One of the greatest problems in the systems development area has been management's remoteness, both to understanding the development requirements and controlling the development process. An other problem has been how to make users, of all kinds, participate in every phase of the development process. There are some main principles on how to manage and succeed in the process: -the end-users and adp-professionals work closely together in every phase of the process; the project team uses concrete and practical methods which are easy to learn; - the project is divided into manageable units; - the project is organized well and the team can work effectively; and - the project is supported by management.
56
M.T. Tyynelii / Users in systems development projects
Methods
The start of the project is very important. A good way to start is to arrange a brush-up seminar for the project team and its leading group. In this seminar, data professionals are trained to understand the functions of the system and users are taught to understand the methods used. The main goal in training methods is not to teach theories in detail, but to teach working t e c h n i q u e s - - c o n centrating on how to seek new solutions and ideas creatively, and how to visualize them. During the seminar, the project team and the leading group check the goals and the boundaries of the target system and decide the check points for the project. The working method we are applying, based on the wall chart technique developed by Kari Saaren-SeppRl~i, is widely used in Finland. This technique is used in every phase, but especially in that part of the process where users are participating. The main idea is to visualize the target system and all of its components, using large wall charts. On charts, the project team constructs images by using pieces of coloured cardboard with text. These pictures are very easy to understand and to change. We use this technique in problem analysis, function analysis, conceptual schemas, time schedules, data flows, job and organization design, etc. It can be the first version of a system prototype. The wall chart technique is most effective at the beginning of the work, where creativeness is needed. The more technical tools, such as CASE, are useful in proceeding with the project.
Development phases and participants
Our model consists of several phases which are organized in separate projects: - planning the information strategy; - analysis of functions and systems; - design of systems; - construction of systems; - implementation; and - design of jobs. The job design phase runs parallel in time with other phases. Often, the implementation phase also begins at the same time as the earlier phases. Information strategy must be planned by top management. If management is not participating in this phase, it can be expected that the informa-
tion strategy will reflect technical and data-modelling considerations, rather than any real perception of the future needs of the business. The commitment of management in tiffs plan is the key factor, so that development projects get the resources and support needed. Management needs some help for information on working methods and technical possibilities, but the most important matter is to turn the planning phase into action. In this work, a consultant is often needed (inside or outside of the enterprise). The construction phase is mainly work for data professionals, but in other phases, users have to participate. Conceptual analysis can be done in several phases, and I have often been told how difficult it is to do. In my opinion, the best results are obtained when we trust the capabilities of users to form models of their own real world. This analysis work must also start in a seminar where the team is trained in wall chart techniques and the principles of data structures. Practical guidance should be given in normalization techniques. It is important to differentiate the design of jobs and organization from the development phases, because it often leads to reorganization and training in new jobs. After the implementation phase, the steady time of production begins. But that means that normal maintenance is taking place. Is is said that all computer systems are made at least twice. Maintenance is an exhaustive fight using minimal human resources, who are often frustrated in their work. The organization of maintenance can be critical in using systems effectively. In many organizations, there is a special job of system manager or support person. This person is a semi data professional and needs special skills in understanding computer techniques, user needs and communication between different kinds of people.
H o w to s u c c e e d w i t h t h e c h a n g e
In the beginning of the project, it is important that all the parties concerned should be adequately informed about the goals of the project. But flow of information is necessary all through the project. Results of the system design can be demonstrated on the wall charts. Demonstration can be organized like a show, where users are
M.T. Tyynelii / Users in systems development projects
informed about the techniques and the solution and are asked to evaluate it and give their expectations of the system. In the same show, the project can test designs and begin to train users in the incoming system. If the users are against the change, this kind of step-by-step information can help to diminish their resistance.
57
Informing and training users in adequate scheduling and designing implementation tasks carefully are the key factors in acceptance of the change. It is important that we should be able to develop good and flexible systems, but we also have to be prepared for change and convinced that the change is to the right direction.