Uses and bioassays in Phyllanthus (Euphorbiaceae): a compilation

Journal of Ethnopharmacology, Elsevier Scientific

Publishers

97

34 ( 1991) 97- I33 Ireland

Ltd.

Review Article

Uses and bioassays in Phyltanthus (Euphorbiaceae): II. The subgenus Phyllanthd

a compilation

David W. Unandera, Grady L. Websterb and Baruch S. Blumberg” ” Division of Population

Science,

Fox Chase Cancer Center, 7701 Burholme Avenue, Philadelphia, Botany. University of Cal$wnia, Davis, CA 95616 (U.S.A.) (Accepted

March

PA 1911 I and b Department

of

30, 1991)

References to either indigenous uses or the results of controlled assays are numerous for species of Phyllanrhus (Euphorbiaceae). These citations have been arranged by subgenus, section, subsection and species and will be published in four parts, including (Part IV) analysis, discussion and conclusions concerning apparent clustering of some uses or effects within taxa. This paper (Part II) covers the subgenus Phyllanthus. Key words:

Phyllanthus;

ethnobotany;

traditional

medicine.

cent studies failed to confirm fully some of the earlier results (Leelarasamee et al., 1990; Thyagarajan et al., 1990). A logical follow-up question was whether related Phyllanthus species might be equally or more active against hepadnaviruses such as hepatitis B. Since there are at least 550 species of Phyllanthus, screening all of them would entail considerable time and expense. Based on a preliminary survey of the literature, the senior author (D.W.U.) made a hypothesis in 1987 that records for plants used against jaundice or hepatitis would be concentrated within the subgenus Phyllanthus. The objectives of this series of papers were, then, to organize ethnobotanical records taxonomically, both to test such hypotheses of clustered usage and to clarify many of the confusing citations for future workers in this genus. The first paper in this series (Unander et al., 1990b) presented all the records of traditional uses and laboratory assay results for the subgenera Isocladus, Kirganelia, Cicca and Emblica. This paper will cover records for the subgenus Phyllanthus. The third paper will cover records for the re-

Introduction Plants used in traditional or folk medicine have been shown to have a greater probability of possessing biological and/or medicinal activity than plants selected at random (Ortiz de Montellano, 1975; Spjut and Perdue, 1976; Farnsworth and Kaas, 1981; Trotter et al., 1983). Such an approach, based on records of plants used traditionally as remedies for jaundice or hepatitis, helped identify Phyllanthus amarus Schum. and Thonn. (Euphorbiaceae) as a good candidate to yield natural products active against hepatitis B virus (Venkateswaran et al., 1987; Blumberg et al., 1989). Although preliminary results have been en1987; couraging (Venkateswaran et al., Thirunalasundari, 1987; Thyagarajan et al., 1988; Blumberg et al., 1989; Yanagi et al., 1989), two reCorrespondence to: David W. Unander. Division of Population Science, Fox Chase Cancer Center, 7701 Burholme Avenue. Philadelphia, PA 191 I I, U.S.A. *For Part I, see Journal of Erhnopharmacology 30, 233-264. 0378~8741/%03.50 0 1991 Elsevier Scientific Published and Printed in Ireland

Publishers

Ireland

Ltd.

98

maining subgenera, namely, Conami, Gomphidium, Eriococcus, Phyllanthodendron, Xylophylla and Botryanthus and give an index of the species cited

1957) in this paper is placed in subgenus Phyllanthus by Webster in accordance with a complete revision of the genus Phyllanthus to be published

in the three papers. The fourth and final paper will summarize the data by use, and test hypotheses about subgeneric clustering of usage, including uses to treat jaundice and hepatitis.

elsewhere. There are a number of sections and subsections whose putative place is in this subgenus, but for which there is no published study indicating the most probable relationships to other sections and subsections. One of the most difficult problems in organizing ethnobotanical data for Phyllanthus was the identification of the correct species for citations under P. niruri. The history of the origins of this problem is given by Webster (1957). True P. niruri, Linnaeus’ type of the genus, was collected in Barbados and described in 1738 (Linnaeus, 1738). Both Linnaeus and other early taxonomists placed a number of other species, including P. amarus, under the name of P. niruri, with the result that almost every citation more than 20 years old for P. niruri cannot be taken at face value without further details. Where good taxonomic keys were provided, local species identification for the present paper was usually straightforward. In Central and South America, based on descriptors in keys, what was called “P. niruri” was often, in fact, P. amarus; while true P. niruri was often found under the name of P. lathyroides (see, for example, Standley, 1931; Standley and Steyermark, 1949; MacBride, 1951). Specimens of P. niruri have never been confirmed from outside the Americas (Webster, 1957). Where the name P. niruri has been applied to African or Asian species, P. amarus, P. debitis, P. fraternus or P. rotundtfolius usually seem to have been intended. For these erroneous citations, the most likely assigment(s) was/were made based on current understanding of the geographical distribution of these species. An additional complication is the origin of P. amarus, a species found today throughout the tropics as a weed. Herbaceous Phyllanthus species have been used medicinally in Asia for centuries. In many parts of Asia today, P. amarus is the predominant species used; on the other hand, it is also at present frequently the predominant herbaceous representative of the section Phyllanthus, so that it cannot be stated with certainty whether or not it was the original herbaceous Phyllanthus

Methodology

The methods of literature search were given in the first paper (Unander et al., 1990b) and will only be briefly summarized here. General library searches of ethnobotanical books and journals yielded many of the references. These references were compiled over several years as opportunities arose to use libraries both inside and outside the United States. Computerized databases were also searched under Phyllanthus. In some cases data were communicated by interested individuals. Results

Citations for each species are organized by countries within continents in this order: Africa (west to east), the Americas (north to south), Asia (west to east), Australia/Oceania (west to east), Europe and General (laboratory data). Citations give the country or region followed by any further information regarding the specific locale or ethnic group, the plant part, the method of preparation, specific uses and/or effects and the references. Within countries, references are presented by date of publication. Where citations existed for specific regions or peoples within a country, these follow citations for the entire country, and are ordered geographically west to east. One exception to this was van Rhede (1690) under P. debilis: although this reference is only based on uses in Kerala (formerly known as Malabar), India, it may have served as the basis for many later citations for India as a whole, so it is placed as the first citation. Where numerous laboratory studies existed, we attempted to group results from similar experiments. We attempted to resolve taxonomic difficulties as best we could within the scope of this study. Section Pentandra Webster, which had previously been placed in subgenus Kirganelia (Webster,

99

species used. Various lines of evidence support an American origin of P. amarus; hence, in Asia it may have replaced a less competitive cousin in the field and in medicinal usage. On the basis of morphology, the closest apparent relative to P. amarus is P. abnormis, endemic to Florida and Texas, differing from the former mainly in seed size and growth habit (Webster, 1957). Based on numerous collections, P. amarus is either indigenous or a very old introduction throughout tropical America, whereas P. debilis and P. fraternus can be shown to be recent introductions (Webster, 1957, 1970). Chromosome numbers also support a different origin for P. amarus (2n = 26 or 52) as opposed to P. debilis and P. fraternus (2n = 24) (Bancilhon, 1971). Ethnobotanical data are often unclear regarding botanical identity, as illustrated by the problem at hand. In the Ayurvedic system in India, for example, no definitive botanical descriptions exist in the original literature, and the plants indicated by many of the old Sanskrit words have been lost to history (Handa et al., 1951; Chopra et al., 1958). In some cases, different names were given to the same plant and in other cases the same name was attributed to a number of different plants (Sivarajan and Balachandran, 1984). It was the opinion of Dymock (Dymock, 1886; Dymock et al., 1893) that the same common names in a number of Indian languages applied to both “P. niruri” and P. urinaria. Numerous Sanskrit words (the language in which the original Ayurvedic works were recorded) describe both “P. niruri” and P. urinaria (Kirtikar and Basu, 1975). The adjective red has sometimes been added to characterize P. urinaria (Rumphius, 1750; Dymock, 1886; Dymock et al., 1893) yet, we have obtained red- and greencolored accessions of both P. amarus and P. urinaria, so the word cannot be ruled out as sometimes having been only a descriptor of varietal types within species. At any rate, even the rather visually different P. urinaria was (is) often used interchangeably with those species known earlier as P. niruri (P. amarus, P. debilis and P. fraternus) in the traditional medicine systems of India (van Rhede, 1690; Dymock, 1886; Dymock et al., 1893; Nadkarni and Nadkarni, 1954; Council of Scientific and Industrial Research, 1969; Kir-

tikar and Basu, 1975) suggesting that the practitioners did not differentiate it according to our current taxonomic understanding. A similar situation exists in Malaya, where the same common names apply to both “P. niruri” and P. urinaria (Henderson, 1959). The earliest botanical descriptions we could examine from southern India, Sri Lanka and Indonesia, which were cited as P. urinaria and P. niruri, respectively (van Rhede, 1690; Burman, 1737; Rumphius 1750), best describe P. urinaria (a more distinctive species) and P. debilis. The type specimen of P. debilis was collected from Madras in 1799 (Webster, 1957); today, however, P. amarus predominates over P. debilis in the Madras area, suggesting that it is an introduced species. Samples of plants collected from the Madras area in 1983-1988 as “P. niruri” were predominantly P. amarus with occasional plants of P. debifis. It thus seems unlikely that P. amarus would have been overlooked in the early collections if it had been there. Data from plant collections in the Pacific Islands (Whistler, A.A., pers. commun.) suggest that P. amarus did not occur there until the mid-1800s, but once introduced, it became more common than the indigenous P. virgatus, and was used interchangeably or even predominantly for P. virgatus in the traditional medicine. By analogy, something similar may well have occurred in India and other Asian countries. By the late 1800s botanical descriptions of P. niruri in India suggest that both P. amarus and P. debilis may have been present (Hooker, 1890). For the present paper, therefore, for citations from mid-l 800 onward, current biogeographical understanding was used in assigning possible species to citations of P. niruri. This included a published review of corrections for Indian specimens previously cited as P. niruri (Mitra and Jain, 1985) and unpublished data of G.L.W. In some, cases, the citation was repeated for each possible species, based on location and current understanding of geographical distribution records. Since there was so much uncertainity in the subsection Swartziani regarding citations under the name of P. niruri, we have presented together citations which may apply (a) to P. amarus, P. debilis and/or P. fraternus; (b) to P.

100

amarus and/or P. debilis; and (c) to P. amarus and/or P. fraternus. Tentative assignments were also made for citations which may include P. airyshawii (Brunel and Roux, 1984). Subgenus Phyllanthus: tion Phyllanthus

section Phyllanthus: subsec-

P. niruri L.

Bahamas: Exumas and Long Island: Bahamians of West African origin (arrived in the 1800s). Leaves: decoction: used to treat colds, flu, stomachache, typhoid fever and as a laxative; used with salt and lemon juice, or with the leaves of Annona muricata L. and Leucaena leucocephala (Lam.) Dewitt, or with Turnera ulmifolia L. to reduce fever; used with Salvia occidentalis SW. to treat pains and worms. The juice of the leaves together with the leaves of Stachytarpheta jamaicensis (L.) Vahl is taken for nine days to clear worms. Roots: a decoction together with sour lime juice (Citrus auranttfolia (Christm.) Swingle) is used to treat poor appetite from a bloated feeling (Eldridge, 1975). Dominican Republic and Haiti. Whole plant: decoction: used to treat malaria, stomachaches, diabetes and used as a diuretic. The common names are “Creole quinine” (quinina criolla) and “quinine of the country” (quinine du pays); the same names and uses are applied to P. amarus, P. niruri and P. stipulatus (Liogier, 1974). Haiti. Leaves: macerated and used in baths or in oral decoctions to treat fevers (Weniger et al., 1986). Puerto Rico. Leaves: method of preparation unspecified: used to treat stomachaches. Leaves, stem: used as a diuretic (de Grosourdy, 1864). These uses are cited for P. niruri but probably also refer to P. amarus, and are likewise cited for P. urinaria and P. stipulatus. U.S. Virgin Islands. Plant part unspecified: decoction: used to treat boils; given to increase the appetite; the common name is “Creole senna” (Oakes and Morris, 1958). Cited as P. niruri and described as being wild and rare; therefore, probably true P. niruri. U.S. Virgin Islands. Toxicity in chickens was reported anecdotally; no toxicity tests were done;

the common name is “Creole senna” (Oakes and Butcher, 1962). Cited as P. niruri; based on Oakes and Morris (1958) probably refers to true P. niruri. Guadeloupe and Martinique. Plant part unspecified: infusions of about 8 g/250 ml water are used to treat fevers, urine retention, jaundice and dropsy; the decoction is also used as a bitter tonic, a diuretic, a deobstruent and a gentle laxative. Phyllanthus amarus, P. niruri, P. urinaria and P. caroliniensis are used interchangeably; P. umarus is the most commonly used (Stehle and Stehle, 1962). Antilles and Guyana. Leaves and seeds: decoction: three cups/day used to treat diabetes (Manfred, 1947). Cited as P. niruri, but could also include P. amarus or other species, since the common names cited (peronilla de1 pasto, filanto urinario) are likewise used for P. urinaria. Mexico: Oaxaca: Teotitlan: Mazatec Indians. Subspecies lathyroides. Leaves: decoction: used as a wash for conjunctivitis, and taken orally to induce vomiting; leaf poultices are applied to treat boils (Schultes, 1969). Honduras: Jicaque people. Flowers: ground with water into a paste and applied to soothe spider bites (Lentz, 1986). El Salvador. Plant part unspecified: used as a purgative and as a diuretic (Calderon and Standley, 1941). Cited as P. niruri but could also be P. amarus; the common name, “broom” (escoba), seems more suggestive of P. amarus. South America. Roots: used to treat liver and kidney disturbances (Albornoz-M., 1963). South America. Whole plant, roots: used to treat various urinary complaints: i.e., edema, excess albumin, excess uric acid, calcifications in the bladder, liver or kidneys. A decoction of the leaves and seeds together with a Citrus syrup is used to treat diabetes or jaundice. Two varieties are cited: the more active one is smaller (Morton, 1981). Since P. amarus has smaller leaves and stems than P. niruri, perhaps this refers to P. amarus. French Guiana. Used as a diuretic; no further details given (Heckel, 1897). French Guiana. Leaves: infusion: used as a bile stimulant, to treat fevers and as a post-partum medicine (Luu, 1975). Colombia. Plant part unspecified: used as a

diuretic, as a purgative and to treat diabetes; also used against lice; no details given regarding the method of preparation (Garcia-Barriga, 1975). Colombia. Subspecies lathyroides. Plant part unspecified: used as a diuretic, antispasmodic, to treat problems of genito-urinary tract, and as a fish poison; a very small amount taken with vinegar produces prolonged feelings of slight drunkenness (Garcia-Barriga, 1975). Possibly P. acuminatus from the illustration. Colombia: “Holy Friday” (Viernes Sunto). No indigenous uses are cited (Perez-Arbelaez, 1956). The illustration presented is almost certainly P. niruri.

Venezuela.

“Poor

man’s quinine”

quinina de

pobre) (Schnee, 1960).

Brazil. Leaves and seeds: decoction: used to treat diabetes (Millspaugh, 1892). Cited as P. niruri, but based on location could also refer to P. amarus.

Brazil. Under the citation of P. niruri, mention is made of use in Indonesia (Java), Puerto Rico and Brazil of leaves as a purgative, a dysentery remedy and to treat menstrual disorders, dropsy, diabetes and skin disorders; roots: used to treat jaundice (Dragendorff, 1898). It is unclear which uses and which regions are specific for P. niruri, P. amarus, P. debilis and/or P. jiraternus; the text may suggest that use to treat diabetes is indigenous to Brazil. Brazil. Plant part unspecified: used as a diuretic and a sudorific (sweat inducer). Leaves and seeds: decoction: used to treat diabetes. Several related (but unnamed) species are used interchangeably (Hoehne, 1939). Brazil. Whole plant: used as a diuretic, to treat diabetes, herpes, gonorrhea and urinary discharges (Penna, 1941). Citations are given for both P. niruri and P. parvifolius Steud.; the latter is a synonym of P. niruri ssp. lathyroides. Brazil: Minas Gerais: Ituiutaba. Plant part unspecified: used to treat “stones” (Macedo, 1956). Brazil: Minas Gerais. Plant part unspecified: common medicine used by the poor in both the country and the city; used to treat various urinary tract problems, pains in the hip area, dropsy, albuminuria (serum albumin in the urine), bladder

inflammations, “stones of the liver”, kidneys or bladder, and as a general diuretic (Cruz, 1965). Brazil. Used as a diuretic; no further details given (Mors and Rizzini, 1966; de Mello, 1980). Brazil. Plant part unspecified: widely used as a diuretic, as a sweat inducer and as a deobstruent. Leaves and seeds: decoction used to treat diabetes, jaundice, malarial fever and urinary infections (Pio-Correa, 1969). A number of species are cited, but all except P. amarus are synonyms of P. niruri; P. niruri is illustrated. Brazil. Leaf, stem and/or root: infusions are drunk to treat kidney or bladder stones; also used to treat fevers (Mors and Rizzini, 1966; Altschul, 1973; Calixto et al., 1984). Brazil: Minas Gerais and other states. Plant part unspecified: widely used as a diuretic, as a sudorific, as a deobstruent, as a stomach tonic to treat urinary diseases, kidney stones, prostate and bladder problems, cystitis, dropsy, liver problems, jaundice, blenorrhagia, leuchorrhea, intermittent fevers (probably malaria) and bronchitis. Leaves and seeds: used particularly to treat diabetes; external uses include the treatment of eczema, itches and purulent wounds. Decoctions (of unspecified plant parts) are prepared by boiling 10 g of plant material per litre of water for 30 min, cooling, filtering and then taking orally small amounts 2-3 times/day (Cordeiro, 1983). The description and illustration suggest true P. niruri. Argentina, Brazil. Used as an emmenagogue and abortifacient; no further details given (Moreno, 1975). Argentina. Whole plant: used as a diuretic and as a tonic. Leaves: bitter but a good stomach “fortifier”. Roots, whole plant: infusion: prepared by using a large spoonful, and taken with milk twice daily to treat bladder diseases, blenorragia, gonorrhea, dropsy, and prostate problems (Manfred, 1947). Paraguay. Whole plant: used to dissolve calculus in urolitic diseases and as a diuretic (Ueno et al., 1988; Shimizu et al., 1989). Peru: Departamento de San Martin. Used to break “stones”; no further details given (Schunke, 1971). Peru. Dried, shredded plant: an infusion with lemon juice is taken in four small doses per day for

102

the “benefit” of the liver, blood purification, kidney or bladder stones, ulcers, diabetes, leucorrhea (whitish non-menstrual vaginal discharges), ovary calcifications, “colic of the womb”, stomach or bowel inflammation and pimples; commercially sold under the name “stonebreaker” (La Chanca Pie&u) (personal communication with J. Morton, The Morton Collectanea, University of Miami, Coral Gables, Florida). Germany. The aforementioned Peruvian herb preparation (La Chancu Piedru) was imported and sold to some extent in Germany in 1978 (Morton, J., pers. commun.). General. Brazil. Aqueous extract: produced diuretic effects in vivo, but did not increase blood pressure; plant part, dosage and the animal species tested are not stated (Araujo, 1929). General. French Guiana. Plant part unspecified: contains alkaloids (Rouffiac and Parello, 1969). General. French Guiana. Stems: contain a series of flavonoids, but in lower quantity than P. urinuriu or P. orbiculutus (Nara et al., 1977). General. Brazil. Subspecies luthyroides. Roots: aqueous extract: non-toxic to molluscs (Biomphuhzriu strumineu) at 10,000 ppm (Silva et al., 1971). General. Mexico, Venezuela. Whole plant: aqueous (3 g/100 ml): showed extracts bacteriostatic activity against Escherichiu coli 5025, Staphylococcus uureus St,& and Bacillus subtilis 168; the activity varied with the origin of seed used to grow plants for testing in a Paris greenhouse; Mexican and Venezuelan populations had mean zones of inhibition of 16 and 4 mm, respectively, compared with 22 mm for the streptomycin control (Nozeran and Ha’icour, 1974). General. United States. Plants grown in the greenhouse from Puerto Rican seeds: aqueous extracts of whole plants inhibited the viral DNA polymerase (DNAp) of woodchuck hepatitis virus (WHV) (Unander et al., 1990a; Unander and Blumberg, 1991). General. Peru. Dried plant: no irritant or tumor-producing activity was found in material imported from Peru to be sold in Germany (personal communication with E. Hecker, Institut fur Biochemie, Deutsches Krebsforschungszentrum, P. 101949, 6900 Heidelberg 1, Germany).

General. Paraguay. Whole plant: extract with 70% ethanol (EtOH) or with butanol (BuOH): the crude extract and geraniin, a tannin in the crude extract, had inhibitory activity against angiotensin converting enzyme. Three compounds (ellagic acid, brevifolin carboxylic acid and ethyl brevifolin carboxylate) had strong inhibition of aldose reductase in lens tissue, but geraniin did not. These results have possible application to managing diabetic complications such as cataract development (Ueno et al., 1988; Shimizu et al., 1989). P. mimicus

Webster

General. United States. Plants grown in the greenhouse from Venezuelan seeds: aqueous extracts of whole inhibited WHV DNAp (Unander et al., 1990a; Unander and Blumberg, 199 1). P. rosellus Muell.-Arg.

Brazil. Plant part not specified: decoction: used to treat kidney stones and inflammations (Altschul, 1973). Subgenus Phyllanthus: section Phyllanthus: subsection Swartziani Webster P. ubnormis Bail].

Texas: Culberson County. Range plants poisoned cattle, sheep and goats; prominent symptoms included jaundice, liver cirrhosis, kidney degeneration and diarrhea. The plant was toxic when fed at about l-6% of body weight, the toxicity varying with habitat and year. The greatest toxicity was observed in a region of sandy soil. Only fresh plants produced the toxic effects. Sheep and goats were more resistant than cattle and the toxic principle was passed in milk (Mathews, 1945). The botanical description given in the paper does not completely match P. ubnormis; examination of the voucher specimens (by G.L.W.), however, showed them to be indeed P. ubnormis. Brunel and Roux Thailand. Whole plant, dried: decoction or infusion: drunk to treat inflammations (Wasuwat, 1967). Cited as P. umurus, but could possibly also include P. airy-shuwii. Thailand. Leaves: used to treat jaundice, colds,

P. airy-shuwii

103

fevers, and as a diuretic. Stems and leaves: used to treat kidney stones, kidney disfunctions, fevers, colds, malaria, indigestion from gall bladder malfunction, jaundice, gonorrhea, hemorrhoids, asthma, diarrhea, coughs, to stomachaches, stimulate kidney and peptic functions, as a diuretic and as an anti-inflammatory. Roots: used to treat dysentery, colds, inflammations, as an antipyretic, as a digestion aid and as a diuretic. Plant part unspecified: used to treat fevers, malaria, diabetes and as a diuretic (Bunyapraphatsara, 1987). Cited as P. amarus, but could possibly also include P. airy-shawii.

Thailand: Bangkok. Plant part General. unspecified: decoction: dose unspecified: active antipyretic and diuretic effects were observed in vivo (animal system unspecified); inactive in vivo for hyper- or hypotensive effects, acute toxicity, cardiac depressant effects or as a stimulant (Teothong et al., 1951). Cited as P. niruri but probably P. amarus or possibly P. debilis or P. airyshawii.

General. Thailand. Whole plant: 50% EtOH extract: no activity was found in commercial samples for the following tests: antipyretic activity in rabbits (yeast-induced pyrexia), antihistamine activity in guinea pigs, hypotensive or cardiotoxic activity in dogs, chronotropic effects in dogs and antispasmodic activity in guinea pigs (Mokkhasmit et al., 1971a). Cited as P. niruri but probably P. amarus or possibly P. debilis or P. airy-shawii. General. Thailand. Whole plant, dried: 50% EtOH extract: non-toxic in mice at 10 g/kg body weight (Mokkhasmit et al., 1971b). Cited as P. niruri but probably P. amarus or possibly P. debilis or P. airy-shawii. P. amarus Schum. and Thonn.

West Africa. Roots: method of preparation unspecified: used to treat ringworm (tinea cruris), ulcers, scabies and jaundice (Oliver-Bever, 1983, 1986). Cited as P. niruri, but based on location, probably P. amarus. Ivory Coast. Plant part and method of preparation unspecified: used as a uterine contractant in difficult labors, as an analgesic for treating fevers, throat and rib pain and used to treat edema (Bouquet and Debray, 1974; ‘Stluble, 1986).

Ghana. Plant part unspecified: used to treat dysentery and intestinal spasms; sometimes used to treat constipation and stomachache. Leaves: used to treat hiccups (Oliver-Bever, 1986). Cited as P. niruri, but probably P. amarus. Congo: Brazzaville. Juice of plants: drunk to treat pain in the side of the body, tachycardia, blenorrhagia, diarrhea and female sterility; put in ear for otitis. Poultice: applied to pimples and abscesses. Seed capsules are reported to have vermifuge properities (Bouquet, 1969). Zaire: within 300 km from Kinshasha: Kiyanzi and Kikongo peoples. Leaves or juice from pounded new leaves: used to treat asthma and fever; given orally l-3 times daily (Disengomoka and Delaveau, 1983). Cited as P. niruri but based on location probably P. amarus. Nigeria: Plant northern Nigeria. part unspecified: decoction: drunk to treat earache; the aqueous extract of ashes of the plant is put in the ear for the same purpose. Seeds: eaten by birds. The common names geron-tsuntsaye, gero itache, eb6gi and ebb ztinmaggi are used for P. amarus, P. odontadenius, P. pentandrus, probably P. urinaria and probably also some non-Phyllanthus species (Dalziel, 1937). Nigeria: southern Nigeria. Plant part not specified: an ingredient of agbo prescriptions in Lagos; British Colonial hospitals reported usefulness for relief of griping of dysentery, other spasmodic affections of the intestine, tormina (acute colfc/abdominal pain) and tenesmus; also used to treat stomachaches, constipation and urethral discharges. Leaves: eaten to treat hiccups; animals also eat the leaves despite their bitter taste. The common names dobisowo, eyin-olobe, yoloba and oyomo-ke-iso-aman are used for P. amarus, P. odontadenius, P. pentandrus, probably P. urinaria and probably also some non-Phyllanthus species (Dalziel, 1937). Nigeria. Whole plant: method of preparation unspecified: used to treat intestinal spasms, as a purgative, as a diuretic and as an antipyretic (Oliver, 1960). East Africa: Korokoro people. Leaves: cold infusion: used to relieve stomach pain (Kokwaro, 1976). East Africa: Digo people. Roots: decoction:

104

used as an emetic (vomit inducer) (Kokwaro, 1976). Cited as P. niruri, but probably P. amarus or P. rotundifolius. Malagasy. Stems, leaves: decoction: used to treat asthma, bronchitis and parasitic skin diseases. Bark: used as an astringent. Unspecified plant part: used to treat blennorrhagia (conjunctivitis or other inflammation of the eye with discharges) (Plotkin et al., 1985). The taxonomic data are unclear and could be refering to P. amarus, P. urinaria and/or P. tenellus. Malagasy. Whole plant: decoction: used to treat children’s fevers (Quansah, 1988). The location and description suggest P. amarus, P. urinaria or P. tenellus.

La Reunion. Used to treat blennorrhagia, dropsy, and diarrhea; no further details given (Quisumbing, 1951, 1978). United States. Roots and leaves: used as a deobstruent and as a diuretic (Millspaugh, 1892). Cited as “Indian and South American” P. niruri, probably refering to P. amarus. Cuba: Pinar de1 Rio. Root or entire plant: infusion: used to treat malarial fevers; also used to treat dropsy and diabetes, and as a deobstruent (clears natural body ducts), as a diuretic and as a tonic. Leaves: 1% infusion: used to treat blenorrhagia, dropsy and intermittent fevers; a description of East Indian uses, such as in a suspension with milk to treat jaundice, is also given (Roig y Mesa, 1945). Cited as P. niruri, but the botanical description is that of P. amarus. Bahamas: Bimini. Whole plant: decoction: used to reduce fevers and as a laxative (Halberstein and Saunders, 1978). Cited as P. niruri but probably P. amarus.

Turks and Caicos Islands. Whole plant: a decoction prepared with Stachytarpheta jamaicensis (L.) Vahl is given orally with pulverized red brick and salt to prevent intestinal worms in children; a decoction prepared with Teucrium cubense Jacq. is given to children to treat fever; a decoction prepared with sour lime and salt, or with Safvia serotina L., or with Gundfachia corymbosa (Urban) Britton is used to treat fever in children (Morton, 1977). Jamaica. Whole plant: decoction: used to treat

fevers, malaria and stomach disorders; together with milkweed used to treat gonorrhea; other uses are cited but it seems doubtful that these are truly indigenous uses; the common name is “quinine weed” (Asprey and Thornton, 1954, 1955). Cited as P. niruri but almost certainly P. amarus since true P. niruri does not occur in Jamaica. Dominican Republic. Plant part unspecified: infusion: used as a popular remedy for fevers (Martin-Serra, 1944). Cited as P. niruri but probably P. amarus. Dominican Republic and Haiti. Whole plant: decoction: used to treat malaria, stomachaches, diabetes and as a diuretic. The common names are “Creole quinine” ( quinina criofla) and “quinine of the country” (quinine du pays). The same names and uses are applied to P. amarus, P. niruri and P. stipulatus (Liogier, 1974). Haiti. Whole plant, dried: decoction: used to treat fevers and as a spasmolytic; in combination with certain other plants is part of a rarely used female antifertility drug (Weniger et al., 1982, 1986). Cited as P.niruri but probably P. amarus. Haiti. Whole plant, shoots or roots: decoction: commonly used to treat fevers of a variety of origins, allegedly with effective fever reduction (personal communication with Haitian graduate students J.C. Cerin and G. Soiuilus, M.B.A. Program in Economic Development, Eastern College, St. Davids, Pennsylvania, October 1990). Puerto Rico. Leaves: method of preparation unspecified: used to treat stomachaches. Leaves, stem: used as a diuretic (de Grosourdy, 1864). These uses are cited for P. niruri, probably also refering to P. amarus and are likewise cited for P. urinaria and P. stipulatus. Puerto Rico. Root and leaves: decoction: used to treat intermittent fevers (probably malaria); the tincture (EtOH or aqueous/EtOH extract) was reported effective by a medical doctor for treating such fevers, particulary in cases with infarctus (necrotic regions) of the liver or spleen; also used as a tonic and as a diuretic (Amadeo, 1888). Cited as P. niruri, but probably P. amarus. Puerto Rico. Leaves and stems: decoction: used to treat fevers (Loustalot and Pagan, 1949). Puerto Rico. Roots, stems and leaves: used as a

105

diuretic, as a stomach medicine and as a tonic. Leaves and seeds: infusion: given orally thrice daily to treat diabetes. The plant is also used to treat genito-urinary diseases (Nuiiez-Melendez, 1982). Cited as P. niruri, but the photograph and common names point to P. amarus. Puerto Rico: Isabela. Larger roots: decoction or infusion: drunk to treat dengue or dengue-like fevers (personal communication with field workers and staff at the Universidad de Puerto Rico Estacion Experimental Agricola, Isabela, Puerto Rico, August 1987). West Indies (Jamaica, Bahamas, Martinique, Guadeloupe, Virgin Islands, Puerto Rico, Dominican Republic). Plant part not specified: used to treat fevers and genito-urinary infections. Whole plant: decoction: used to treat dengue, malaria or typhoid fever; also used to treat stomachache. Roots and leaves: used to treat dysentery, diabetes, jaundice, stomachache and dropsy. Leaves: decoction: used as a diuretic (Ayensu, 198 1; Morton, 1981). Ayensu cited this plant as P. niruri, but from the common names listed it probably refers to the more common P. amarus. West Indies (Cuba, Dominican Republic, Haiti, Puerto Rico). Whole plant: decoction: taken orally as an antipyretic and to treat tropical fevers, malaria, diabetes, localized veneral disease and as a diuretic; honey is often added to the decoction to reduce the bitterness. Leaves: decoction: used to treat stomachaches, colic, tenesmus and stomach gas. Roots: infusion: taken with milk, used to treat jaundice (personal communication with A. Liogier, Jardin Botanico, Universidad de Puerto Rico, Rio Piedras, Puerto Rico). Some of these cited uses may be based on Roig y Mesa (1945) and thus not necessarily indigenous. Antilles and Guyana. Leaves and seeds: decoction: three cups/day used to treat diabetes (Manfred, 1947). Cited as P. niruri, which could also include P. amarus or other species; the common names cited (peronilla de/ pasto, filanto urinario) are also used for P. urinaria. Guadeloupe and Martinique. Plant part unspecified: infusions of about 8 g/250 ml water are used to treat fevers, urine retention, jaundice and dropsy; the decoction is also used as a bitter

tonic, a diuretic, a deobstruent and a gentle laxative. P. amarus, P. niruri, P. urinaria and P. caroliniensis are used interchangeably; P. amarus is the most commonly used (Stehlt and Stehle, 1962). Dominica: Carib Indians. Whole plant: decoction: used to induce abortions: several weedy Phyllanthus species are said to be so used, but are not named (Hodge and Taylor, 1956). It would be likely that these would include the common P. amarus.

Barbados. A decoction of this plant together with Petiveria alliacea L. (plant part not specified), the bark of Swietenia mahagoni (L.) Jacq. and the pulp and seeds of Crescentia cujete L. is used as an abortifacient (Morton, 1981). St. Vincent: Bequia. Plant part not specified: decoction: used to treat diabetes; one diabetic who used the plant claimed his physician confirmed the effect (personal communication with J. Morton). Trinidad: Black Trinidadians in a rural area. Plant part unspecified: decoction: used to treat oliguria (poor urination) and venereal disease (Wong, 1976). Trinidad. Plant part unspecified: used as an infusion to treat oliguria; “special precautions” are recommended because it is “generally believed” to be an abortifacient (Seaforth et al., 1983). El Salvador. Plant part unspecified: used as a purgative and as a diuretic (Calderon and Standley, 1941). Cited as P. niruri but could also be P. amarus; the common name, “broom” (escoba), seems more suggestive of P. amarus. Costa Rica: Limon: Costaricans of African origin. Whole plant: decoction: taken in spoonfuls to treat stomach pains and infant colic (Chang-V. et al., 1984). Cited as P. niruri but P. amarus is the more probable species in that region. Costa Rica. Whole plant: decoction or infusion taken in ounce quantities as a diuretic and as a remedy for nausea (personal communication with R. Godinez-Rojos, a Costa Rican curandero (herbal medicineman), December 1989; contact provided through Oscar Castro-C., Escuela de Quimica, Universidad de Costa Rica, 2060 San Jose, Costa Rica). Based on the verbal description and on herbarium records, probably P. amarus rather than another species.

106

South America. Whole plant, roots: used to treat various urinary complaints, i.e., edema, excess albumin, excess uric acid, calcifications in the bladder, liver or kidneys. A decoction of the leaves and seeds together with a Citrus syrup is used to treat diabetes or jaundice. Two varieties are cited: the more active one is smaller (Morton, 1981). Since P. umarus has smaller leaves and stems than P. niruri, perhaps this refers to P. amarus. Surinam. Whole plant: decoction of 10 dried plants boiled in 1 1 of water: taken thrice daily as a tonic for pregnant women; also used as a remedy for colic, stomachache, diabetes and malaria (Morton, 1981). Surinam. Used medicinally; no further details given (Verpoorte and Dihal, 1987). Brazil: Amazonia: Belem. Sold in the marketplace for “breaking stones” (Silva, 1946). Peru. Used to break stones; no further details given (MacBride, 1951). Cited as P. niruri but the botanical description indicates P. amarus. Peru: Amazonia: Mestizos and Indians. Used to treat kidney and liver ailments; no further details given (MacRae et al., 1988). India: West Bengal: Calcutta. P. amarus and P. urinariu are sold interchangeably or sold mixed together (De and Datta, 1990). Indian Ocean: Andaman Islands (Bay of Bengal): Car Island: aboriginal Nicobar Nicobarese. Leaves: mixed with Corchorus aestuans L. and Tylophora indica (Burm.f.) Merr. and rubbed over the body to relieve pain (Dagar, 1989). Thailand. Whole plant, dried: decoction or infusion: drunk to treat inflammations (Wasuwat, 1967). Cited as P. amarus, but could possibly also include P. airy-shawii. Thailand. Leaves: used to treat jaundice, colds, fevers, and as a diuretic. Stems and leaves: used to treat kidney stones, kidney disfunctions, fevers, colds, malaria, indigestion from gall bladder malfunction, jaundice, gonorrhea, hemarrhoids, stomachaches, asthma, diarrhea, coughs, to stimulate kidney and peptic functions, as a diuretic and as an anti-inflammatory. Roots: used to treat dysentery, colds, inflammations, as an antipyretic, as a digestion aid and as a diuretic. Plant part unspecified: used to treat fevers, malaria, diabetes

and as a diuretic. (Bunyapraphatsara, 1987). Cited as P. amarus, but could possibly also include P. airy-shawii.

Polynesia. Used as a fish poison; no further details given (Altschul, 1973; Morton, 1981). General. Dominican Republic. Chemical screening did not tind alkaloids (Martin-Serra, 1944). Cited as P. niruri but probably P. amarus . General. Puerto Rico. Leaves and stems: EtOH extracts were negative for the presence of alkaloids reagents by Meyer, Wagner and Dithmar (Loustalot and Pagan, 1949). Cited as P. niruri, but based on the location, probably refers to the more common P. amarus. General. France. Stems: contain at least four alkaloids, three flavonoids (one a quercitoside) and three lignins (Stanislas et al., 1967). Cited as P. niruri, but the botanical description indicates P. amarus; the origin of the plant samples was not cited. General. Cuba. Stems: contain at least three alkaloids and a sterilied triterpene (CuellarCuellar and Franc0 Estevez, 1980). Cited as P. niruri, but based on the botanical description P. amarus is indicated. General. Surinam. Whole plant: EtOH extract: activity was observed against Bacillus subtilis and Staphylococcus aureus; no activity was seen against Pseudomonas coli, aeruginosa, Escherichia Aspergillus niger or Candida albicans (Verpoorte

and Dihal, 1987). General. Peru: Amazonia. Whole plant. Aqueous extract: activity was observed against Staphylococcus aureus, four of four species of dermatophytic fungi and Sindbis virus (an RNA virus); somewhat less activity was observed against Murine CMV (a DNA virus), and against Agrobacterium tumors on potato. Organic extract: some activity, but less than that for aqueous extracts, was observed against three of the four species of dermatophytic fungi and Sindbis virus; somewhat stronger activity was seen against MCMV; some toxicity was exhibited to brine against shrimp; no activity was observed Escherichia coli, Candida albicans or Saccharomyces sp. (yeast) (MacRae et&al.. 1988). General. United States: plants collected in Madras, India. Whole plant: aqueous extracts

107

bound the surface antigen of hepatitis B virus (HBV) in vitro and inhibited the viral DNA polymerase (DNAp) of HBV and woodchuck hepatitis virus (WHV) in vitro at 50% inhibitory concentrations (IC,,) of 59 and 140 &ml,. respectively; the ICsO values for calf thymus DNAp-ar was 115 &ml and for the DNAp’s of Escherichia coli ranged from i2&460 pg/ml. When administered i.p. to infected woodchucks, acutely infected animals lost the viral surface antigen; the surface antigen titer dropped in some chronically infected animals; preliminary data suggested that the liver cancer rate in treated, chronically infected animals was lower than in untreated controls, but this has not been confirmed. Subsequent woodchuck studies were unable to duplicate the original results with surface antigen (Venkateswaran et al., 1987; Blumberg et al., 1989, personal communication with I. Millman, Fox Chase Cancer Center). General. United States: Plants grown in the greenhouse or field from seed collected in several countries. Aqueous extracts of whole plants inhibited WHV DNAp; this activity was relatively unaffected by soil pH or soil calcium, but was affected by soil moisture and environmental temperatures; little intraspecific genetic variability was found for this trait; extracts of roots and shoots were both active (Unander et al., 1989, 1990a; Unander and Blumberg, 1991). General. India: Kerala and Uttar Pradesh. Whole plant: BuOH, EtOH and aqueous extracts bound HBV surface and E antigens; P. amarus from Kerala had greater binding activity than that from Uttar Pradesh (personal communication with R. Mehrotra, Post Graduate Department of Pathology, King George’s Medical College, Lucknow, India). General. Australia: New South Wales. Plant part unspecified: aqueous extracts inhibited the endogenous DNAp of duck hepatitis B virus (DHBV) at high dilutions; P. amarus, P. gasstroemi,

P. gunnii,

P. similis, P. thymoides

(under the synonym of P. hirtellus F. Muell.) and P. tenellus were tested; P. thymoides was the most active in vitro; these researchers concluded that these species may contain a specific lectin that binds to viral surface antigen, but that it is phar-

macologically inactive based on in vivo experiments with P. thymoides extracts in chronic and acutely infected ducks (Shead et al., 1990). General. Thailand: Bangkok. Whole plants were powdered and adminstered orally in gelatin capsules of 200 mg three times daily for 30 days to 59 chronic carriers of HBV in a blind trial; follow-ups were made for six months; there were no significant differences from the placebo group (57 patients) for surface antigen titers; in those patients positive for the E antigen, the E antigen decreased somewhat in the treated group, but did not disappear (Leelarasamee et al., 1990). General. Whole plant: aqueous and chloroform extracts had no effect in vivo against malaria, based on inoculation of Plasmodium gallinaceum trophozoites and sporozoites in chickens and P. cathemerium and P. lophurae trophozoites in ducks (Spencer et al., 1947). Cited as P. niruri, but more likely P. amarus; the origin of the samples was the Americas, but the exact locality was not given. General. Sudan. Roots: petroleum ether extract: a 25 ppm extract produced 100% mortality to two spp. of Schistosomiasis-carrying snails (Ahmed et al., 1984). Cited as P. niruri (local name elrageig), but the location suggests P. amarus, P. fraternus or P. rotundifolius.

General. Puerto Rico: Mayagtiez. Whole plant: EtOH, acetone and petroleum ether extracts: no insecticidal activity was found against 13 different species tested (Sievers et al., 1949). Cited as P. niruri, but the location suggests the more common P, amarus. P. caribaeus Urb.

Guyana: Northwest District. Used as a fish poison; no further details given (Archer, 1934). P. debilis Klein ex Willd.

India. Powdered plant: preparations in boiled butter or enemas used to treat abdominal tumors; no further details given (Kaviratna, 1888-1909, translation of the Charaka-Samhita approx. 100 A.D., as cited in Hartwell, 1982). Cited as P. niruri but based on the location and the antiquity of the citation, probably, P. debilis or P. fraternus. India: Kerala. Leaves, roots: applied externally

108

to bring abscesses to a head and to cleanse ulcers; together with the oil of Uris Zndicae (nutmeg?) used to heal burns and scrapes. Root: used to treat dysentery; together with garlic used to treat ulcerations of testicles; also part of multi-component drugs for cough and rheumatism (van Rhede, 1690). The botanical description of two species, used interchangeably, seems to match P. urinaria and P. debilis best, and, based on flower structure, exclude P. amarus; the common names used in 1690 included those listed by Caius (1939) for “P. niruri”.

India: West Bengal: Lodha people. Leaves: decoction: taken orally to treat leucorrhea. Roots: a paste is given to children to treat griping pain and hoarse throats. Related species (unnamed) are also said to be so used (Pal and Jain, 1989). Sri Lanka. Used to treat fever and as a diuretic; no further details given (Burman, 1737). Two species are listed, one of which is definitely P. urinaria (Webster, 1957); the description of the other does not permit distinction between P. umarus and P. debilis or perhaps another Phyllanthus species; based on Mitra and Jain (1985), P. debilis is the most likely species. Sri Lanka. Plant juice: used as a diuretic to treat gonorrhea. Root: part of a multi-component drug for treating diarrhea. Whole plant: ground into a paste and given together with cows milk to treat jaundice; mention is also made of uses to treat griping pain in dysentery, intermittent fevers (probably malaria), as a diuretic for treating dropsy, and for external treatment of sores, ulcers and wounds (Jayaweera, 1980). Samoa. Plant part unspecified: used as a diuretic and in poultices (Uhe, 1974). Cited as P. niruri but probably P. debilis based on the location; the indigenous names are Laulilii and Fu’a Lili’i. Polynesia: Marquesas and Rarotonga. Used medicinally; no further details given (Brown, 1935). General. United States: plants grown in the greenhouse. Aqueous extracts of whole plants inhibited WHV DNAp; this activity was relatively unaffected by differing soil fertility and moisture conditions and did not significantly differ from the activity of P. amarus (Unander et al., 1990a; Unander and Blumberg, 1991).

P. fraternus Webster

Barbados. Root: decoction: used to treat jaundice and dysentery (Gooding et al., 1965). It is not clear if this refers to an indigenous use in Barbados or not. Pakistan. Whole plant: method of preparation unspecified: used to treat menorrhagia (Ahmad, 1957). Cited as P. niruri, but based on location, probably P. fraternus. India. Powdered plant: preparations in boiled butter or enemas used to treat abdominal tumors; no further details given (Kaviratna, 1888-l 909, translation of the Charaka-Samhita approx. 100 A.D., as cited in Hartwell, 1982). Cited as P. niruri but based on the location and the antiquity of the citation, probably, P. debilis or P. fraternus. India. Plant part unspecified: used as an astringent, a deobstruent, a diuretic, an antiseptic, to treat fevers, stomachaches, dyspepsia, colic, diarrhea, dysentery, dropsy and urinogenital diseases. Fresh roots: used to treat jaundice, and together with milk used as a galactagogue (to promote milk flow). Leaves: decoction: used as a scalp refrigerant. Leaves and roots: a poultice with rice water is applied to treat edemous swellings and ulcers. Latex: used to treat sores and ulcers; the latex mixed with oil is used to treat ophthalmia (Council of Scientific and Industrial Research, 1969). India: Madhya Pradesh: Sagar. Fresh root: given orally to treat jaundice. Fresh plant juice: used to treat genito-urinary disorders (Sahu, 1984). India: Rajasthan. Roots: used to treat digestive problems in camels (Council of Scientific and Industrial Research, 1969). India: West Bengal: Lodha people. Plant part unspecified: decoction: used to treat influenza and colds (Pal and Jain, 1989). India: West Bengal: Santa1 and Oraon people. Roots: a mixture of three parts root paste, one part black pepper and two parts curd is used to treat jaundice (Pal and Jain, 1989). Nepal. Whole plant: decoction: used to treat dropsy, gonorrhea and genito-urinary problems, and as a diuretic. Fresh root: used to treat jaundice and dysentery. Leaves: used to treat stomach problems. Powdered leaves and roots: used to reduce

109

edemous swellings and ulcers (His Majesty’s Government of Nepal, 1984). Cited as P. niruri but almost certainly P. fiaternus. Nepal: Dang-Deokhuri District (midwest): Tharu people. Leaf juice: applied to pimples (Manandhar, 1985). General. India: Maharashtra: Bombay. Whole plant: the petrol extract showed antifungal activity against the plant pathogenic fungus Helminthosporium sativum; cited as P. fraternus (Bhatnagar et al., 1961). General. India: Bihar: Bhagalpur. Leaves: aqueous extracts produced partial inhibition of growth, germination and sporulation of the plant pathogenic fungi Alternaria alternata and Curvularia lunata (Bhowmick and Vardhan, 198 1; Bhowmick and Choudhary, 1982). General. India. Leaves and roots: EtOH extracts showed antibacterial activity against Staphylococcus aureus and Escherichia coli (Council of Scientific and Industrial Research, 1969). General. United States: plants grown in the greenhouse. Aqueous extracts of whole plants inhibited WHV DNAp; this species was significantly less inhibitory than P. amarus (Unander et al., 1990a; Unander and Blumberg, 1991). General. Sudan. Roots: petroleum ether extract: a 25 ppm extract produced 100% mortality to two spp. of Schistosomiasis-carrying snails (Ahmed et al., 1984). Cited as P. niruri (local name elrageig), but the location suggests P. amarus, P. fraternus or P. rotundifolius. P. amarus Schum. and Thonn., P. debilis Klein ex Willd. and/or P. fraternus Webster India. Said to affect diuresis and menstruation (de Jussieu, 1824). Cited as P. niruri but probably P. amarus, P. debilis or P. fraternus. India. Commonly employed as a deobstruent and as a diuretic in cases of dropsy and jaundice (Planchon and Collin, 1896). Cited as P. niruri but probably P. amarus, P. debilis or P. fraternus. India. Fresh roots: to treat jaundice, ‘/2 oz., in suspension in one cup of milk, is given twice daily. Roots, small leaves and tender shoots: given in powdered form or as a decoction, about 1 tsp. at a time to treat jaundice or chronic dysentery, with fenugreek seeds sometimes added. Roots and rice

water: used to treat menorrhagia (excessive menstruation). Tender leaves: ground into a paste with some pepper to treat intermittent fevers (probably malaria) at a dose of a “nutmeg-size” piece. Leaves: used to treat urinary disorders and dropsy; adminstered “bruised in milk”; Leaf poultice: used to treat scabies, ulcers, sores and swellings. Plant juice: used to treat sores; the plant is “said to be useful in diabetes”; commonly used interchangeably with P. urinaria; toxic to fish and frogs (Drury, 1873; Dymock 1886; Watt, 1892; Dymock et al., 1893; Nadkarni and Nadkarni, 1954; Chopra et al., 1958). Cited as P. niruri, but probably P. amarus, P. debilis or P. fraternus. India. Used as a folk remedy against snake venom, but studies indicated that no such effect exists (Chopra et al., 1958). Cited as P. niruri but probably P. amarus, P. debilis or P. fraternus. India. “Crude extract”: used to treat infectious hepatitis (type not specified); no further details given (Puri, 1970). Cited as P. niruri but probably P. amarus, P. debilis or P. fraternus. India. Whole plant, dried: mixed with an Indigofera sp. and with Berberis aristata Sims: ground with cold water and taken orally as a contraceptive (Venkataraghavan and Sundaresan, 1981). Cited as P. niruri but probably P. amarus, P. debilis or P. fraternus. India. Whole plant, dried: decoction: used to treat asthma (Sircar, 1984). Cited as P. niruri but probably P. amarus, P. debilis or P. fraternus. India. For the treatment of jaundice and hepatitis, this plant is a common folk remedy as well as part of the traditional (prescribed) medicine; also used as a general tonic and to treat weakness in infants. Fresh leaves or powdered whole plant: decoction: three cups of decoction are concentrated to ‘12cup, and this is taken orally 2-3 times daily; an alternative is to chew fresh leaves; the newest growth, defined as plant parts that have not yet set seeds, is most preferred; in Kerala, the plants are generally sold fresh at night; plants are also made available to cattle and poultry; P. amarus, P. debilis, P. fraternus and sometimes P. maderaspatensis are all used to treat jaundice in India; use of P. amarus predominates in central and southern India (personal communication with R. Mehrotra).

110

India: Tamil Nadu: Madras. Leaves: used to treat intermittent fevers (probably malaria) and jaundice (Krishnamurti and Seshadri, 1946). Cited as P. niruri but based on location could be P. amarus, P. debilis andfor P. fraternus. India: Tamil Nadu: Madras. P. emblica and “P, niruri” were two of nine herbs in the hepatitis remedy “Livr-Doks”; no details were given regarding plant parts or method of preparation. In a clinical trial treating acute hepatitis (type unspecified), the symptomatic recovery of patients was reported to be half a week to one week quicker with this drug than with another (unspecified) drug; no side effects were noted (Sankaran, 1977). Based on location, “P. niruri” was probably P, amarus with occasional plants of P. debilis and/or P. fraternus. India: Tamil Nadu: Madras. Plant part unspecified: “P. niruri” was one of 12 herbs in the hepatitis remedy “Liverite”; twenty-seven patients given this therapy were compared with three on vitamins; the authors concluded that recovery was more rapid with the herbal remedy; serum bilirubin and serum transaminase levels dropped more rapidly in the “Liverite” group than in the vitamin group (Sundaravalli et al., 1977). Based on location, “P. niruri” was probably P. amarus with occasional plants of P. debilis and/or P. fraternus. India: Maharashtra: Bombay. Dried aerial parts: decoction: given orally to treat jaundice (Mulchandani and Hassaranjani, 1984). Cited as P. niruri, but based on location could be P. amarus, P. debilis or P. fraternus. Bangladesh. Whole plant: used as a contraceptive (Mannan and Ahmad, 1978). Cited as P. niruri but based on location could be P. amarus, P. debilis or P. fraternus. France. Used as a diuretic and to treat syphillis (Baillon, 1891). Cited as P. niruri but probably refers to P. amarus, P. debilis or P. fraternus. General. Bangladesh. Whole plant: the ether extract contains a relatively high content of estradiol; this might account for folk contraceptive and abortifacient uses (Mannan and Ahmad, 1978). Cited as P. niruri but based on location probably P. amarus, P. debilis or P. fraternus. General. India: Maharashtra: Bombay. Whole plant: contains several alkaloids (Mulchandani and Hassarajani, 1984). Cited as P. niruri, but bas-

ed on location, probably P. amarus, P. debilis or P. fraternus.

General. India: West Bengal: Calcutta. Whole plant: contains steroids/terpenoids, alkaloids, tannins, phenolics, saponins, but not flavonoids (Mukherjee and Ray, 1986). Cited as P. niruri but based on location probably P. amarus, P. debilis or P. fraternus.

General. India: Tamil Nadu: Madurai. Leaves: aqueous extract: hypoglycemic action was observed in normal or diabetic rabbits (Ramakrishnan, 1969; Ramakrishnan et al., 1982). Cited as P. niruri, but based on location could be P. amarus, P. debilis or P, fraternus. India: Bangalore: General. Karnataka: Byatarayanpura. Plant part unspecified: two flavonoids obtained from the water-soluble fraction of the EtOH extract showed oral hypoglycemic activity in alloxan-treated rats at a dose of 100 mg/kg body weight; the mean blood sugar reduction was 20-25% within 3 h; the blood sugar decrease in normal rats was S-10% within 3 h (Hukeri et al., 1988). Cited as P. fraternus, based on an identification by C.J. Saldhana; the botanical key for this region by Saldhana and Nicholson (1976) indicates that the plants were most likely P. amarus; Mitra and Jain (1985), however, cite specimens of P. amarus, P . debilis and P. fraternus from Karnataka. General. India: Tamil Nadu: Madras. The extracted compound phyllanthin was toxic to the fresh water fish Haplochilus malarica at 50 ppm and to frogs, i.p., at 100 ppm (Krishnamurti and Seshadri, 1946). Cited as P. niruri but based on location could be P. amarus, P. debilis or P. fraternus.

General. India: Tamil Nadu: Madras. Whole plant, dried: aqueous extracts showed no chronic toxicity in mice at 0.2 mg daily per animal for 90 days, no effects on serum glutamic pyruvic transaminase, serum bilirubin or histopathology of liver, spleen or kidney (Jayaram et al., 1987). Cited as P. niruri but based on the location and samples received in 1987-1989 from one of the junior authors (Thyagarajan), the plants were P. amarus, probably including occasional plants of P. debilis or P. fraternus. General. India: Tamil Nadu: Madras. Whole

III

plant: extracts from several solvents bound HBV surface antigen (Thyagarajan et al., 1982). Cited as P. fruternus, but the location and specimens from Thyagarajan examined by Unander indicate P. amarus, probably with occasional plants of P. debilis or P. fraternus. General. Japan: specimens collected from southern India. Aqueous extracts at high dilutions inhibited HBV DNAp, DNAp I, T4-DNAp, the Klenow fragment and the reverse transcriptase (RT) of avian myeloblastosis virus; the extracts did not inhibit DNAase, T4 DNA ligase or any of several restriction enzymes (Yanagi et al., 1989). Cited as P. niruri, but the location suggests P. amarus, P. debilis and/or P. fraternus. General. India: Tamil Nadu: Madras. In a double blind study, whole plants were powdered and adminstered orally in gelatin capsules of 200 mg three times daily for 30 days to patients who were chronic carriers of HBV; at 20 days after the end of treatment, 22 of 37 treated patients had lost evidence of the HBV surface antigen, compared to 1 of 23 in the placebo group; those carriers in the treated group who were positive for the HBV E antigen were less likely to respond; no toxic effects were noted in any patient (Thirunalasundari, 1987; Thyagarajan et al., 1988). Cited as P. niruri, but the location, photographs (Thirunalasundari, 1987) and plant samples examined by Unander indicated the plants used were P. amarus, probably with occasional plants of P. debilis or P. fraternus. General. India: Tamil Nadu: Madras. Whole plants were powdered and adminstered orally in gelatin capsules of 250 mg three times daily for three months to 28 chronic carriers of HBV in a trial lacking controls; four of these carriers lost evidence of the viral surface antigen, three of these by seroconversion to surface antibody; no patients positive for the E antigen (11 of the 28 treated, chronic carriers) lost the surface antigen; six of the 11 of those positive for E developed antibodies to E during the study (Thyagarajan et al., 1990). Cited as P. amarus, but as noted above, could also include occasional plants of P. debilis or P. fraternus.

General. Australia: specimens collected near Madras, Tamil Nadu, India. Above-ground portions of plants were powdered and adminstered

orally in gelatin capsules of 250 mg twice daily for 10 weeks to four 5-week old ducks congenitally infected with duck hepatitis B virus (DHBV); five other ducks received an aqueous extract of 20 mg/ml given i.p. at 1 ml/kg twice daily for 12 weeks; both trials had controls. No effects were seen on the level of viral DNA or surface antigen in the serum or in the liver (Niu et al., 1990). Cited as P. amarus, but since the source of the plants was the same as for Thyagarajan et al. (1988; 1990) occasional plants of P. debilis or P. fraternus may also have been included. P. amarus Schum. and Thonn.

and/or P. debilis Klein ex Willd. Puerto Rico, Brazil, Indonesia. Under the citation of P. niruri, mention is made of uses in Puerto Rico, Brazil and Indonesia (Java) of the leaves as a purgative, to treat dysentery, menstrual disorders, dropsy, diabetes and skin disorders. Roots: used to treat jaundice (Dragendorff, 1898). It is not clear which uses and which regions were specific for P. niruri, P. amarus and/or P. debilis; any uses in Java would have been for P. amurus and/or P. debilis; the context suggests that the use against diabetes may have been indigenous to Brazil for P. niruri. India: Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Bengal. Roots, leaves and tender shoots: powder, decoction or infusion: used as a deobstruent, a diuretic, a stomach remedy and to treat “over-secreted acid bile”, jaundice and chronic dysentery (Ainslie, 1826). Cited as P. niruri but based on location probably P. amarus and/or P. debilis. India: central and southern India and Sri Lanka. Whole plant or leaves: used as a deobstruent, a diuretic, an astringent and for a cooling effect; a teaspoonful of dried powdered plant or decoction is given to treat jaundice; used interchangeably with P. urinaria (Dymock, 1886; Dymock et al., 1893; Dey and Mair, 1896). Cited as P. niruri, but based on location, probably P. amarus and/or P. debilis. India: Kerala. Whole plant, dried: given as a paste mixed with cows milk for three days to treat jaundice. Leaves: glass is alleged to be chewable into small pieces if it is chewed together with these leaves (John, 1984). Cited as P. niruri, but prob-

112

ably P. amarus and/or P. debilis based on the common name and location. India: Kerala. Botanical study of samples of the Ayurvedic herb Tamalaki, also known as Kizharnelli, showed it to be a mixture of P. amarus

stones; often taken together with Eurycoma longifolia Jack to treat malaria (Elliott and Brimacombe, 1987). Cited as P. niruri but based on location probably P. amarus or P. debilis. Indonesia: Moluccas. Powdered plant: together

and P. debifis; sold as a popular remedy for jaundice as well as a component of many other drugs (Sivarajan and Balachandran, 1984). India: Andhra Pradesh: Tirupati. Plant part unspecified: used in a clinical setting to treat infective hepatitis (type unspecified) in children; their appetite was normal by five weeks; no side effects were observed (Dixit and Achar, 1983). Cited as P. niruri but based on location probably P. amarus and/or P. debilis. India: Andhra Pradesh. Whole plant: a paste is taken orally to treat jaundice. Plant juice: mixed with curds to treat jaundice (Hemadri and Rao, 1984). Cited as P. asperulatus Hutch. (a probable synonym of P. debilis), but based on location probably P. amarus and/or P. debilis. India: Andhra Pradesh: Chittoor District. Leaves and fruits: ground in buttermilk together with garlic and pepper and given orally for seven days to treat jaundice (Reddy, 1988). People’s Republic of China, Indochina, Malay Peninsula and Indonesia. Young leaves or small roots: decoction: used as a diuretic, an expectorant (especially for children’s coughs), an emmenagogue, to treat kidney trouble, venereal disease, kidney stones, fever, diarrhea, colic and stomachaches. Powdered plant: applied externally to treat various skin complaints, including itching

with rice flour used as part of a cosmetic face powder. Root: chewed with “Pinanga” (identity uncertain) to treat abdominal cramps, pain in the side and toothache; together with “Aure canina”

from caterpillars (Burkill et al., 1966; Perry and Metzger 1980). The authors say that P. niruri (which, based on location, is probably P. amarus and/or P. debilis) is preferred to P. urinaria, but both have the same applications in folk medicine and are often used together. Cambodia, Laos, Vietnam. Whole plant: used as an emmenagogue, a diuretic and as a poultice to treat skin infections (Petelot, 1954). Uses from India were also cited, but these are not listed here since they are probably not indigenous. Cited as P. niruri, but based on location probably P. amarus or P. debilis. Indonesia: Sumatra. Whole plant: decoction: taken orally to treat urinary tract disorders, in-

or the Caribbean, rather than indigenous uses (Quisumbing, 1951, 1978). Cited as P. niruri, but based on location probably P. amarus or P. debilis. Philippines. Whole plant or leaves, dried: decoction: given orally to treat coughs in infants and for a cooling effect; also used to treat a disease in babies called taol whose symptoms can include pathologic jaundice or congenital heart disease; used as a disinfectant bath for infants (Velazco, 1980). Cited as P. niruri, but based on location probably P. amarus and P. debilis. Philippines. Whole plant: decoction: used to treat stomachaches, fevers, genito-urinary problems, as an emmenagogue and a diuretic. Young shoots: infusion: used to treat dysentery. Roots:

cluding

(“dog’s ear”: identity uncertain) used to treat epilepsy and convulsions in children. Leaves: ground with Marrubium album Gilib. to treat children with epilepsy or convulsions; together with the leaves of “Pancaga” and “01~s scrojarum” (identity of these also uncertain) used to treat colic. Whole plant: boiled with “Pancaga” to treat colic and nephritis (Rumphius, 1750). Two species are mentioned, one of which is clearly P. urinaria; the description of the other does not permit distinction between P. debilis and P. amarus. Philippines. Whole plant: decoction: used as a stomach tonic, an emmenagogue and a febrifuge, especially to treat “ague” (probably malaria); considered to be an introduced weed from the Americas; common at low altitudes in disturbed sites (Guerrero, 1921; Brown, 1954). Cited as P. niruri, but based on location probably P. amarus or P. debilis; the reference by Guerrero is the earliest reference we found for uses in the Philippines. Philippines. Whole plant: reiterates information from Guerrero (1921); many other uses are also cited, but these all seem to refer to uses from India

113

decoction or infusion: used as a febrifuge, a tonic and a diuretic. Leaves: poultice used to treat cuts, bruises, swellings and ulcers. Bark: used as a purgative. Juice of the plant: used to treat open sores and skin ailments. Other information: the plant is a fish poison; stems and leaves have glucosides, tannins and calcium oxalate; roots: contain saponins (Padua et al., n.d.). It is not clear from this reference which uses are truly indigenous. Cited as P. niruri but the photograph shown is P. amarus; the very similar P. debilis, however, also occurs in the Philippines, although less commonly. Philippines. Fresh root: used to treat jaundice. Leaves: a decoction is considered a panacea; used to treat fever, dysentery, gonorrhea and syphilis, and as a diuretic and an abortifacient; a medical doctor in the Philippines claimed to have effectively treated hepatitis B virus infections with it (personal communication with L.S. Padua, Department of Botany, College of Arts and Sciences, University of the Philippines, Los Baiios). Cited as P. debilis but the botanical description indicates P. amarus; both occur in the Philippines. Papua New Guinea: Central Province coast, and Roro and Motu language groups. Whole plant: decoction: taken orally to treat pneumonia or malaria; chest, back and shoulders are also massaged with the decoction; together with Laportea interrupta (L.) Chewed for relief of whooping cough (Holdsworth, 1981, 1987). Cited as P. niruri, but probably P. amarus or P. debilis. Papua New Guinea: Karkar Island (16 km from Paupua New Guinea). Whole plant: decoction: taken orally to treat malaria and tuberculosis; also used as a wash for the patient’s body (Holdsworth, 1984). Cited as P. niruri but probably P. amarus or P. debilis.

Papua New Guinea: Admiralty Islands. and leaves: decoction: about 500 ml taken twice daily for up to six months to treat venereal disease (Holdsworth and Namoi, Cited as P. niruri, but probably P. amarus

Stems orally acute 1982). or P.

debilis.

Papua New Guinea: New Ireland: Lauapul people (Melanesian). Roots: decoction: taken orally to treat venereal diseases; the root is also chewed as

part of the therapy (Holdsworth, P. niruri but probably

1980b). Cited as

P. amarus or P. debilis.

Papua New Guinea: North Solomons. Leaves: used to treat chest pain (Holdsworth, 1980a). Cited as P. niruri but probably P. amarus or P. debilis.

Guam. Plant juice: used to treat offensive sores. “Bruised” leaves: used to treat “the itch” (probably scabies) and scabby sores of the scalp. Fresh root: used to treat jaundice @afford, 1905). These uses all make reference to Watt (1892), who wrote regarding uses in India, so these may not be indigenous uses to Guam. Cited as P. niruri, but probably P., debilis or P. amarus. Marianas Islands. Whole plant: decoction: used to treat dysentery. Leaves: mashed, together with those of Euphorbia hirta L., and inserted, to treat rectal itch, rectitis and vaginitis (Altschul, 1973). Cited as P. niruri, but probably P. amarus, or P. debilis.

Fiji. Leaves: fresh leaf juice: used to treat bruises, cuts and eye diseases (in the latter case, mixed with castor oil). Dried leaves: infusion: used to treat dysentery and diarrhea. Whole plant, dried: decoction: used to treat fever and as a general tonic. Whole plant, ground with buttermilk: used to treat jaundice. Fresh root: infusion: used to treat heavy menstrual periods (Singh, 1986). Cited as P. niruri, but probably P. debilis or P. amarus.

Polynesia: Society, Cook and Austral Islands. Whole plant: crushed with coconut ‘oil and/or Gardenia taitensis DC., heated and massaged into or around the ears in case of earache or ear infec: tion. Phyllanthus virgatus, P. debilis, and sometimes P. amarus or P. tenellus are interchanged; based on taxonomic records, in most cases P. amarus is the most common contemporary species (herbarium data and personal communication with A.A. Whistler, Pacific Tropical Botanical Garden, 3190 Maile Way, Honolulu, Hawaii). Polynesia: Cook Islands. Dried leaves: a decoction made together with Aleurites moluccana (L.) Willd. nuts and grated limestone is rubbed on the head to treat severe headaches or earaches (personal communication with A.A. Whistler). Polynesia: Tahiti. Plant part unspecified: decoction: used as a diuretic to treat urinary tract infec-

114

tions (personal communication with A.A. Whistler). Polynesia: Austral Islands. Plant part unspecified: decoction: used to treat gonorrhea (personal communication with A.A. Whistler). General. Indonesia. Leaves and other parts: aqueous extract: no diuretic effect was observed following oral administration to rabbits (dose not stated) (van der Woerd, 1941). Cited as P. niruri but the location suggests P. amarus or possibly P. debilis.

General. Thailand: Bangkok. Plant part unspecified: decoction: dose unspecified: active ant~pyretic and diuretic effects were observed in vivo (animal system unspecified); inactive in vivo for hyper- or hypotensive effects, acute toxicity, cardiac depressant effects or as a stimulant (Teothonget al., 1951). Cited as P. niruri but probably P. amarus or possibly P. debiiis or P. airyshawii.

General. Thailand. Whole plant: 50% EtOH extract: no activity was found in commercial samples for the following tests: antipyretic activity in rabbits (yeast-induced pyrexia), antihistamine activity in guinea pigs, hypotensive or cardiotoxic activity in dogs, chronotropic effects in dogs and antispasmodic activity in guinea pigs (Mokkhasmit et al., 1971a). Cited as P. niruri but probably P. amarus or possibly P. debilis or P. airy-shawii. General. Thailand. Whole plant, dried: 50% EtOH extract: non-toxic in mice at 10 g/kg body weight (Mokkhasmit et al., 197lb). Cited as P. niruri but probably P. amarus or possibly P. debitis or P. airy-shawii. General. India: Andhra Pradesh: Kurnool. Leaves: 20% aqueous extract: effective as an oral pretreatment at 0.2 ml/l00 mg body weight against CC&induced hepatotoxicity in rats; pretreatment started 30 days before and continued through five weeks of Ccl4 administration (at 0.1 ml/lOOg); no hepatic cellular degeneration was detected compared to extensive degeneration in the controls; simultaneous administration of the plant extract with the CC& showed some cellular degeneration, but less than controls (Rao, 1985). Cited as P. niruri but based on location probably P. amarus and/or P. debilis. General. Indonesia: Java. Leaves: saline extract: antibacterial activity was observed in vitro at a

10% concentration against Pasteurella pestis; activity was observed in dilutions up to 1:160 against ~taphytococcus aureus; no activity was seen against Escherichia coli (Collier and van der Pijl, 1949). Cited as P. niruri, but based on location probably P. amarus or possibly P. debilis. General. India: Andhra Pradesh: Tirupati. Whole plant: aqueous extract: up to a 25% decrease in local lesions was observed on plants inoculated with the RNA viruses tobacco mosaic, peanut green mosaic or tobacco ringspot and then sprayed with the extract; this effect was seen following either simultaneous application of the extract with inoculation, or 24 h after inoculation (Saigopal et al., 1986). Cited as P. fratern~ but the location suggests P. amarus and/or P. debilis. P. amarus Schum. and Thonn. and/or P. fraternus Webster Sudan. Leaves: used as an analgesic (Farouk et al., 1983). Cited as P. niruri, but probably P. amarus, P. fraternus or P. rotundifolius. India: Gujarat: city of Jamnagar. Plant part unspecified: used in the Sidha system of traditional medicine for the treatment of jaundice, fevers, vomiting and nausea; 1 oz twice daily is given before meals together with other ingredients; no toxic effects or side effects were noted in adults or children during a trial against “infective hepatitis” (as it was known in 1961); symptoms receded within 10 days (Ramanan and Sainani, 1961). Cited as P. niruri, but based on location probably P. amarus or P. fraternus. India: Uttar Pradesh: Saharanpur. Whole plant or plant juice: used to treat jaundice, gonorrhea and genito-urinary infections and as a diuretic (Ahuja, 1965). Cited as P. niruri, but the location and photograph suggest P. fraternus; market samples, however, are described as mixtures of several Phyllanthus species (Ahuja, 1965), and Mitra and Jain (1985) cite both P. amarus and P. fraternus for Uttar Pradesh. India: Uttar Pradesh: Jhansi. Part of a multicomponent drug claimed to possess antiinflammatory effects against chronic arthritis, based on a study done through a medical college (Dabral and Sharma, 1983). Cited as P. niruri, but based on location could be P. amarus or P. fraternus.

115

General. India: Uttar Pradesh: Allahabad. Roots: the ethyl acetate extract contains glycoflavones (Chauhan et al., 1977). Cited as P. niruri, but based on location, could be P. amarus or P. fraternus. General. India: Bihar: Bhagalpur and Santa1 Parganas. Shoots: contain saponins, flavonoids and alkaloids. Roots: contain saponins and alkaloids but no flavonoids (Sinha and Dogra, 1985). Cited as P. niruri, but based on location, could be P. amarus or P. fraternus. General. India: Uttar Pradesh: Saharanpur: Roorkee. Whole plant: organic solvent extracts contain a prenylated flavonone glycoside (Gupta and Ahmed, 1984). Cited as P. niruri, but based on location could be P. amarus or P. fraternus. General. India: Uttar Pradesh: Lucknow. The hexane-extracted compounds phyllanthin and hypophyllanthin reduced CC&- or galactosamineinduced cytotoxicity to cultured rat hepatocytes; hexane extracted triacontanol reduced cytotoxicity only against galactosamine (Syamasundar et al., 1985). Cited as P. niruri but the location suggests P. fraternus or P. amarus. General. India: Uttar Pradesh: Lucknow. Whole plant: 50% EtOH extract: no activity was observed in vitro against: Staphylococcus aureus, Salmonella typhi, Escherichia coli, Agrobacterium tumefaciens, five species of fungi including Candida, protozoans (Entamoeba and Trypanosoma

sp.), two species of parasitic worms, Ranikhet Disease Virus or Vaccinia Virus; no antifertility effects were observed in rats (anti-implantation, spermicidal, semen coagulation or abortifacient effects); no hypoglycemic effects were observed in rats; no effects on respiration, the cardiovascular system or antispasmodic effects were observed in dogs; no effects on cultures of nasopharynx carcinoma or P388 lymphocytic leukemia were observed; no central nervous system (CNS), diuretic or anti-inflammatory effects were observed in mice, but antispasmogenic effects were observed in isolated guinea pig ileum; effects against Friend leukemia virus were observed in mice; the LD,, was > 1000 mg/kg i.p. (mouse) (Dhar et al., 1968). Cited as P. niruri, but the location suggests P. fraternus or P. amarus. General. Sudan. Leaves: methanol (MeOH) ex-

tract: active against Staphylococcus aureus. Chloroform extract: inactive. Neither extract was active against Bacillus subtilis, Escherichiu colt’ or Pseudomonas aeruginosa (Farouk et al.. 1983). Cited as P. niruri, but based on location probably P. amarus, P. fraternus or P. rotundtfolius. P. stipulatus (Raf.) Webster

Dominican Republic and Haiti. Whole plant: decoction: used to treat malaria, stomachaches. diabetes and as a diuretic. The common names are “Creole quinine” (quinina criolla) and “quinine of the country” (quinine du pays); the same names and uses apply to P. amarus, P. niruri and P. stipulatus (Liogier, 1974). P. stipulatus (Raf.) Webster, under the synonyms of P. diffusus Kl. and P. hofjnannseggii Muell.-Arg. Puerto Rico. Leaves: used to treat stomachaches. Leaves, stem: used as a diuretic (de Grosourdy, 1864). These uses are cited for P. niruri, probably also refering to P. amarus and are also cited for P. urinaria and P. stipulatus. Guianas. Roots: bitter; used as an astringent and as a diuretic and to treat jaundice (Pio-Correa. 1969). Brazil: Amazonia, Bahia, Lagoa Santa, Mjnas Gerais, Rio de Janeiro. Roots: bitter; used as an astringent, as a diuretic and to treat jaundice (PioCorrea, 1969). Subgenus Phyllanthus: section Phyllanthus: subsection Swarfziani Webster (provisional status) P. leucocalyx Hutch.

East Africa: Digo people. Leaves: infusion: used for childbirth pangs. Whole plant: decoction: used to treat stomachaches and as an emetic (vomit inducer), the taste is very bitter. Leaves, stems and roots: decoction: given to babies with stomachache (Kokwaro, 1976). Kenya. Dried leaves: decoction: used to aid childbirth

(Yu,

1982).

P. niruroides Muell.-Arg.

Ivory Coast and Burkina Faso. Whole plant: decoction: given as a diuretic and purgative in the

116

treatment of jaundice; with pepper added, used as a wash (or possibly as an enema) to reduce menstrual pain. The plant sap together with lemon juice is given as a drink to ease delivery. The strained juice of the pulped plant is given orally to treat infant bronchitis, and, in the ear, to treat the pain of otitis; this is one of several plants macerated and sprinkled on variola patients (Kerharo and Bouquet, 1950). Ivory Coast. Plant part and method of preparation unspecified: used to treat jaundice (Koning, 1970; Stauble, 1986). Nigeria and Cameroons. Whole plant: used as a diuretic and as a purge; used to treat jaundice. Juice: used to treat otitis (Oliver, 1960). Congo (Brazzaville). Juice of plants: drunk to treat pain in the side, tachycardia, blennorrhagia, diarrhea and female sterility, put in the ear to treat otitis. Poultice: used to treat pimples and abscesses. Seed capsules are reported to have vermifuge properties (Bouquet, 1969). P. rheedii Wight

India: Munda people: Used to treat dysentery; no further details given (Council of Scientific and Industrial Research, 1969).

Bacillus subtilis, Escherichia coli or Pseudomonas aeruginosa (Farouk et al., 1983). Cited as P. niruri, but probably P. amarus, P. fraternus or P. rotundtfolius.

General. Sudan. Roots: petroleum ether extract: a 25 ppm extract produced 100% mortality to two species of Schistosomiasis-carrying snails (Ahmed et al., 1984). Cited as P. niruri (local name elrageig), but the location suggests P. amarus, P. fraternus or P. rotundtfolius. Subgenus Phyllanthus: section Phyllanthus: subsection Odontadenii Brunel and Roux P. fischeri Pax

East Africa: Meru people. Roots: decoction: used as a cure for genera1 body illness; one cup drunk in the morning, one in the evening if still needed (Kokwaro, 1976). P. leucanthus Pax

East Africa: Chagga people. Root juice: large doses are given to infants to hasten detachment of umbilical cord (Watt and Breyer-Brandwijk, 1962). P. odontadenius Muell.-Arg.

P. rotundifolius Willd.

Egypt. Leaves: used for an alleged hypoglycemic effect from the Pharaonic period through the Islamic period (El-Gammal, 1982). Cited as P. niruri but based on location and the antiquity of the citation, probably P. rotundifolius. Sudan. Leaves: used as an analgesic (Farouk et al., 1983). Cited as P. niruri, but probably P. amarus, P. fraternus or P. rotundtfolius. East Africa: Digo people. Roots: decoction: used as an emetic (vomit inducer) (Kokwaro, 1976). Cited as P. niruri, but probably P. amarus or P. rotundifolius. Kenya: northwestern Kenya: Turkana people. Sap: applied to wounds; whole plants: eaten by camels, cattle, donkeys, goats and sheep (Morgan, 1981). Cited under the synonym of P. aspericaulis Pax. General. Sudan. Leaves: MeOH extract: active against Staphylococcus aureus. Chloroform extract: inactive. Neither extract was active against

Nigeria: northern Nigeria. Plant part unspecified: decoction: drunk to treat earache; the aqueous extract of ashes of the plant is put in the ear for the same purpose. Seeds: eaten by birds. The common names geron-tsuntsaye, gero itache, ebogi and ebd zunmaggi are used for P. amarus, P. odontadenius, P, pentandrus, probably P. urinaria and probably also some non-Phyllanthus species (Dalziel, 1937). Nigeria: southern Nigeria. Plant part not specified: an ingredient of agbo prescriptions in Lagos; British Colonial hospitals reported usefulness for relief of griping of dysentery, other spasmodic affections of the intestine, tormina (acute colic/abdominal pain) and tenesmus; also used to treat stomachaches, constipation and urethra1 discharges. Leaves: eaten to treat hiccups; animals also eat the leaves despite their bitter taste. The common names dobisowo, eyin-olobe, yoloba and oyomo-ke-iso-aman are used for P. amarus, P. odontadenius, P. pentandrus, probably P. urinaria

117

and probably also some non-Phyllanthus species (Dalziel, 1937). Cameroon. Leaves, shoots, roots and soil from around the roots: MeOH and ether extracts showed no Epstein-Barr virus activating potential, unlike several other local members of the Euphorbiaceae (Ohigashi et al., 1985). Rwanda. Stem: used to treat diarrhea and cholera; cited under the probable synonym of P. bequaertii Robyns and Lawalree (Mai’kere-Faniyo et al., 1989) General. Rwanda: southwest Rwanda: Butare. Leaves and stems: EtOH and MeOH extracts were tested at 50 mg/ml vs. a castor oil induced diarrhea in mice; three of five mice showed a positive effect; no in vitro activity was observed against Salmonella typhi, Salmonella type B, Salmonellu type D, Shigella jlexneri types 2a, 3a, or 4a, Shigella dysenteriae types 1 or 2, Shigella boydii types 4 or 5, or Shigella sonnei (Mai’kere-Faniyo et al., 1989). Cited under the probable synonym of P. bequaertii Robyns and Lawalree. General. United States: plants grown in the greenhouse. Aqueous extracts of whole plants inhibited WHV DNAp at a level similar to P. amarus (Unander et al., 1990a; Unander and Blumberg, 1991). P. psuedo-niruri MuelI.-Arg. Kenya: Northwest Kenya: Turkana people. Whole plant: eaten by camels, goats and sheep (Morgan, 1981). Subgenus Phyllanthus: section Phyllanthus: subsection? Incertae Sedis (indigenous to Brazil) P. acutifolius Spreng. Brazil: Minas Gerais and other states. Used as a diuretic, to treat liver “affections”, jaundice, diabetes, kidney pain, bladder infections, leucorrhea and skin diseases; no further details given (Cruz, 1965). Brazil. Method of preparation unspecified. Seeds and fruits: used to treat diabetes. Roots: used to treat jaundice. Whole plant or part not specified: used to dissolve renal or bladder stones (Pio-Correa, 1969).

Subgenus Phyllanthus: section Phyllanthus: subsection? Incertae Sedis (indigenous to Australia) P. lucunarius F. Muell. Australia: New South Wales. Above-ground portions: toxicity: suspected as the cause of death in sheep, cattle and goats; an aqueous extract from 4.5 kg of plants killed a sheep three days after being given as a drench; the symptoms were those of gastro-enteritis; consumption of large amounts, however, seemed to be required for symptom development in many cases; samples tested were only feebly cyanogenic (Hurst, 1942; Black, 1948; Everist, 1974). P. gunnii Hook. General. Australia: New South Wales. Plant part unspecified: aqueous extracts inhibited DHBV DNAp at high dilutions; P. amarus, P. gasstroemi, P. gunnii, P. similis, P. thymoides (under the synonym of P. hirtellus F. Muell.) and P. tenellus were tested; P. thymoides was the most active in vitro; these researchers concluded that these species may contain a specific lectin that binds to viral surface antigen, but that it is pharmacologically inactive based on in vivo experiments with P. thymoides extracts in chronic and acutely infected ducks (Shead et al., 1990). P. similis Muell.-Arg. General. Australia: New South Wales. Plant part unspecified: aqueous extracts inhibited DHBV DNAp at high dilutions; P. umurus, P. gasstroemi, P. gunnii, P. similis, P. thymoides (under the synonym of P. hirtellus F. Muell.) and P. tenellus were tested; P. thymoides was the most active in vitro; these researchers concluded that these species may contain a specific lectin that binds to viral surface antigen, but that it is pharmacologically inactive based on in vivo experiments with P. thymoides extracts in chronic and acutely infected ducks (Shead et al., 1990). Subgenus Phyllanthus: section Phyllanthus (provisional status): subsection? Incertae Sedis (indigenous to Africa)

118

P. hutchinsonianus S. Moore

East Africa. Leaves: eaten by women after childbirth as a stomach medicine; the taste is very bitter (Kokwaro, 1976). P. melleri Muell.-Arg.

Malagasy. Roots: decoction potence (Boiteau, 1974).

used to treat im-

P. meyerianus Muell.-Arg.

Lesotho and South Africa. Used to treat sore breasts of nursing mothers; no further details given; the same usage is also cited under the synonym of P. woodii Hutch. (Watt and BreyerBrandwijk, 1962). Subgenus Phyllanthus:

section Urinaria Webster

P. urinaria L.

part Plant Nigeria. northern Nigeria: unspecified: decoction: drunk to treat earache; the aqueous extract of ashes of the plant is put in the ear for the same purpose. Seeds: eaten by birds. The common names geron-tsuntsaye, gero itache, ebogi and eb6 zunmaggi are used for P. amarus, P. odontadenius, P. pentandrus, probably P. urinaria and probably also some non-Phyllanthus species (Dalziel, 1937). Nigeria: southern Nigeria. Plant part not specified: an ingredient of agbo prescriptions in Lagos; British Colonial hospitals reported usefulness for relief of griping of dysentery, other spasmodic affections of the intestine, tormina (acute colic/abdominal pain) and tenesmus; also used to treat stomachaches, constipation and urethral discharges. Leaves: eaten to treat hiccups; animals also eat the leaves despite their bitter taste. The common names dobisowo, eyin-olobe, yoloba and oyomo-ke-iso-aman are used for P. amarus, P. odontadenius, P. pentandrus, probably P. urinaria and probably also some non-Phyllanthus species (Dalziel, 1937). Nigeria. Leaves: used to treat hiccups and coughs and as a diuretic (Oliver, 1960). Mozambique. Used medicinally; no further details given (Watt and Breyer-Brandwijk, 1962). Malagasy. Stems, leaves: used to treat asthma, bronchitis and parasitic skin diseases. Bark: used

as an astringent. Plant part unspecified: used to treat blennorrhagia (Plotkin et al., 1985). The taxonomic data are unclear and could be refering to P. amarus, P. urinaria and/or P. tenellus. Malagasy. Whole plant: decoction: used to treat children’s fevers (Quansah, 1988). The location and description suggest P, amarus, P. urinaria and/or P. tenellus. La Reunion. Plant part unspecified: used to treat blennorrhagia, dropsy and diarrhea (Kirtikar and Basu, 1975). La Reunion. Plant part unspecified: decoction: used to treat dysentery and cystitis (Jayaweera, 1980). United States. Roots and leaves: used as a deobstruent and a diuretic (Millspaugh, 1892). treat Puerto Rico. Leaves: used to stomachaches. Leaves, stem: used as a diuretic (de Grosourdy, 1864). These uses are cited for P. niruri, probably also refering to P. amarus and are also cited for P. urinaria and P. stipulatus. Puerto Rico. Root and leaves: decoction: used to treat intermittent fevers (probably malaria), and as a mild purgative, a tonic and a diuretic (Amadeo, 1888). Antilles and Guyana. Leaves and seeds: decoction: three cups/day taken to treat diabetes. Phyllanthus urinaria shares the same common names (peronilla de1 pasto, filanto urinario) as “P. niruri” (Manfred, 1947). Guadeloupe and Martinique. Plant part unspecified: infusions of about 8 g/250 ml water are used to treat fevers, urine retention, jaundice and dropsy; the decoction is also used as a bitter tonic, a diuretic, a deobstruent and a gentle laxative. Phyllanthus amarus, P. niruri, P. urinaria and P. caroliniensis are used interchangeably; P. amarus is the most commonly used (Stehle and Stehle, 1962). Surinam. Used medicinally; no further details given (Verpoorte and Dihal, 1987). French Guiana, Used as a diuretic; no further details given (Heckel, 1897). Peru: Amazonia: Mestizos and Indians. Used medicinally to treat kidney and liver ailments; no further details given (MacRae, et al. 1988). Peru: Departamento de Loreto. Plant part unspecified: decoction: used to “break stones” (Woytkowski, 1960).

Argentina. Whole plant: decoction: used as a diuretic. Leaves: bitter in taste but used to “fortify” the stomach. Roots, whole plant: decoction made with a large spoonful in milk is taken twice daily to treat bladder infections, blenorragia, gonorrhea, dropsy, and prostate problems. Used interchangeably with P. niruri (Manfred, 1947). Pakistan: Unani medicine. Used as an emmenagogue; no further details given (Said, 1969). India. Used to treat abdominal tumors; no further details given (Hoernle, 1893-1912, The Bower Manuscript, approx. 350-375 A.D., as cited in Hartwell, 1982). India: Kerala. Leaves, roots: used to bring abscesses to a head and to cleanse ulcers; together with the oil of Nut-is Zndicae (nutmeg?) used to heal burns/scrapes. Root: used to treat dysentery; together with garlic used to treat ulcerations of testicles; also part of multi-component drugs for cough and rheumatism (van Rhede, 1690). The botanical description of two species, used interchangeably, seems to match P. urinaria and P. debilis best, and, based on flower structure, exclude P. amarus; the common names used in 1690 included those listed by Caius (1939) for “P. niruri”.

India. Used as a diuretic and an emmenagogue; no further details given (de Jussieu, 1824). India. Used as a diuretic; no further details given (Ainslie, 1826). India. Juice of the plant: applied to offensive sores. Leaves: used as a poultice with salt to treat “scabby affectations” and without salt used to treat bruises. P. urinaria was used interchangeably with P. amarus, P. debilis and P. fraternus (Dymock, 1886; Dymock et al., 1893). India: central and southern India and Sri Lanka. Whole plant or leaves: used as a deobstruent, a diuretic, an astringent and for a cooling effect; a teaspoonful of dried powdered plant or decoctions of the same is given to treat jaundice. P. amarus and/or P. debilis are used interchangeably with P. urinaria (Dymock, 1886; Dymock et al., 1893; Dey and Mair, 1896). India. Used as a substitute for P. amarus, P. debilis or P. fraternus (see entries under these names), but particular mention should be made of the following: Whole plant, roots or shoots: decoc-

tions: taken orally to treat jaundice (especially fresh roots), gonorrhea and dropsy, as a diuretic, an astringent and for a cooling effect. The juice of the leaves plus coconut milk are used as an appetizer for children. The whole plant is also used as a fish poison. The leaves are eaten by cattle (Drury, 1873, cites diuretic use only; Watt, 1892; Nadkarni and Nadkarni, 1954; Chopra et al., 1958; Council of Scientific and Industrial Research, 1969) India. Whole plant: reputed to be a fish poison (Chopra et al., 1949). India. Used as a substitute for P. amarus, P. debilis or P. fraternus (see entries under these names), but particular mention is made of the following. Roots, small leaves and tender shoots: powder or decoction: alleged to be antidysenteric (but not against cholera), as well as antiseptic; used for dressing wounds, boils, etc. (Chopra et al., 1958). India. Used as an emmenagogue; no further details given (Saha et al., 1961). India. “Crude extract”: used to treat infectious hepatitis (type not specified); no further details given. Used interchangeably with P. amarus, P. debilis or P. fraternus (Puri, 1970). India. Whole plant: decoction: used to treat snake-bite, but useless as an antidote (Kirtikar and Basu, 1975). India: Maharashtra: Bombay. Plant juice prepared in butter: used as a diuretic to treat gonorrhea and acidic urine. P. urinaria is used interchangeably with P. amarus, P. debilis and P. fraternus (Dymock, 1886; Dymock et al., 1893). India: Maharashtra: Konkan coastal region. Root: “rubbed down” with rice water and given orally in cases of menorrhagia. P. urinaria is used interchangeably with P. amarus, P. debilis and P. fraternus (Dymock, 1886; Dymock et al., 1893). India: Kerala. Commonly employed as a deobstruent and a diuretic in cases of dropsy and jaundice; no further details given (Planchon and Collin, 1896). India: Bihar: Chota Nagpur. Roots: method of preparation unspecified: considered sudorific. The roots together with Zornia diphylla Pers. are used to induce sleep in children. Leaves: eaten by cattle (Watt, 1892).

120

India: West Bengal: Calcutta. P. amarus and P. or sold mixed together (De and Datta, 1990). Sri Lanka. Used to treat fever and as a diuretic; no further details given (But-man, 1737). Two species are described: one of which is definitely P.urinaria (Webster, 1957); the description of the other does not permit distinction between P. amarus and P. debates or perhaps another P~y~~anthus species. Sri Lanka. Plant part unspecified: decoction: used as a diuretic for treating dropsy, gonorrhea and urogenital problems. Root: given to children with insomnia (Jayaweera, 1980). Nepal. Whole plant: used as a diuretic, an astringent and to treat gonorrhea and other urogenital troubles (His Majesty’s Government of Nepal, 1984). People’s Republic of China. Whole plant: decoction: used as an emmenagogue (Dragendorff, 1898). Cited as P. ca~~Q~je~~j~Willd., probably a synonym of P. urinaria. People’s Republic of China: Shanghai, Whole plant or roots, fresh or dry: harvested at the end of summer: a decoction using l-2 Chinese oz, taken daily for one week, is used for therapy for liver problems, including infectious hepatitis; “soothes, clears the hot”; also used as a diuretic, to clear toxins, to treat urinary infections, edema with nephritis, bloody diarrhea or conjunctivitis; poultice: used to treat boils of the head and mouth and to treat night blindness (Kangsu Medical Institute, 1975). People’s Republic of China: Hunan Province. Whole plant: decoction: used to treat hepatitis, jaundice, conjunctivitis, enteritis and diarrhea, infantile marasmus, urinary tract infections and nephritic edema; also used for diuresis and purging worms (National Institute of Health, 1977; Duke and Ayensu, 1985). Republic of China: Taiwan. Pounded plant is applied to contusions; also used to treat eye diseases (Liu, 1952). Republic of China: Taiwan. Infusion: taken orally to treat children’s diseases as well as to treat eye diseases (Kan, 1977). Republic of China: Taiwan. Considered effective in folklore for treating liver diseases; no further details given (Yang et al., 1987). urinaria are sold interchangeably

People’s Republic of China, Indochina, Malay Peninsula and Indonesia. Young leaves or small roots: decoction: used as a diuretic, an expectorant (especially for children’s coughs), and an emmenagogue as well as to treat kidney trouble, venereal disease, kidney stones, fever, diarrhea, colic and stomachaches. Powdered plant: applied externally to treat various skin complaints, including itching from cate~illars. The authors say that P. niruri (which, based on location, is probably P. amarus and/or P. debilis) is preferred to P. urinaria, but both have the same applications in folk medicine and are often used together (Burkill et al., 1966; Perry and Metzger 1980). Malay Peninsula. Juice: used to clean the tongue; a small amount of juice in coconut milk is claimed to stimulate children’s appetites (Burkill et al., 1966). South Korea. Used as a traditional medicine; no details given regarding the plant part or method of preparation; some patients with chronic hepatitis who were adminstered this plant showed some improvement after other European and Oriental medicines failed (personal communication with T.H. Chung, Dean, School of Medicine, Kyungpook National University, 101 Dong InDong, Taegu 630, South Korea). Thailand: Chiangmai and Lamphun Provinces. Whole plant: decoction: used to treat diabetes and fever (Brun and Schumacher, 1987). Cambodia. Used to treat “affections” of the liver and diarrhea; no further details given (Uphof, 1968). Cambodia: Siem Reap region. Leaves and stems: method of preparation unspecified: used to treat ovary problems (Martin, 1971). Cambodia: Leach region. Whole plant: decoction: used as a tonic (Martin, 1971). Cambodia, Laos and Vietnam. Whole plant: used as a bitter tonic, an astringent, an emmenagogue, a galactagogue, to treat fevers, liver complaints, diarrhea and malaria. Used interchangeably with plants known as “P. niruri” (Petelot, 1954). Vietnam. Used as a diuretic and an emmenagogue; no further details given (Ainslie, 1826). Vietnam. Used as a diaphoretic (sweat inducer) and an emmenagogue; no further details given (Duke and Ayensu, 1985).

121

Indonesia. Used as a diuretic, an antispasmodic, an abortifacient and to treat colic, gonorrhea and toothaches; no further details given (Dragendorff, 1898). Indonesia: Java. Whole plant: ground with red rice and anise and eaten to treat indigestion; smeared on the abdomen to treat dysentery; also used orally to treat spasms, convulsions and nephritis (Rumphius, 1750). The botanical description seems to indicate P. urinaria. Indonesia: Java. Used as a diuretic; no further details given (Ainslie, 1826). Indonesia: Java. Used as an abortifacient; no further details given (Hoehne, 1939). Indonesia: Moluccas. Powdered plant: together with rice flour used as part of a cosmetic face powder. Root: chewed with “Pinanga” (identity uncertain) to treat abdominal cramps, pain in the side and toothache; together with “Aure canina” (“dog’s ear”: identity uncertain) used to treat epilepsy and convulsions in children. Leaves: ground with Marrubium album Gilib. to treat children with epilepsy or convulsions; together with the leaves of “Pancaga” and “01~s scrofarum” (identity of these also uncertain) used to treat colic. Whole plant: boiled with “Pancaga” to treat colic and nephritis (Rumphius, 1750). Two species are described, one of which is clearly P. urinaria; the description of the other does not permit distinction between P. debilis and P. amarus. Philippines. Whole plant, leaves or roots, dried: decoction: used as a disinfectant bath for infants (Velazco, 1980). Australia. Leaves: rubbed into scarifications on the forehead to relieve head congestion (Roth, 1903; Webb, 1948; Duke and Ayensu, 1985). Guam. Juice of the plant: applied to offensive sores. Bruised leaves: used to treat “the itch” (probably scabies) and scabby sores of the scalp. Fresh roots: used to treat jaundice; these uses all make reference to Watt (1892), who wrote regarding uses in India, so they may not be indigenous uses to Guam. Used interchangably with “ P. niruri” (Safford, 1905). Guam. Leaves: decoction: used to treat dysentery (Perry and Metzger, 1980; Duke and Ayensu, 1985). Northwest Solomons. Leaves: method of preparation unspecified: used to treat chest pain

(Perry and Metzger, 1980). Fiji. Leaves: pounded together with guava leaves, boiled in salt water and used to treat toothache (Smith, 1981). The Netherlands. Plant part unspecified: infusion: used as a diuretic (Steinmetz, 1954). France. Used as a diuretic and to treat syphillis; no further details given (Baillon, 1891). General. Used to treat fevers and as a tonic and an astringent; no further details given (Uphof, 1968). General. French Guiana. Stems: contain a series of flavonoids, in greater quantity than in P. amarus (Nara et al., 1977). General. Plant part unspecified: contains the piscicidal compound phyllanthin (Duke and Ayensu, 1985). General. Shoots, roots and fruit contain flavonoids; roots and fruit contain saponins; shoots contain alkaloids (Sinha and Dogra, 1985). General. Stem: method of preparation unspecified: “insignificant” activity was observed against Escherichia coli (Watt and BreyerBrandwijk, 1962). General. India: Maharashtra: Bombay. Whole plant: petrol extract: activity was observed against the gram negative bacteria Escherichia coli, Salmonella typhosa, Vibrio comma and Shigella dysenteriae (Bhatnagar et al., 1961). General. France: plants grown from seeds collected in the Ivory Coast. The aqueous extract (3 g/100 ml) demonstrated bacteriostatic activity approaching that of streptomycin controls against Escherichia coli 5025, Staphylococcus aureus St ,& and Bacillus subtilis 168 (Nozeran and Ha’icour, 1974). General. Aqueous extract: in vitro anti-bacterial activity was observed against Bacillus subtilis 168; the activity varied with the plant part; leaves and branches were the most active, similar to the streptomycin control; capsules, stems and roots had decreasing levels of activity (but all possessed a minimum of 50% of the activity of the control); primary calli derived from each of these respective tissues had less activity, but were still ranked in accordance with the tissues they were derived from; activity decreased when callus cultures were continuously grown in the dark (Ha’icour, 1974). General. France. The aforementioned an-

122

tibacterial activity seemed to be associated with water-soluble, heat-stable substances, presenting probably the characteristics of phenolics, hydrolysable tannins (Ha’icour, 1975). General. Plant part and method of preparation unspecified: Extracts showed some bacteriostatic activity against Staphylococcus (Collier and van der Pijl, 1949). General. India: Uttar Pradesh: Kheri. Whole plant: 50% EtOH extract: no activity was observed against Staphylococcus uureus, Salmonella typhi, Escherichia coli, Agrobacterium tumefuciens, five species of fungi including Candida, two species of parasitic worms, Ranikhet Disease Virus or Vaccinia Virus; no antifertility effects were observed in hamsters (anti-implantation, spermicidal, semen effects); no coagulation or abortifacient hypoglycemic effects were observed; no effects on respiration or the cardiovascular system or antispasmodic effects were observed in dogs; no effects were observed on isolated ileum of guinea pigs; no effects were observed on the CNS of mice; no effects were observed to cultures of nasopharynx carcinoma or P388 lymphocytic leukemia; no diuretic or anti-inflammatory effects were observed; the LDSo = > 1000 mg/kg i.p. (mouse) (Dhawan et al., 1980). General. Surinam. Whole plant: EtOH extract: activity was observed in vitro against Staphylococcus aureus; no activity was observed against Escherichia coli, Pseudomonoas aeruginosa, Aspergillus niger or Candida albicans (Verpoorte and Dihal, 1987). General. Peru: Amazonia. Above ground portion. Aqueous extract: activity in vitro was observed against Staphylococcus aureus, four of four species of dermatophytic fungi, Sindbis virus and some inhibition of murine cytomegalovirus; Agrobacterium tumors on potato was also seen. Organic extract: some activity was observed (but less than that of the aqueous extract) against two of four dermatophytic fungi, the Sindbis virus and Agrobacterium tumors (MacRae et al., 1988). General. United States: plants from various countries grown in the greenhouse. Aqueous extracts inhibited WHV DNAp at levels similar to P. amarus; highly significant genetic variability ex-

isted within the species for this trait; this inhibition was relatively unaffected by different soil conditions (Unander et al., 1989; 1990a; Unander and Blumberg, 199 1). General. Taiwan. Whole plant: 50% EtOH extract at 10.9% dry wt.: 52% and 73% of primary cultured hepatocytes survived Ccl4 and Dgalactosamine treatments, respectively, against 0% of the controls (Yang, et al., 1987). General. No irritant or tumor-promoting activity was found (personal communication with E. Hecker). Subgenus Phyllanthus: Muell.) Webster

section

Lysiandra

(F.

P. gasstroemi Muell.-Arg. Australia: New South Wales and Queensland. Toxicity: positive HCN tests were obtained from herbarium specimens stored up to 30 years, as well as from fresh specimens from 50 different locations; documented cases exist of cattle deaths within 2 h of eating plants; in at least one case a dead cow tested positive for HCN; the authors concluded that a cyanogenic glucoside similar to that in sorghum is present (Hurst, 1942; Everist, 1974). General. Plant part unspecified: contains the cyanogenic glucoside taxiphyllin (phyllanthin) (Rizk, 1987). General. Australia: New South Wales. Plant part unspecified: aqueous extracts inhibited DHBV DNAp at high dilutions; P. amarus, P. gasstroemi, P. gunnii, P. similis, P. thymoides (under the synonym of P. hirtellus F. Muell.) and P. tenellus were tested; P. thymoides was the most active in vitro; these researchers concluded that these species may contain a specific lectin that binds to viral surface antigen, but that it is pharmacologically inactive based on in vivo experiments with P. thymoides extracts in chronic and acutely infected ducks (Shead et al., 1990). P. subcrenulatus F. Muell. Australia: New South Wales. Suspected

to have

123

caused (Hurst,

death in cattle; 1942).

Subgenus Phyllanthus:

sheep

were

section Pentandra

unaffected

Webster

P. capillaris Schum.

East Africa: Digo people. Roots: decoction: used to treat stomachache. Whole plant: decoction: used to treat vomiting (Kokwaro, 1976). Zaire. Leaves: used to treat wounds (Githens, 1948). West Africa. Used interchangeably with P. jloribundus by Twi and other peoples. Fresh leaves: powdered and applied to wounds. Fruits: occasionally eaten. A cut stem yields clear, potable water (Dalziel, 1937). Togo. Roots and leaves: infusion: used to treat fevers in children (Dalziel, 1937). Ghana: central Ghana: Ashanti. Leaves: boiled into a soup for post-partum recovery together with palm fruit (type not specified). Roots: cooked and eaten with cornmeal to treat severe dysentery (Dalziel, 1937). Cameroon: southern Cameroon. Bark: added to palm wine, it allegedly increases intoxication (Dalziel, 1937). Sierra Leone and southern Nigeria. Leaves: infusion: used to treat eye troubles, or as a skin wash to treat fevers and skin eruptions; also occasionally added to soup. Leaves and twigs: decoction: used as a mild purgative and to treat chest complaints, urethral discharges or mild dysentery. Fresh juice: used to treat eye troubles (Dalziel, 1937). General. Bacteriostatic activity was observed in vitro against Escherichia coli 5025, Staphylococcus aureus St,& and Bacillus subtilis 168; the activity varied with the part of the plant tested; leaves were the most active, followed by capsules, stems and roots (Nozeran and Ha’icour, 1974). P. nummulariifolius

Lam. East Africa: Kipsigis people. Fruits: boiled in water and eaten to treat intestinal worms (Kokwaro, 1976). South and East Africa: Haya people. Leaves: applied locally in case of suppurative swellings on

the legs and other inflammations. Shambala people. Leaves: used to treat asthma; no further details given (Watt and Breyer-Brandwijk, 1932, 1962). Cited by the synonym of P. stuhlmannii Pax. P. pentandrus

Schum. Niger. Shoots: decoction: nursing mothers (Adjanohoun ble, 1986).

given as a tonic to et al., 1980; Stlu-

Plant part Nigeria: northern Nigeria. unspecified: decoction: drunk to treat earache; the aqueous extract of ashes of the plant is put in the ear for the same purpose. Seeds: eaten by birds. The common names geron-tsuntsaye, gero itache, ebdgi and ebd zunmaggi are used for P. amarus, P. odontadenius, P. pentandrus, probably P. urinaria and probably also some non-Phyllanthus species (Dalziel, 1937). Nigeria: central Nigeria: Kwara State. Leaves: fresh leaves are dried and mixed 1: 1 with powdered leaves of a Vigna sp. and, mixed with butter, are then commonly applied locally to boils and dislocated limbs (Bhat et al., 1990). Nigeria: southern Nigeria. Plant part not specified: an ingredient of agbo prescriptions in Lagos; British Colonial hospitals reported usefulness for relief of griping of dysentery, other spasmodic affections of the intestine, tormina (acute colic/abdominal pain) and tenesmus; also used to treat stomachaches, constipation and urethral discharges. Leaves: eaten to treat hiccups; animals also eat the leaves despite their bitter taste. The common names dobisowo, eyin-olobe, yoloba and oyomo-ke-iso-aman are used for P. amarus, P. odontadenius, P. pentandrus, probably P. urinaria and probably also some non-Phyllanthus species (Dalziel, 1937). South and East Africa: Lenge people. Juice of the leaves with water: given orally to neonate infants to aid suckling and to act as a mild purgative (Watt and Breyer-Brandwijk, 1962). General. Whole plant: aqueous and chloroform extracts had no effect in vivo on malaria, based on inoculation of Plasmodium gallinaceum trophozoites and sporozoites in chickens and P. cathemerium and P. lophurae trophozoites in ducks (Spencer et al., 1947).

124

P. somalensis Hutch.

Kenya. Leaves: suspected of poisoning stock (Dale and Greenway, 1961). The data are unclear as to whether the toxicity was caused by Phyllanthus or by plants belonging to another genus in the Euphorbiaceae. General. Sudan. Roots: EtOH extract: inhibition of Staphylococcus aureus and Bacillus subtilis was observed in vitro (Elmi et al., 1986). P. tenellus Roxb.

Malagasy. Method of preparation unspecified. Stems, leaves: used to treat asthma, bronchitis and parasitic skin diseases. Bark: used as an astringent. Plant part not specitied: used to treat blenorrhagia (Plotkin et al., 1985). The taxonomic data are unclear and could be refering to P. amarus, P. urinaria and/or P. tenellus. Malagasy. Whole plant: decoction: used to treat children’s fevers (Quansah, 1988). The location and description suggest P. amarus, P. urinaria or P. tenellus.

West Indies: Dominica, Guadeloupe, Martinique. Plant part unspecified: decoction: used as an abortifacient and to treat diarrhea (Ayensu, 198 1). Dominica: Caribs. Whole plant: decoction: used as an abortifacient; one of several weedy species of Phyllanthus which are so used (Hodge and Taylor, 1956). Brazil: One of the Phyllanthus species is known by the common name quebrapedra (“stone breaker”) (Altschul, 1973). Brazil: State of Sao Paulo. This is one of the Phyllanthus species called quebrapedra (“stonebreaker”) and used to treat renal and biliary calculi (personal communication with I. Cordeiro, Secretaria do Meio Ambiente, Instituto de Botanica, Sao Paulo, Brazil). Polynesia: Society, Cook and Austral Islands. Whole plant: crushed with coconut oil and/or Gardenia taitensis DC., heated and massaged into or around the ears in case of earache or ear infection. P. virgatus, P. debilis, and sometimes P. amarus or P. tenellus are interchanged; based on taxonomic records, in most cases P. amarus is the most common contemporary species (personal communication with A.A. Whistler). Polynesia: Cook Islands. Dried leaves: a decoc-

tion made together with Aleurites moluccana (L.) Willd. nuts and grated limestone is rubbed on the head to treat severe headaches or earaches (personal communication with A.A. Whistler). Polynesia: Tahiti. Plant part unspecified: decoction: used as a diuretic to treat urinary tract infections (personal communication with A.A. Whistler). Polynesia: Austral Islands. Plant part unspecified: decoction: used to treat gonorrhea (personal communication with A.A. Whistler). General. Australia. No HCN was found in the plant (Webb, 1948). General. United States. Aqueous extracts were given i.p. to woodchucks acutely infected with WHV: three of the four treated animals had large drops in the titer of their viral surface antigen; the controls did not; the treated animals, however, showed evidence of chronic toxicity from the plant (Blumberg et al., 1989; personal communication with Irving Millman, Fox Chase Cancer Center). General. Australia: New South Wales. Plant part unspecified: aqueous extracts inhibited DHBV DNAp at high dilutions; P. amarus, P. gasstroemi,

P. gunnii,

P. similis, P. thymoides

(under the synonym of P. hirtellus F. Muell.) and P. tenellus were tested; P. thymoides was the most active in vitro; these researchers concluded that these species may contain a specific lectin that binds to viral surface antigen, but that it is pharmacologically inactive based on in vivo experiments with P. thymoides extracts in chronic and acutely infected ducks (Shead et al., 1990). P. tenellus Roxb. (under the synonym of P. corcovadensis Muell-Arg.)

Brazil. Whole plant: well-known as a diuretic and as a deobstruent; used to treat jaundice, malaria, .bronchitis, dropsy, urinary tract disorders and to dissolve stones; a daily dose of about 0.5-2.0 g in water is used (Freise, 1934). Brazil. Roots: decoction: used to dissolve stones in the bladder (Uphof, 1968). Brazil: Guanabara: Rio de Janeiro. Used as a diuretic and to dissolve renal stones; no further details given. The common name is also used for Oenanthe phellandrium Lam., Saxifragra granuluta L. and Silaus pratensis Bess (Pio-Correa, 1974).

125

Brazil: State of Sao Paulo. Above ground parts: method of preparation unspecified: used as an analgesic in traditional medicine (Costa et al., 1989). General. The plant contains a substantial quantity of salicylic acid and some essential oils (Freise, 1934). General. Above-ground parts: 50% EtOH extract: oral administration to mice reduced abdominal contortions 1 h after i.p. injection of an irritant, but not at three other time intervals; this treatment did not significantly reduce tail reaction to hot water; the extract tested positive for phenolit radicals but it was not possible to determine if these included salicylate (Costa et al., 1989). General. Brazil: State of Sao Paulo. Fresh, above-ground parts: 50% EtOH extract: hypotensive effects were observed in vivo in rats following a gastric intubation at a rate of 40 ml/kg body weight; no chronotropic effects were observed; diuresis was also induced (Ribeiro et al., 1986). General. No irritant or tumor-promoting activity was found (personal communication with E. Hecker). Subgenus Phylfunrhus: section? Incertae Sedis (indigenous to Africa) P. madagascariensis Muell.-Arg.

Malagasy. Bark: used to treat diarrhea, wounds and as a narcotic; no further details given (Githens, 1948). Malagasy. Used medicinally, but no details given (Kirtikar and Basu, 1975). Malagasy. Bark: used to treat wounds and as an astringent (Plotkin et al., 1985). Subgenus Phyllunrhus: section? Incertae Sedis (indigenous to the South Pacific) P. marianus Muell.-Arg.

Guam. Used medicinally but no details given (Safford, 1905). Guam. Leaves: decoction: used as an analgesic, including for treatment of back pains (Moore and McMakin, 1979). Guam. Leaves: decoction: used to treat abdominal pain (personal communication with M. McCutcheon, Woodrow Wilson International

Center for Scholars, Smithsonian Washington, DC 20560).

Institution,

P. palauensis Hosokawa

Palau: Babeldaob Island. Decoction: used to treat stomach pain and hepatitis, including hepatitis B (personal communication with M. McCutcheon). Subgenus Phyflanthus: section? Incertae Sedis (indigenous to Asia) P. parvifolius Buch.-Ham.

ex D. Don Nepal: Raswa District. Leaves: powdered to treat dandruff and lice (Manandhar, 1985). Nepal: Central Nepal: Helambu: Sherpa people. Leaves: filtered decoction of about 10 g/300 ml: drunk 2-3 times a day for 2-3 days as an antipyretic; also applied locally to treat dandruff and head lice (Bhattarai, 1989). General. Whole plant: 50% EtOH extract: LD,, = 175 mg/kg, i.p. (mouse) (Bhakuni et al., 1969). Subgenus Phylhznthus: section? Incertae Sedis (indigenous to Asia) P. lawii Grah.

India: Kerala and Tamil Nadu: western Ghats: aboriginal tribes. Whole plant: crushed plants or decoction: used as a gargle for treating toothaches or throat pain; Paniyan tribe: used in many magical formulas (Pushpangadan and Atal, 1984). General. India: Madhya Pradesh: Bastar. Above ground parts: 50% EtOH extract: hypothermic and diuretic effects were observed in vivo (mouse); no effects were observed against Bacillus subtilis, Staphylococcus aureus, Salmonella typhosa or Escherichia coli, four species of fungi, or Leukemia P388 in vivo (mouse); no analgesic or anticonvulsant activity was observed at approximately 0.5 g/kg i.p. (mouse); no antispasmodic or antiinflammatory activities were observed in vivo (mouse); no spermicidal or semen coagulation effects were observed; LD,, > 1 g/kg i.p. (mouse) (Dhawan et al., 1977). P. polyphyllus Willd.

India. Twig bark: contains 1l-16%

tannin; us-

126

able for tanning (Council of Scientific and Industrial Research, 1969). General. India: Tamil Nadu: Coimbatore. Above ground parts: 50% EtOH extract: gross effects were observed on the CNS in vivo in mice; the extracts antagonized hyperactivity induced by amphetamines in mice; no effects were observed against (Gram-positive) Bacillus subtilis, aureus, Staphylococcus (Gram-negative) Salmonella typhi, Escherichia coli, Agrobacterium tumefaciens or (acid-fast) Mycobacterium tuberculosis, five species of fungi, Ranikhet Disease

Virus, vaccinia virus, human naso-pharynx carcinoma cells, or mouse leukemia cells; no hypoglycemic effect was observed in vivo in rats; no effects on respiration or blood pressure were observed in vivo in dogs; no antispasmodic effects were observed on the guinea pig ileum; no effects were observed in vivo in mice for hypothermia, analgesia, diuresis, on electroshock seizure patterns or in rotarod tests; LDse = 750 mg/kg i.p. (mouse) (Dhar et al., 1974). Subgenus Phyllanthus: digenous to Africa)

section? Incertae Sedis (in-

P. sacleuxii Radcliffe-Smith

East Africa: Taita people. Leaves: a decoction is made with a small quantity of leaves and drunk to treat diarrhea. Leaf sap: put in the ear to treat earaches (Kokwaro, 1976). Acknowledgements

This research was supported by USPHS grants CA-40737, RR-05895, by CA-06927 from the National Institutes of Health and by an appropriation from the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania. For brevity, every library or collection consulted will not be listed here, but particular appreciation is extended to Dr. James Duke of the United States Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Center at Beltsville, MD, Dr. Alain H. Liogier of the Botanical Garden of the University of Puerto Rico, Dr. Julia F. Morton, Director of the Morton Collectanea of the University of Miami and Ms. Mary Lou Quinn, Managing Director of NAPRALERT, College of Pharmacy,

University of Illinois at Chicago. The senior author (D.W.U.) translated Spanish and Portuguese citations. Latin references were translated by Dr. Martha Davis of the Department of Classics, Temple University, Philadelphia and Dr. Laura Lega of the Department of Pediatrics of the University of Florence. French references were translated by Dr. Laura Lega and by Mr. Alex Spyropoulos of the Fox Chase Cancer Center. German references were translated by Ms. Marlene Kraus of the Fox Chase Cancer Center. Marilyn P. Wong, M.D., translated Chinese works and Dr. N. of Mahidol University, Bunyapraphatsara Bangkok, translated Thai references.

Adjanohoun,E.J.,

Ahyi, A.M.R., Ake Assi. L., Dan Dieko, L.. Daouda, H.. Delmar, M., de Souza, S., Garba. M., Guinko. S., Kayanga, A.. N’Golo, D.. Raynal, J.L. and Saadou. M. ( 1980) MPdecine traditionelle et Pharmacop6e: Contribution aux

Etudes ethnobotaniques e! jloristiques au Niger. Agence de Cooperation cultrelle et technique, Paris. Cited in Stluble (1986). Ahmad, Y.S. (1957) A Note on the Plants of Medicinal Value Found in Pakistan. Government of Pakistan Press, Karachi. Abstract A-1908 from NAPRALERT, College of Pharmacy, University of Illinois-Chicago, Chicago, IL. Ahmed, E.H.M., Bashir, A.K. and El Kheir, Y.M. (1984) Investigations of molluscicidal activity of certain Sudanese plants used in folk medicine. Part IV. Planfa Medica 50, 74-77. Ahuja. B.S. (1965) Medicinal Plants of.Saharanpur. Central Council of Ayurvedic Research, Saharanpur, Uttar Pradesh, pp. 5651. Ainslie, W. (1826) Maferia Indira, Vol. II. Reprinted 1984, Neeraj Publishing House, Delhi, pp. 150-152, 437. Albornoz-M., A.R. (1963) Cuia Farmacognosica de Drogas Vegetules y de Plantas con InrerJs Econdmico de Actualidad. Partes II, 111. IV y V. Universidad Central de Venezuela. Caracas, 82 pp. Altschul, S. von R. (1973) Drugs and Foods from Lirtle-known Plums. Notes in Harvard University Herbaria. Harvard University Press, Cambridge, pp. 143-144. Amadeo. A.J. (1888) The botany and vegetable materia medica of the island of Porto-Rico. Pharmaceutical Journal Apr. 28. 1888, p. Araujo. A. Influence Facultad

906. (1929) On Diuresis und its Modifications under the of Various Fluid Extracts of Brazilian Plants. Thesis, de Medicina, S$o Paulo. Abstract W-0721 from

NAPRALERT, College of Pharmacy, University of Illinois Chicago, Chicago, IL. Archer. W.A. (1934) Data from herbarium specimen Archer 253/ from Guyana (British Guiana) in the Herbarium of the Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C.

127

Asprey. G.F. and Thornton, P. (1954) Medicinal plants of Jamaica. II. Wcvr Indian Medial Journal 3. 17--41. Asprey. G.F. and Thornton. P. (1955) Medicinal plants of Jamaica. III. West Indian Medicul Journul 4, 69-82. Ayensu, E.S. ( I98 I ) Medichurl Phmfs of the Wes/ Indies. Reference Publications. Inc., Algonac. MI, pp. 99-100. Baillon. H. (1891) De Bomniyue. Librairie Hachette et Cie., Paris, pp. 561-562. Bancilhon. L. (1971) Contribution a I’etude taxonomique de genre Phy//unrhu.s (Euphorbiacees). Boissieru 18. 9-8 I; 22 plates. Bhakuni. OS.. Dhar. M.L.. Dhar. M.M.. Dhawan. B.N. and Mehrotra. B.N. (1969) Screening of some Indian plants for biological

activity.

Part

II. Indhm Journal of E.~perimen/u/

Biology 7. 25-262.

Bhat. R.B.. Etejere, E.O. and Oladipo. V.T. (1990) Ethnobotanical studies from central Nigeria. Economic Boruny 44. 382-390.

Bhatnagar. S.S.. Santapau. H., Desa, J.D.H., Maniar. A.C.. Ghadially. N.C., Solomon. M.J.. Yellore. S. and Rao. T.N.S. (1961) Biological activity of some Indian plants. Part I. Antibacterial.

antitubercular

and antifungal action. Indiun Journul of Mediwl Reseurch 49. 799-8 13. Bhattarai. N.K. (1989) Traditional phytotherapy among the Sherpas of Helambu. Central Nepal. Journul c!l’Et/mnop/Jurnlu~~J/~~g~ 21.45-54.

Bhowmick, B.N. and Choudhary. B.K. (1982) Antifungal activity of leaf extracts of medicinal plants on Ahernuriu uhernum (Fr.) Keissler. Indiun Botunicul Reporter I, 164-165. Bhowmick, B.N. and Vardhan. V. (1981) Antifungal activity of some leaf extracts of medicinal plants on Cursuhtriu /unum. Indiun Phytopurho/ogy

Black,

J.M.

(1948)

34. 385-386.

F/oru

of

South

Ausrruliu.

Part

II.

Casuarinaceae-Euphorbiaceae. K.M. Stevenson. Government Printer, Adelaide. pp. 54, 759-760. Blumberg. B.S., Millman. I., Venkateswaran. P.S. and Thydgdrajan. S.P. (1989) Hepatitis B virus and hepatocellular carcinoma - treatment of HBV carriers with P/~y/hm/hu.s umurus. Cwcer Detection und Prevention

14. 195-201.

Boiteau, P. (1974) Dictionnaire des vegeteaux. Fitoterupiu 45, 223-266.

noms

malgaches

des

Bouquet. A. (1969) Ftticheurs et mtdecines traditionnelles du Congo (Brazzaville). Memoires de I’ORSTOM. Paris. pp. 121-122. Bouquet, A. and Debray, M. (1974) Plantes midicinales de CBte d’lvoire. Cuhiers de I’ORSTOM. Paris. Cited in Stluble (1986). Brown, F.B.H. (1935) Floru of Southeustern Polynesiu. III. Dicoryledons. Bernice P. Bishop Museum Bulletin 130. Honolulu, p. 140. Brown, W.H. (1954) Us+/ Phmrs ($ the Philippines. Vol. 2. Technical Bulletin IO. Philippines Department of Agriculture and Natural Resources. Manila, pp. 323-325. Brun, V. and Schumacher, T. (1987) Truditional Herbul Medicine in Norrhern Thuihmd. University of California Press. Berkeley. CA, 349 pp. Brunel, J.F. and Roux, J. (1984) South-east Asian Phyllantheae. II. Some Phyllanrhus of subsection Swrt-_iuni. Nordic Journul of Bomny 4. 469473.

Bunyapraphatsara. N. (1987) Translations provided to Unander from nine books in Thai on uses of Ph_v//anrhus species in traditional Thai medicine. Medicinal Plant Information Center, Mahidol University, Bangkok. Burkill. I.H.. Birtwistle. W., Foxworthy. F.W.. Scrivenor, J.B. and Watson, J.G. (1966) A Diciionury of the Economic Products of fhe Maluy Peninsula, Vol. II. Ministry of Agriculture and Cooperatives, Government of Malaysia, Kuala Lumpur, pp. 1747-1749. Burman. J. (1737) Thesaurus Zehmicus. Apud JanssonioWaesbergio, Amsterdam, pp. 23-23 I. Caius. J.F. (1939) Medicinal

and poisonous

of India. 13. S. and Standley, P.C. (1941) Flora de El Salvador. ImNational, San Salvador, p. 174.

Journul of the Bombuy Natural

Calderon, prenta

spurges

History Society 40, 265-3

Calixto. J.B.. Yunes. R.A., Neto, A.S.O., Valle, R.M.R. and Rae. G.A. (1984) Antispasmodic effects of an alkaloid extracted from Phyllanthus sellowianus: a comparative study with papaverine. Bruziliun Journul of Medical Biological Research 17. 313-321.

Chang-V., G., Gonzalez-V., F.. Le Franc-O, R., Salazar-S., R. and Ugalde-V., H. (1984) Remedios Cuseros y Comidus Tradicionules Afrolimonenses. Ministerio de Cultura, Juventud y Deportes. Editorial Ministerio de Education Ptiblica, San Jose. Costa Rica, 95 pp. Chauhan. J.S.. Sultan, M. and Srivastava. S.K. (1977) Two new glycoflavones from the roots of PhyBumhus niruri. Phmfu Mediw

32. 2 17-222.

Chopra,

R.N., Badhwar. R.L.. and Ghosh, S. (1949) Poisonous Plums oflndiu. Scientific Monograph No. 17. Vol. I. Indian Council of Agricultural Research. Calcutta. pp. 584.

Chopra, R.N., Chopra. l.c., Handa. K.L. and Kapur, L.D. (1958) Choprus Indigenous Drugs of Indiu. 2nd Edn. U.N. Dhur and Sons Private Ltd., Calcutta. pp. 12-23.519 520. 598,605, 609.660. Collier, W.A. and van der Pijl, L. (1949) Over antibiotische werking. speciaal van hogare planten, met nieuwe resultaten bij Indonesische planten. (The antibiotic action of plants, especially the higher plants, with results on Indonesian plants.) Chronicu Nuturue 105. 8-15. Abstract W-1047 from NAPRALERT. College of Pharmacy, University of Illinois-Chicago. Chicago. IL. Also cited in Perry and Metzger (1980). Cordeiro. R. (Ed.) (1983) Erva-pombinha. Plumus que Curum (Sao Paulo) 17. 224-225. Costa. M.. di Stasi. L.C.. Kirizawa. M.. Mendacolli. S.L.J.. Games. C., and Trolin, G. (1989) Screening in mice of some medicinal plants used for analgesic purposes in the State of

S~O Paulo. Part II. Journul of Efhnophurmucology 27. 25-33. Council of Scientific and Industrial Research (1969) The Weuhh

ofIndia.A

Dictionury Of Indian Raw Mntrriuls

Producrs. Vol. 8. New Delhi.

And Industriul

pp. 34-36.

Cruz. G. L. ( 1965) Livro Verde dus Plumus Medicinuis e Industriuis do Brush. Vol. 2. Velloso S. A., Belo Horizonte. pp. 439. 708-709. Cuellar-Cuillar. A. and France-Estevez. P. (1980) Estudio titoquimico preliminar de plantas cubanas. V. P/~v//ut~thus niruri.

128

Euphorbiaceae. Rev&a Cubanu de la Farmacia 14, 63-68. Dabral, P.K. and Sharma. R.K. (1983) Evaluation of the role of Rumalaya and Geriforte in chronic arthritis - a preliminary study. Probe 22, 12%127. Abstract T-6320 from NAPRALERT, College of Pharmacy, University of Illinois-Chicago, Chicago, IL. Dagar. H.S. (1989) Plant folk medicines among Nicobarese tribals of Car Nicobar island, India. Economic Botany 43,215-224. Dale, I.R. and Greenway, P.J. (1961) KenenyaTrees and Shrubs. Buchanan’s Kenya Estates, Nairobi and Hatchards, London, p. 216. Dalziel. J.M. (1937. reprinted 1948) The Useful Plunts of West Tropical Africa. Secretary of State for the Colonies, Crown Agents for the Colonies, London, pp. 1561.58. De, B. and Datta, P.C. (1990) Pharmacognostic evaluation of Pbyilanthus amarus. International Journal of Crude Drug Research 28, 81-88. de Grosourdy, D.R. (1864) El Medico Botrinico Criollo. Vol. 3. Libreria de Francisco Brachet, Paris, pp. 222, 357.

de Jussieu. A. (I 824) De Euphvrbiacearum Generibus Medicisyue eurum dem Viribus Tentumem. Didot. Paris. p. 96. de Mello, J.F. (1980) Plants in traditional medicine in Brazil. Journal of Ethnopharnlaeology 2, 49-55.

Dey. K.L. and Mair, W. (1896) The lndigenuus Drugs of India, 2nd Edn. W. Thacker and Co., London, p. 235. Dhar. M.L., Dhar, M.M.. Dhawan. B.N., Mehrotra, B.N. and Ray. C. (1968) Screening of Indian plants for biological activity: part 1. Indian Journal of Experimental Biology 6,232 247. Dhar. M.L.. Dhawan, B.N., Prasad. CR., Rastogi, R.P., Singh, K.K. and Tandon, J.S. (1974) Screening of Indian plants for biological activity: part V. Indian Journa/ 5f E.~p~rimental Biology 12, 5 12-523. Dhawan, B.N., Patnaik. G.K.. Rastogi. R.P., Singh, K.K. and Tandon. J.S. (1977) Screening of some Indian plants for biological activity. Part Vi. Indian Journal of Esperimental Biology 15, 208-2 19. Dhawan, B.N.. Dubey. M.P., Mehrotra. B.N., Rastogi, R.P. and Tandon. J.S. (1980) Screening of Indian plants for biological activity. Part IX. Indian Journal of Experimentui Biology 18, 594-606. Disengomoka. I. and Delaveau. P. (1983) Medicinal plants used for child respiratory diseases in Zaire. Part 1. Journal of Etl~noplzan~~a~ulog~ 8, 257-263.

Dixit. S.P. and Achar, M.P. (1983) B/?u~~zyanza/aki (P/z~l/antl?us niruri Linn.) and jaundice in children. Journa/o~‘the ~~t/iona/ Integrated Medicine Association 25. 269. Cited in Medicinal and Aromatic Plants Abstracts 7. 8501-0133.

Dragendorff. G. ( 1898) Die Heilpllan-_en der verschieden Viilker und Zeitm. Verlag von Ferdinand Enke, Stuttgart. pp. 373-374. Drury. H. (1873) Tjre Use&! Plants oflndia, 2nd Edn. William

H. Alien and Co.. London, p. 342. Duke. J.A. and Ayensu, E.S. (1985) Medicinal Plants of China. Reference Publications. inc.. Algonac, Ml. p, 3 11, Dymock. W. ( 1886) The Vegetable Materia Medica of Western India. Education Society’s Press, Bombay. pp. 701-702. Dymock. W., Warden. C.J.H. and Hooper, D. (1893) Phar-

macographia Indica, Vol. 3. Kegan Paul. Trench. Trubner & Co., inc. London, pp. 265-268. Eldridge, J. f 1975)Bush medicine in the Exumas and Long island, Bahamas: a field study. Economic Botany 29, 307 332. El-Gammal, S.Y. (1982) Antidiabetic herbs in history. in: A. Ally (Ed.), The History of Medicinal and Aromatic Plants. Hamdard Foundation Press, Karachi, Pakistan, pp. 37-39. Elliott, S. and Brimacombe, J. (1987) The medicinal plants of Gunung Leuser National Park, Indonesia. Journal of ~thnopharma~ology 19, 285-3

17.

Eimi, A.S., Svendsen, A.B., Scheffer, J.J.C. and Verpoorte, R. (1986) Screening of some Somali plants for antimicrobial activity. Journal of Ethnopharmacology 17, 283-288. Everist, S.L. (1974) Poisonous Plants of Australia, Angus and Robertson, Sydney, pp. 202-204. Farnsworth. N.R. and Kaas, C.J. f 1981) An approach utilizing info~ation from traditional medicine to identify tumor inhibiting plants. Journal of ~thnophurmu~ology 3, 85-99. Farouk, A., Bashir, A.K. and Salih, A.K.M. (1983) Antimicrobial activity of certain Sudanese plants used in folkloric medicine. Screening for antimicrobial activity. 1. Fitoterapia 54, 3-7. Freise, F.W. (1934) Plantas Medicinales Brusileiras. Instituto de Agronomia do Estado, Sao Pauio, pp. 442-443. Garcia-Barrio, H. (1975) Flora Medicinal de Culombia, Vol. 2. lnstituto de Ciencias Naturales, Universidad Nacionai, Bogota, p. 119. Githens, T.S. (1948) Drug P/ants of Africa. African Handbooks No. 8. University of Pennsylvania Press, The University Museum. Philadelphia, I25 pp. Gooding. E.G.B., Loveless, A.R. and Proctor, G.R. (1965) Flora of Bar~dos. Ministry of Overseas Development, Barbados, p. 259. Guerrero, L.M. (1921) Medicinal uses of Philippine plants. Bureuu of Forestry Bulletin 22, 201. Also cited in Brown (1954) and in Perry and Metzger (1980). Gupta, D.R. and Ahmed, B. (1984) Nirurin: a new prenylated flavonone glycoside from Phyilanthus niruri. Journal of Natural Products 47, 958-963.

HaTcour, R. (1974) Comparaison chez Phyilunthus urinaria L. de l’activitt antibacttrienne des decoctions de diverses portions de la plante et de cultures de tissus qui en proviennent. Comptes Rendus des Seances de I’Academie des Sciences SPrie D 278, 3323-3325.

Ha’icour, R. (1975) Premiers elements d’identi~cation biochimique des principes antibact~riens d’extraits du Phyllanthus urinaria L. Comptes Rendus des Seances de I’Academie des Sciences Skie D 280. 1789 1792. Halberstein, R.A. and Saunders, A.B. (1978) Traditional medical practices and medicinal plant usage on a Bahamian island. Culiure. Medicine und Psychiatry 2. I V-203. Handa. K.L.. Kapobr, L.D.. Chopra, I.C. and Nath. S. (1951) The present position of the crude drugs used in the indigenous medicine. Indian Journal of Pharmacy 13. 2948. Hartwell. J.L. (1982) Plants Used against Cancer: A Survey. Quarterman Publications. Lawrence. MA, pp. 169-176. Heckel, E. (1897) Les Plantes Medicinales et Toxiques de lu Guyane Francaise. Protat Freres, Macon, p. 70.

Hemadri,

K. and Rao, S.S. (1984) Jaundice:

cient Scirncr

of Lifi

tribal medicine.

An-

3. 209-212.

Henderson. M.R. ( 1959) Maluyun Wild Flowers: Dicot~letlons. Caxton Press, Ltd., Kuala Lumpur. pp. 462464. His Majesty’s Government of Nepal, Ministry of Forest and Soil

Kan, W.-S. (1977) Phurmuceuticul

Boruny. National

Research

Institute of Chinese Medicine, Taiwan, Republic of China. p. 235 (Chinese). Kaviratna. A.C. (1888-1909) Churuku-Sumhitu, Vols. l-2. Corinthian Press, Calcutta, 1718 pp. As cited in Hartwell (1982).

of the

The Churuku-Sumhitu is the post-Vedic Hindu materia medica. the core of which is said to have been written about IO0 A.D. Kerharo. J. and Bouquet, A. (1950) Pluntes Mticlicinulev c’t Tosiqua de lu C&e-D’IvoireHuutcj- Voltu. Vigot Freres. Paris,

island Caribs of Dominica. Wehhiu 12, 513-644. Hoehne, F.C. (1939) Pluntus e Suhstcincius Vegetuis Tbsicus e Medicinais. Departamento de Botlnico do Estado, Sgo Paulo, p. 180

pp. 83-85. Kirtikar, K.R. and Basu. B.D. (1975) Intliun Madic~inul Plunts. Vol. 3. 2nd Edn. Jayyed Press. New Delhi, pp. 2223-2227. Kokwaro, J.O. (1976) Medicinul Plunts of Eu.c/ A/Gcr. East

Hoernle. A.F.R. (1893-1912) The Boner Munuscript. Superintendant of Government Printing. Calcutta, 401 pp. Cited in Hartwell (1982). Holdsworth, D.K. (1980a) Traditional medicinal plants of the

African Literature Bureau, Kampala, pp. 95-97. Koning de. J. ( 1970) Eiudc sur 1e.cpluntcs mirlicinulev rPc~oltic,.v sur /es murches d’Ahidjun. ORSTOM, Abidjan. Cited in Stauble ( 1986). Krishnamurti, G.V. and Seshadri. T.R. (1946) The bitter principle of Phyllunthus niruri. Proceedings of the lncliun A~~trcl~w~

Conservation. Medicinul

Department

of

Medicinal

Plunts OSNepul (Supplement

Plants. (1984) His Majes-

Volume).

ty’s Government Press, Kathmandu, 98 pp. Hodge, W.H. and Taylor, D. (1956) The ethnobotany

North

Solomons

Province,

Papua

New Guinea.

Quurtwl~

Journul oJ’ Crude Drug Reseurch 18, 334.

Holdsworth, D.K. (1980b) Traditional medicinal plants of New Ireland, Papua New Guinea. Quurterly Journul of CrudeDrug Reseurch 18. 131-139.

Holdsworth, D.K. (1981) Traditional medicinal plants of the Central Provinces of Papua New Guinea. Quurterly Journul of Crude Drug Reseurch 19, 141-I 54. Holdsworth. D.K. (1984) Phytomedicine of the Madang Province. Papua New Guinea. Part I. Karkar Island. Internutionul Journul qf Crude Drug Reseurch 22, I I l-l 19. Holdsworth, D.K. (1987) Traditional medicinal plants of the Central Province of Papua New Guinea, Part III. Internutionul Journul /$ Crude Drug Reseurch 25. 103-l 12. Holdsworth, D.K. and Namoi, B. (1982) Medicinal plants of the Admiralty Islands, Papua New Guinea. Part I. Internutionul

oJ’.Science Series A 24. 357-364.

Leelarasamee, A., Trakulsomboon. S.. Maunwongyathi, P.. Somanabandhu, A., Pidetcha. P., Matrakool. B., Lebnak. T.. Ridthimat. W. and Chandanayingyong. D. (1990) Failure of Phyllunthus umurus to eradicate hepatitis B surface antigen from symptomless carriers. Tlte Lunce/ 1990-I. I600- I601 Lentz,

D.L. (1986) Ethnobotany

Economic Botuny 40, 2 I O-2

of the Jicaquc

of Honduras.

19.

Linnaeus, C. (1738) Her/us Clifjortiunu.r. (No name of publisher).

Amstel.

p. 438.

Liogier, A. H. ( 1974) Diccionurio Botdnico de Nomhrw Vulgtrres de lu Espunola. Jardin Botanico Dr. Rafael Moscoso, Santo Domingo. p. 680. Liu. T.S. (1952) L&t of Economic Pluntx in Tuiwun. Section 5:

Journul fg Crude Drug Reseurch 20: l69- I8 I. Hooker. J.D. (1890) The) Floru of‘Briti.th In&, Vol. 5. L. Reeve and Co.. London, pp. 298-299. Hukeri, V.I., Kalyani. G.A. and Kakrani. H.K. (1988)

medicinal plants. Tapei, Taiwan. Republic of China (no publisher cited). Cited by Perry and Metzger (1980). Loustalot, A.J. and Pagan, C. (1949) Local “fever” plants tested for presence of alkaloids. El Crlml (Puerto Rico) 3. 3-5. Cited

Hypoglycemic activity of flavonoids of Phyllunthus fruternus in rats. Fito/urupiu 59. 68-70. Hurst, E. (1942) The Pobon Plunts o/ NewSouth Wulw University of Sydney and the New South Wales Department of Agriculture, Sydney, pp. 239-242. Jayaram, S., Thyagarajan, S.P., Panchanadam. M. and Subrdmanian. S. (1987) Anti-hepatitis B virus properties of Phyllunthus niruri Linn. and Ecliptu ulhu Hassk.: In vitro and in viva

in: Chemical Ahstructs ( 1950) 44, 2 179-2 180. Luu. C. (1975) Note sur la pharmacopee trdditionnehe de la Guyana Francaise. Pluntrs MPdic~inulev et Plqvo/hc;rupic 9.

safety studies. Biomedicine 7, 9-16. Jayaweera, D.M.A. (1980) Medicinul Plunts (Indigenous und Esotic) Used in Ceylon. Purr II. Cuctuceue-Fugucew. National Science Council of Sri Lanka, Colombo. pp. 226227, 232 233. John, D. (1984) One hundred useful raw drugs of the Kani tribes of Trivandrum Forest Division, Kerala. India. Internutionul Journul of Crude Drug Reseurch 22. 17-39. Kangsu

Medical

Medicine.

Technology.

3

institute (1975) Encyc’lopediu of Chinese Vols. Shanghai Publisher of Science and Citation No. 3104. (Chinese).

125-135.

MacBride. J.F. (1951) Floru QfPeru. Vol. 13. Botanical Series. Field Museum Of Natural History. Chicago, IL, pp. 34-47. MacRae. W.D., Hudson, J.B. and Towers. G.H.N. (1988) Studies on the pharmacological activity of Amazonian Euphorbiaceae. Journul o/’ Ethno~phurmucology 22, l43- 172. Macedo, A. (1956) Data from herbarium specimen Mudo 42/N in the Herbarium of the Smithsonian Institution. Washington. D.C. Maikere-Faniyo, R., Van Puyvelde. L.. Mutwewingabo. A. and Habiyaremye. F.X. (1989) Study of Rwdndese medicinal plants used in the treatment of diarrhoea. I. Journul of E/hnophurmucology 26, IO 1- 109. Manandhar.

N.P.

(1985)

Ethnobotanical

medicinal plants used by Tharus Internutionul

notes

on certain

of Dang-Deokhuri,

Journul of Crude Drug Rewurch

Nepal.

23. I53 160.

130

Manfred.

L.

(1947)Siete Mil Receius Botdnicus. a Buse (11,1300

Plan~us Medicinules Americanus. Editorial Kier, Buenos Aires, pp. 547-548. Mannan, A., and Ahmad. K. (1978) Preliminary study of sex hormones of medical importance in Bangladeshi plants. Bangludesh Medicul Reseurch Council Bulktin 4. 78-85. Martin. M.A. (1971) Introduction ir I’Etl7nohotuniyue du Cm7ho&e. Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique. Paris. p. 158. Martin-Serra. R. (1944) Investigation of quinine in Phy/Ian/hu.v niruri L. Anules de lu Univrrsi1lu1l de Sunto Don7ingo 8. 295-297. Abstracted in: Cl7en7icul Ahstructs 41, 1812. Mathews, F.P. (1945) The toxicity of a spurge (Pl7yllunthu.s ahnormis) for cattle. sheep and goats. Cornell Ve/erinuriun 35. 336346. Millspaugh, C.F. ( 1892) Medicinul Plunts: Plunts In1ligenou.r to und Naturulked in the United Stutes Wi7icl7 Are lJw1l in Medicine. John C. Yorston and Co.. 1313 Walnut St.. Philadelphia, pp. 147-l 52. Mitra, R.L. and Jain, S.K. (1985) Concept of Pl7ylluntlrus niruri (Euphorbiaceae) in Indian floras. Bullerin o/ the Botunicul Survey oflndiu 27, 161-176. Mokkhasmit. M.. Ngarmwathan. W.. Sawasdimongkol. K. and Permphiphat. U. (197la) Pharmacological evaluation of Thai medicinal plants (continued). Journul oj’tl7e Medicul Axwciution of Tl7ailund 54, 490-504. Abstract W-3022A from NAPRALERT, College of Pharmacy. University of Illinois Chicago, Chicago, IL. Mokkhasmit. M., Sawasdimongkol. K. and Satrawaha, P. (197lb) Study on toxicity of Thai medicinal plants. Bulletin of tke Deportment of‘ Medicul Science 12. 3665. Abstract R-001 from NAPRALERT, College of Pharmacy. University of Illinois-Chicago. Chicago. IL (Thai). Moore, P.H. and McMakin. P.D. (1979) Plunts of Guw77. Cooperative Extension Service. College of Agriculture and Life Sciences, University of Guam, Mangilao. Guam, p. 19. Moreno. A.R. (1975) Two Hundred Sisty-eigl7t Medicinal Plants Used to Regulutc Fertilit_v in son7e Countries o/ South An7ericu. Stenciled Report. Abstract J-1423 from NAPRALERT. College of Pharmacy, University of Illinois-Chicago. Chicago, IL. Morgan, W.T.W. (1981) Ethnobotany of the Turkana: use of plants by a pastoral people and their livestock in Kenya. Economic Botuny 35, 9& 130. Mors. W.B. and Rizzini, C.T. (1966) Use/ul Pl1u71s of’ Bruril. Holden-Day Co.. San Francisco. p. 90. Morton, J.F. (1977) Medicinal and other plants used by people on North Caicos (Turks and Caicos Islands. West Indies). Quurtcrly Journul of Crucle Drug Reseurcl7 15. l-24. Morton. J. F. ( I98 I ) At1u.s of Medicinul Pbnts of Mitidlc An7eric~tr. Buhumas to Yucufan. Charles C. Thomas Publ.. Springfield. IL. pp. 457463. Mukherjee, K. and Ray, L.N. (1986) Phytochemical screening of some Indian medicinal plant species. Part Il. fnternutionul Journul of Crude Drug Rewurch 24. I87 204. Mulchandani. N.B. and Hassarajani. S.A. (1984) 4-Methoxynor-securinine, a new alkaloid from Phyllanthus niruri. Planta Medica 50, lO&105. Nadkami. K.M. and Nadkami, A.K. (1954) Ittdiu77 Mu/wit7

Medicu, Vol. I. 3rd. Edn. Popular Book Depot. Bombay. pp. 947-949. Nara. T.K., Gleye, J.. Lavergne de Cerval. E. and Stanislas. E. (1977) Flavonoides de Pl7~~/lantlm.s niruri L.. Pl7~~ll1777tl77r.r urinuria L.. Pl7yllantl7u.~ orhiculutus L. C. Rich. Pltr17(c.\ M~dicinul1~s et Pl7ytotl7brupie I I. 82-86. National institute of Health (1977) A Bare/but Doctor :v M17~77rul. The An7ericun Trunslation Qf Tl7c Q/jkiul Chir71w Purtrmc~1li1~1rl Munuul. DHEW Publication No. (NIH) 75-695. Reprinted by Running Press, Philadelphia. PA, p. 691. Niu. J., Wang. Y., Qiao. M.. Gowans. E.. Edwards. P.. Thyagarajan. S.P.. Gust. I. and Locarnini, S. (1990) Effect of Plt~~llurrthus umurus on duck hepatitis B virus replication in vivo. Journul of Medicul Virology 32. 2 I2 2 18. Nozerdn. R. and Haicour. R. (1974) Mise en evidence d’une activite antibacterienne chez de P/7rlltr,7rl1u.c (Euphorbiacees). Comptes Rendus des Seunces 1/e I ‘Acud1wi1~ tics Scier7ccs S1;ric D 278. 3219-3222. Ntinez-Melindez, E. ( 1982) Plunras Medi1~kul1~.v1/c Pucwo Rico. Editorial de la Universidad de Puerto Rico. Rio Piedras. Puerto Rico, pp. 248-249. Oakes, A.J. and Morris, M.P. (1958) The West Indian weedwoman of the United States Virgin Islands. Bul/c,ti/7 of t/w Hist0r.v of Medicine 32. I6bl70. Oakes. A. J. and Butcher, J. 0. ( 1962) Poi.wn1m.s und ff7juriorr.s Plums oftheUnited States Vircl Prup1,rtie.s ur71l Uws. MIT Press. Cambridge, MA. pp. 149-151. Petelot. A. ( 1954) Pluntes M~klicinulc~s du Cumhoclgc~. (111Ltros 1’1

131 du Viemam. Tome I11 (Amaraniacees a Selaginellacees). Centre de Recherches de Science et Technologie, Saigon. pp. 112---114. Pio-Correa, M. (1969) Diciondrio das Plantas Uteis do Brasil e das Exdticas Cultivadns, Vol. 4. Desenvolvimento Florestal, Ministerio da Agricultura, Rio de Janeiro, pp. 151-l 53, 192, 196. Pio-Correa, M. (1974) Dicionario a&s Plantas Uteis do Brasil e das Exdticas Cultivadas, Vol. 5. Desenvolvimento Florestal, Ministerio da Agricultura, Rio de Janeiro, p. 562. Planchon. Cl. and Collin, E. (1896) Drogues Simples d’origine Vegetale. Doin, Paris. p. 342. Plotkin, M., Randrianasolo, V., Sussman, L. and Marshall, N. (1985) Efhnohotuny in Mulagusy. World Wildlife Fund, Washington. DC.. 657 pp. Puri, H.S. (1970) Indian medicinal plants used in elixirs and tonics. Quarterly Journal of Crude Drug Research IO. 1555-l 566. Pushpangadan. P. and Atal, C.K. (1984) Ethno-medico-botanical investigations in Kerala. 1. Some primitive tribals of the Western Ghats and their herbal medicine. Journal of Ethnopharmacology 1I, 59-77. Quansah, N. (1988) Ethnomedicine in the Maroantsetra region of Madagascar. Economic Botany 42, 37@-375. Quisumbing, E. (1951) Medicinal Plants of the Philippines. Technical Bulletin 16. Philippine Department of Agriculture and Natural Resources, Manila, pp. 525-527. Quisumbing, E. (1978) Medicinal Plants of the Philippines. Katha Publishing Co., Inc., Manila, pp. 526527. Ramakrishnan, P.N. (1969) A study of hypoglycaemic action of Phyllanthus niruri Linn. Indian Journal of Pharmacy 3 I, I75 (Abstr.) Ramakrishnan, P.N., Murugesan, R.. Palaichamy. S. and Murugesh, N. (1982) Oral hypoglycaemic effect of Phyllanthus niruri Linn. leaves. Indian Journal of Pharmaceutical Science 44, 10 (Abstr.) Ramanan, M.V. and Sainani, G.S. (1961) Clinical trials with indigenous drugs Kari Manjal Karuppu and Phyllanthus niruri in infective hepatitis. Punjab Medical Journal 10, 667-669. Rao. Y.S. (1985) Experimental production of liver damage and its protection with Phyllanthus niruri and Capparis spinosa (both ingredients of Liv. 52) in white albino rats. Probe 1985. 117-119. Reddy, K.R. (1988) Folk medicine from Chittoor District. Andhra Pradesh, India. used in the treatment ofjaundice. Infernational Journal of Crude Drug Research 26. 137-140. Ribeiro, R. de A., Fiuza de Melo, M.M.R.. De Barros. F.. Games. C., and Trolin, G. (1986) Acute antihypertensive effect in conscious rats produced by some medicinal plants used in the State of Sao Paulo. Journal of Ethnophurmucology 15. 261-269. Rizk, A.F.M. (1987) The chemical constituents and economic plants of the Euphorbiaceae. Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society 94. 293-326. Roig y Mesa, J.T. (1945) Plantas Medicinales. Aromuticas o Venenosas de Cuba. Parte II. Ministerio de Agricultura. Servicio de Publicidad y Divulgacion, Habana. Cuba, pp. 709-7 IO.

Roth, W.E. (1903) Superstition, magic and medicine. North Queensland Ethnography Bulletin No. 5 Government Printer, Brisbane. Cited in Webb (1948). Rouffiac. R. and Parello, J. (1969) Etude chimique des alcaloides du Phyllanrhus niruri L. (Euphorbiacees). Presence de I’antipode optique de la norsecurinine. Planres Medicinales et Phytotherapie 3, 22&223. Rumphius. G.E. (1750) Herbarium Amboinense, Vol. 6. Meinard Uytwerf, Amsterdam. pp. 4143. Safford, W.E. (1905) The Useful Planrs of the Island of Guam. ContributionsfromtheUnitedStatesNationalHerbariumVol. 9, Smithsonian Institution, United States National Museum. Washington, D.C.. pp. 351-352. Saha. J.C.. Savini, E.C. and Kasinathan. S. (1961) Ecbolic properties of Indian medicinal plants. Part I. Indian Journal of Medical Sahu, T.R. Ancient Said. H.M.

Research 49. 136 I5 I (1984) Less known uses of weeds as medicinal plants. Science of L$e 3. 245-249. (1969) Hamdard Pharmacopoeia of Eustern Medicine.

Hamdard National Foundation. Karachi, Pakistan, p. 42. Saigopal, D.V.R.. Prasad, V.S. and Sreenivasulu. P. (1986) Antiviral activity in extracts of Phyllunfhus frarernus Webst. (P. niruri). Current Science 55. 2&265. Saldhana, C.J. and Nicholson, D.H. (1976) Flora of Hussun District, Kurnutaku. Amerind Publishing Company. New Delhi. pp. 346347. Sankaran, J.R. (1977) Livr-Doks in the treatment of viral hepatitis (a clinical trial). The Antiseptic 74, 621-626. Schnee, L. (1960) Pluntas Comunes de Venezuelu. Revista de la Facultad de Agronomia, Alcance Numero 3. Universidad Central de Venezuela, Maracay, p. 278. Schultes, R.E. (1969) De plantis toxicariis e mundo novo tropicale commentationes. IV. Botunical Museum Leaflers, (Hurvurd University) 22. 133- 164. Schunke. J. (1971) Data from herbarium specimen Schunke 4960 in the Herbarium of the Smithsonian Institution. Washington. D.C. Seaforth. C.E., Adams, CD. and Sylvester. Y. (1983) A Guide to the Medicinul Plants of Trinidad und Tobugo. Commonwealth Secretariat. London. pp. 156-l 57. Shead, A., Vickery, K.. Medhurst. R., Freiman. J. and Cossart. Y. (1990) Neutralisation but not cure of duck hepatitis B by Australian PhyNumhus extracts. Abstract 602 In: Sciem[fic Program and Absfracrs Volume, the 1990 In~ernarionul Symposium on Virul Hepatitis und Liver Disease, April 4-8, 1990. Houston. Texas. Shimizu. M.. Horie, S., Terashima. S., Ueno, H.. Hayashi. T.. Arisawa, M., Suzuki, S.. Yoshizaki. M. and Morita, N. (1989) Studies on aldose reductase inhibitors from natural products. II. Active components of a Paraguayan crude drug, “Paraiparai mi”. Phyllunrhus niruri. Chemical und PharmuceuricaI Bulletin 37. 2531-2532. Sievers, A.F., Archer. W.A.. Moore, R.H. and McGovran. (1949) Insecticidal tests of plants from tropical America. nal of Economic Enromology 42, 549-55 I, Silva. A. (1946) Data from herbarium specimen Silvu 351 Herbarium of the Smithsonian Institution, Washington. Silva, M.J.M.. Pinheiro de S ousa. M. and Rouquayrol,

B.R. Jourin the D.C. M.Z.

132

(1971) Molluscicidal

activity of plants from northeastern

Brazil.

52. I I7- 123. Abstract W-0500 from NAPRALERT, College of Pharmacy, University of IllinoisChicago, Chicago. IL. Singh. Y.N. (1986) Traditional medicine in Fiji: some herbal folk Revbra Brusileiru

de Furmdciu

cures used by Fiji Indians. Journal of’E/hnc~p/zun,la~o/~~g~ 15, 57-88. Sinha. S.K.P. and Dogra. J.U.V. (1985) A survey of the plants of Bhagalpur and Santhal Pargara for saponins, flavonoids and alkaloids.

Inrernationul

Journal

af Crude Drug Rewurch

23. 77-86.

Sircar. N.N. (1984) Pharmacologic therapeutics drugs. Ancieni Science of Life 3. 132-l 35.

of Dasemani

Sivarajan. V.V. and Balachandran, I. (1984) Botanical notes on the identity of certain herbs used in Ayurvedic medicines in Kerala. I. Thamalaki. Ancien/ Scicnw af‘ Lifi 4, 103 105. Smith, A.L. ( 198 I) Floru Vitiensis Nova: A New F/ara of Fiji (Spermurophytes On/y). Vol. 2. Pacific Tropical Botanical Garden, Kauai, Hawaii, p. 464. Spencer, C.F.. Koniuszy. F.R., Rogers. E.F., Shavel, Jr., J.. Easton. N.R., Kaczka. E.A.. Kuehl, Jr.. F.A.. Phillips. R.F..

Walti. A.. Folkers. K.. Malanga. C. and Seeler. A.O. (1947) Survey of plants for antimalarial activity. Lloydiu IO. 145-174. Spjut. R.W. and Purdue, R.E. (1976) Plant folklore: a tool for predicting sources of antitumor activity. Cunwr Trea/men/ Reports

60, 979-985.

Standley, P.C. (1931) Flora of the Lancetilla Valley, Honduras. Botanical Series. Vol. IO. Field Museum of Natural History, Chicago. IL. pp. 255, 283. J.A. (1949) Flora of Guaremula. FieIdiunu: (Boumy Series), Vol. 24. Field Museum of Natural History. Chicago, IL, pp. 144-155. Stanislas. E., Roufftac. R. and Foyard. J.J. (1967) Constituants Standley.

P.C. and Steyermark.

de Phyllamhus

L. (Euphorbiacees). Plumes Medicinales et Phytofherapie I, 136141. Stluble, N. (1986) Etude ethnobotanique des Euphorbiacees d’Afrique de I’Ouest. Journal af E~/~napi~urrnacol~~g~ 16. niruri

Stehle, H. and Stehle. M. (1962) Flare Medicinule IX. Flare Agronomique

Pointe-a-Pitre,

des Antilles

Guadeloupe,

Francaises.

Illuslree.

Anibal

Vol.

Lautric.

pp. 102-103.

Steinmetz. E.F. (1954) Materia Medica Vegetahilis, Vol. 2. Published by the author. Keizersgracht 714, Amsterdam. p. 342. Sundaravalli. N.. Mohan, V.K.K., Ranganathan, G. and Raju. V.B. (1977) Liverite in viral hepatitis. The Anrisep/ic 74, 135-142.

Syamasundar, K.V.. Singh. B.. Thakur, R.S., Husain, A., Kiso. Y. and Hikino. H. (1985) Antihepatotoxic principles of Phyllanthus

Activities

niruri

J., Ostanon,

herbs.

Juurnul

B. and Panrat,

of Phyllunthus

amarus.

af EthnopIzarn~crcoi[~g~,

14.

D. (I951 ) PhurmacoIagicuI Undergraduate special pro-

ject report. Faculty of Pharmacy of Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok, I5 pp. Abstract R-0025 from NAPRALERT. College of Pharmacy, University of Illinois-Chicago. Chicago, IL (Thai).

T.

(1987)

Glamerulanephroputhies: Immunojluorescence an Anfi-heputitis

Hepatifis

Immunologicul,

B

Virus

und

Immunohistochemicui,

and Genetic Studies with un Evuluution B Virus Substance

from

PhyYlanthus

af

niruri

Linn. Ph.D. Thesis, University of Madras, Post Graduate Institute of Basic Medical Sciences, Taramani, Madras - 600 I 13, Tamil Nadu, India, 256 pp. Thyagarajan. S.P., Thiruneelakantan. K., Subramanian, S. and

Sundaravelu, T. (1982) In vitro inactivation of HBsAg by EchpIU ulhu Hassk and Phyllunrhus niruri Linn. Indiun Journul a/ Medical Research (Suppl.) 76, I?& 130. Thyagarajan, S.P.. Subramanian, S.. Thirunalasundari, T.. Venkateswaran. P.S. and Blumberg. B.S. (1988) Preliminary study: the effect of Phylkmthus amarus on chronic carriers of hepatitis B virus. The Luncef 1988-11. 764766. Thyagarajan. S.P., Jayaram. S., Valliammai. T., Madanagopalan. N., Pal. V.G. and Jayaraman, K. (1990) Phyllumhus amurus and hepatitis B. The Luncet 1990-11. 949-950. Trotter, R.T.. Logan, M.H., Rocha. J.M. and Boneta. J.L. (1983) Ethnography and bioassay: combined methods for a preliminary macological

screen of home remedies for potential pharactivity. Journal of Ethnopl~armacolc~g~ 8.

ll3--119.

Ueno. H., Horie, S.. Nishi, Y.. Shogawa. H.. Kawasaki, M.. Suzuki, S.. Hayashi, T.. Arisawa. M.. Shim& M., Yoshizaki, M.. Morita, N., Berganza, L.H.. Ferro, E. and Basualdo. I. (1988) Chemical and pharmaceutical studies on medicinal plants in Paraguay. Geraniin, an angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitor

from “paraparai mi”. PIzyllanrhus niruri. Jaurnul 5 I. 357-359. Uhe, J.G. (1974) Medicinal plants of Samoa. Economic Botany of Numrul

Products

28, l-30.

Unander. D.W., B.S. (1989) La diente de virus tos geneticos Seminario Nucianal

23-103.

4144. Teothong.

Thirunalasundari,

Venkateswaran, P.S.. Millman. I., Blumberg. inhibition de la polimerasa viral DNA depenhepatitis por especies de Phyllcmrhus, y 10s efecy ambientales sobre esta actividad. In: II

Mesoamericano de Medicina

de Etno&mnacolagia

Vegetul Popular,

Jose, Costa Rica. 68-69. Unander, D.W.. Venkateswaran. and Blumbcrg. B.S. antiviral compounds. vances

in New

y II Cangreso

Dec. I I-15,

P.S.. Millman,

1989. San

I., Bryan. H.H.

(1990a)PIiyllanthus species: sources of new In: J. Janick and J.E. Simon (Eds.), AdTimber Press, Portland, OR, pp.

Craps.

518-521. Unander. D.W., Webster. G.L. and Blumberg, B.S. (1990b) Records of usage or assays in PhyNunthus (Euphorbiaceae). I. Subgenera Isocladus. Kirganelia. Cicca and Emhlica. Jaurnal of Ethnophurmacology,

30. 233-264.

Unander,

D.W. and Blumberg, B.S. (1991) In vitro activity of Phyllanthus (Euphorbiaceae) species against the DNA polymerase of hepatitis viruses: Effects of growing environment and inter- and intra-specific differences, Ecanomic Borany

45, 225-242.

Uphof. J.C.T. (1968) Dictionury cf’Economic Pkmts. Verlag von J. Cramer, Lehre. pp. 402403. van der Woerd, L.A. (1941) The native medicines of the East Indian

Archipelago.

VII. The diuretic

action

of some of the

133

most common herbs used in the Netherland East Indies against diseases. Geneeskundig Tijdschr$ ~aar Nederlundsch~ In& 8 I. 1963-1980. Abstract A-7675 from NAPRALERT, College of Pharmacy, University of Illinois-Chicago. Chicago. IL. van Rhede, A. (1690) Horti Muluhorici Purs De&m de Herhis er Diversis Illurum Specienus. Vol. IO. Someren. Amsterdam, pp. 29-3 I. Velazco, E.A. (1980) tkrbdl and traditional practices related to maternal and child health care. Rurul Reconstrucrian Review 2. 27-3 I. Venkataraghavan. S. and Sundaresan, T.P. (198 I) A short note on contraceptive

in Ayurveda.

in Plants und Medicine

Journal ofScient$c

Rcvearch

2. 3942.

Venkateswaran, P.S., Millman. I. and Blumberg, B.S. (1987) Effects of an extract from P/~~y//un/kus niruri on hepatitis B and woodchuck

hepatitis

viruses: In vivo and in vitro studies. Pra-

ceadings of me Narianul

Academy

a/’ Science

( U.S. A. ) 84,

27&218.

Verpoorte, Surinam.

Webster, G.L. (1957) A monographic species of Phyllunthus (continued). boretum 38, 51-80;

Dihal,

P.P.

(1987)

Medicinal

plants

of

IV. Antimicrobial

activity of some medicinal plants. 18. Wasuwat, S. (1967) A List of‘ Thui Medicinal Plunrs. Report No. I on Research Project 17. Annual Supplement to the Research Council of Thailand, Bangkok, 22 pp. Abstract W-3804 from NAPRALERT. College of Pharmacy, University of IllinoisChicago, Chicago, IL. Watt, G. (1892) A Dicrionur_r qfrhe Economic Products of’lnditr, Journul af Etltnopl~urn~ucology 2 I. 3 15-3

Vol. VI. Part I. W.H. Allen and Co.. London. pp. 222-224. Watt, J.M. and Breyer-Brandwijk, M.G. (1932) The Medicinal und Poisonous Plants af Sourhern Africu. 1st Edn. E. and S. Livingstone, Edinburgh, p. 99. Watt, J.M. and Breyer-Brandwijk.

M.G. (1962) The Medicinul 2nd Edn. E. and

And Poisonous Plants Gf Sourhcvn Africa.

S. Livingstone,

Edinburgh,

pp. 427428.

295-373

Webster, G.L. (1970) A revision of Phyllamhus (Euphorbiaceae) in the continental United States. Brirroniu 22. 44-76. Webb, L.J. (1948) Guide to Medicinal and Poisonous Plums a/ Queenslund. Bulletin 232. Council for Scientific and Industrial Research, Melbourne, pp. 57-58. Weniger. B.. Haag-Berrurier. M. and Anton, R. (1982) Plants of Haiti used as antifertility

agents.

Journal

af E/hnophur-

macology 6. 67-84.

Weniger, B.. Rouzier. M.. Daguilh. R.. Henrys, D., Henrys, J.H. and Anton, R. (1986) La medicine populaire dans le plateau central d’Haiti.

2. lnventaire ethnopharmacologique. Journul 17. 13-30. Wong, W. (1976) Some folk medicinal plants from Trinidad. Economic Botuny 30. IO3- 142. of Erhnophurmucology

Woytkowski. R. and

17&198:

study of the West Indian Journal of the Arnold Ar-

F.

(1960)

Data

from

Woyrkowski 5760 in the Herbarium

herbarium specimen of the Smithsonian In-

stitution, Washington. D.C. Yanagi, M.. Unoura, M.. Kobayashi. K.. Hattori. N. and Murakami. S. (1989) Inhibitory effect of an extract from Phy//unrhu.~ niruri on reaction of endogenous HBV-DNA polymerase and other DNA synthetases. In: Ahsrrucrs of Pupers Presented UI the I989 Meeting on Hepuriiis B Viruses. September 25-28, 1989. Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory,

Cold Spring Harbor, New York, p. 77. Yang, L-L., Yen. K.-Y., Kiso. Y. and Hikino. H. (1987) Antihepatotoxic actions of Formosan plant drugs. Journul q/ E~hnopharmuco/agy 19, lO3- I IO. Yu, G.D. (1982) Medicinal plants used for abortion and childbirth in Eastern-Africa. Chung Yao T’ung Pao 7, 6-7. Abstract T-8010 from NAPRALERT, College of Pharmacy, University of Illinois-Chicago, Chicago, IL (Chinese).