- Email: [email protected]
Using personal diaries to collect data
•
.tllnaA iJ 7)ntriun Rereanh, Vol, 25, No. 1, pp. 22~1-245, 19':lg ~) 199~ Elscxicr Sticn~c l,ld All I i g h t s re'smxed, l h i m c d in G l o a t B l i t a i n (}] (5(1-7 ',{~'~:~/91~ $ 19.(}l!+(I.{}O
Pergamon
RESEARCH NOTES A N D REPORTS
Research
Notes
Using Personal Diaries to Collect Data Kevin Markwell Christopher Basche The University of Newcastle, Australia Wc sol out under heavy skies, but Robb [thc JOllY lcaderj had been assured by plmnc by tlac driver of the girdsvilh" supply truck that all ~as well at least to there. \'Vc slopped at a very green spot lot a cuppa and were quite amazed a! lhc rich color of the grass. There was lhc rich fl'csh smell of frcshl~ rained on soil. Wc passed through more ot the edge of the Sturt Stony Desert and wcrc amused to be traveling through a desert in the ligh! rain ~ hich was then tailing. As we continued tl/('r{' Was IlloI'(? a n d i11o1c g r e e n growtil a n d m o r t : [;q:lrtlailel~lt v e g e t a i i o n than I had expected. The ~oad became more and more slippery and Ihcrc in front of us, bogged in a diagonal position across the road, was the suppl?, truck, whose drixtq had spoken to Robb b} phone. Robb did his best to stay in a position to pass, but a l a s , Wl' WCI'C b o ~ g c d .
Tht: p a s s a g e a b o w : is t a k e n f r o m t h e d i a r y o f a n e l d e r l y w o m a t l w h o w a s part of an organized group tour of the Australian outback. The diary which she kept was a rich, contextualizcd narrative of the tour written from her pe.rspective. Unprompted by the 1)robing questions of a survey, she has recorded the places, smells, sights, people, events, and experienccs which h a d s o m e m e a n i n g o r i t n p o r t a n c e t o h e r as s h e t r a v e l e d w i t h h e r 12 c o m p a n i o n s t h r o u g h o u t t h e h a r s h o u t b a c k c o u n t r y . T h i s is n o t to s u g g e s t t h a i h e r d i a r y is I h e c o m p l e t e s t o r y o f t h e t o u r a n d n o r is it t h e o n l y s t o r y o f l h e tOtll'. No d o u b t h e r d i a r y is a n e d i t e d v e r s i o n o f t h e r e a l i t y w h i c h s h e e x p e r i e n c e d , f i h e r c d as it w a s t h r o u g h a n a r r a y o f s o c i a l a n d c u h u r a l " l e n s e s " , j u s t as t h e h o l i d a y p h o l o a l b u i n t e n d s to ( ' e a t u r e t h e " g o o d t i m e s " rather than images of negative oi mundane experiences. However, the w o n m I t s d i a r \ d o e s p r o v i d e a windo'a t h r o u g h w h i c h t h e t o u r i s i n r c s t : a r ( h e r c a n ' c x p l o r e t h e ways b y w h i c h s h e c a m e to u n d e r s t a n d a n d give m e a n i n g to h e r experietwes as a t o t t r i s t ( S q u i r e s 1994).
228
RESEARCH NOTES AND REPORTS
229
Increasingly, empirical tourism research is employing methodologies which are informed by phenomenological and interpretivist frameworks, and a pluralistic approach to social scientific research and knowledge has emerged which embraces both quantitative and qualitative approaches. Qualitative methodologies are concerned with gaining an understanding of the lived experience largely through the voices of those whose experiences are being explored. H u m a n behavior is considered to be a product of how people define their own reality and the specific social contexts in which the p h e n o m e n a occur are considered to be important influences on the data (Taylor and Bogdan 1984). One of the most significant methodological issues for tourism research is the potential problem of reactivity in the research setting. Tourists may be reluctant to participate in studies where they are to be interviewed or required to complete a questionnaire simply because they are on holiday and do not wish to be disturbed. Additionally, the presence of the researcher in the setting may alter to a greater or lesser extent the behavior and experiences of the tourists. Yet, as Pearce has argued, "[t]he researcher needs to seek the behavior and experience of the tourist in a natural context" (Pearce 1988:46). The particular challenge, then, for the researcher, is to construct a research design which maximizes naturalness but minimizes reactivity. One research strategy which can to some extent overcome many of these problems is the use of personal diaries in which participants are asked to record in their own words their feelings, impressions, and anything else which they wish to note. The diaries can be structured by the inclusion of specific questions, or instructions as to when and where they should be completed, or they can be completed entirely at the discretion of the participants. Although research using diaries within tourism has been limited, it has been noted by DeLongis, Hemphill and Lehman (1992) that there are a number of reasons for using a diary method. Diaries assist in monitoring processes and changes which might occur over the duration of a tour, and also allow an understanding of human emotions outside a staged research setting, increasing ecological validity. Importantly, they provide information from multiple situations and perspectives. Tourism diaries reveal information regarding the tour from a longitudinal aspect where the thoughts and the feelings of the visitors developed while the trip proceeded (Pearce, 1988). Thus, the diaries allow the researcher to gain a perspective of the tour as viewed by the participant. Importantly, changes in emotional responses to the tour, or even contradictions or inconsistencies in attitudes, can be identified from analysis of diaries which otherwise might never be ascertained from a questionnaire or even interview carried out at a single point in time. Diaries have been used with some success on a number of occasions. In a recent study examining the dynamics of nature-based tourism, diaries were used along with other methods such as pre- and post-tour interviews, on site observations and photograph analysis. A specially designed diary was made up for the participants (the majority of whom were in their early 20s) and each person was asked to complete the diary. O f the 20 participating in the tour, 6 wrote entries in these diaries, several others also made theirs available for review. The researcher also kept a comprehensive diary comprising observations made during the tour, descriptions of the settings and experiences which occurred, as well as his own thoughts, feelings, and reactions. In a second study investigating elements of satisfaction within an ecotour, 11 tour participants were given a diary at the pre-trip interview and asked to write their feelings of the tour as it progressed. The diaries were
230
RESEARCH NOTES AND REPORTS
collected by the researcher during the post-tour interview. Each of the 11 participants wrote in their diary every day, with daily entries 1-4 pages long. The very high level of compliance achieved in this study may reflect the age reached by the participants (their average age was 69 years). The tour leader was also given a diary and asked to record his own feelings and observations. This perspective proved to be very beneficial, especially because the researcher was unable to participate in the trip. Generally female participants wrote substantially more than the males, and the style of response ranged from a systematic description of the daily events to a more analytical review of the situations occurring each day. (More research is needed to examine this possible gender difference in the use of diaries.) The diary entries were used in a n u m b e r of different ways. The diaries were read by the researchers prior to the post-tour interviews and they provided much useful material which could form the basis of questions. They were also useful in helping to identify a number of key events which were then used as elements for analysis. Having access to a number of perspectives on the same event allowed the researcher to identify similarities and differences in the reactions and feelings of the tour participants. The diaries contained considerable material which otherwise may have remained hidden from the researchers. For example, in the study of the satisfaction of elderly ecotourists, participants wrote of having fun, that the trip was an adventure which provided opportunities for play. These notions of fun and playfulness were then able to be addressed by questions in the post-tour interview. It is quite possible that such meanings which the tour had for at least some of these older tourists may have not emerged had the study been dependent on interviews alone where the interviewer himself may have played a much greater role in shaping and defining the meanings of the experience. As with most research involving human subjects, there are ethical issues associated with the use of diaries in tourism research. Applications to this university's H u m a n Research Ethics Committee have stressed that participation in the studies is entirely voluntary; that participants have the right to veto access to part or all of their completed diaries; and that they are free to withdraw from the study at any time if they so wish. While obviously allowing participants to submit their diaries anonymously would result in a loss of information, this scenario is b e t t e r than not being able to use diaries at all. With respect to the degree to which involvement in a diary study intrudes into the tourist experience, experience indicates that those who agree to participate do not feel that diary writing is a chore. In fact the majority of elderly tourists in one of the studies looked forward to their "diary time" each afternoon as an occasion to reflect on the day's events. Thus, provided ethical considerations guide the overall research design, and participants are fully informed of their rights, travel diaries are a potentially effective and useful way for tourism researchers to gain a more complete understanding of the dynamics of tourist experiences, particularlv when used in combination with interviews, photograph analysis and onsite observations (Ellen 1984). In this way the richly contextualized descriptions, observations, interpretations and reflections embodied in the diary entries can offer much valuable information which might otherwise go undetected. [] []
Mr Kevin MarkweU, Department of Leisure and Tourism Studies, Central Coast Campus, The University of Newcastle, Ourimbah 2258, Australia. Email [email protected].
RESEARCH NOTES AND REPORTS
231
REFERENCES DeLongis, A., K. Hemphill, and D. Lehman 1992 Structured Diary Methodology for the Study of Daily Events. In Methodological Issues in Applied Social Psychology,F. Bryant, ed., pp 83-109. New York: Plenum Press. Ellen, R. F. 1984 Ethnographic Research: A Guide to General Conduct. London: Academic Press. Pearce, P. 1988 The Ulysses Factor: Evaluating Visitors in Tourist Settings. New York: Springer-Verlag. Squires, S.J. 1994 Accounting for Cultural Meanings: The Interface between Geography and Tourism Studies Re-examined. Progress in Human Geography 18:1-16. Taylor, S.J. and R. Bogdan 1984 Introduction to Qualitative Research Methods: The Search for Meanings, (2nd ed.). New York; Wiley. Submitted 5 February 1997 Resubmitted 18 April 1997 Accepted 30 May 1997
PII: S0160-7383 (97) 00075-3
Ecotourism in Canada D. A. F e n n e l l University of Regina, Canada One of the spin offs of the tremendous influx of new papers on sustainable tourism and nature tourism has been a discussion related to the origins and usage of ecotourism. Historically one has been led to believe that the term originated or was coined in 1983 by Ceballos-Lascur~iin (Canadian Environmental Advisory Council 1992); however, some have contended that it first appeared as early as 1978 (Ashton and Ashton 1993). This paper is developed with the purpose of adding to the discussion on the foundations ofecotourism by analyzing a program of ecotours initiated by the Canadian government in the mid-70s. The ecotours in question were developed by Environment Canada (the agency responsible for Parks Canada at the time) in association with other Canadian departments and ministries (e.g., The Forestry Service, Indian and Northern Affairs, and the International Man and the Biosphere Program/Canada). Upon further analysis, the researcher discovered that the ecotours were undertaken by government to provide an enhanced sense of the Canadian identity through the interpretation of its natural environment and resources. More specifically, there was an attempt to enable the traveler to better understand the m a n - l a n d relationship in Canada with an eye to illustrating how people and the natural world are intricately linked (personal communication with M. Greco in early 1997). The ecotours were almost exclusively planned around the Trans-Canada highway, the main artery that links Canada from East to West. However, although the highway component is critical as a means by which to connect travelers with the supply, the experience was planned and designed on the basis of the different ecological zones found along the highway corridor, not on the highway itself.
.tllnaA iJ 7)ntriun Rereanh, Vol, 25, No. 1, pp. 22~1-245, 19':lg ~) 199~ Elscxicr Sticn~c l,ld All I i g h t s re'smxed, l h i m c d in G l o a t B l i t a i n (}] (5(1-7 ',{~'~:~/91~ $ 19.(}l!+(I.{}O
Pergamon
RESEARCH NOTES A N D REPORTS
Research
Notes
Using Personal Diaries to Collect Data Kevin Markwell Christopher Basche The University of Newcastle, Australia Wc sol out under heavy skies, but Robb [thc JOllY lcaderj had been assured by plmnc by tlac driver of the girdsvilh" supply truck that all ~as well at least to there. \'Vc slopped at a very green spot lot a cuppa and were quite amazed a! lhc rich color of the grass. There was lhc rich fl'csh smell of frcshl~ rained on soil. Wc passed through more ot the edge of the Sturt Stony Desert and wcrc amused to be traveling through a desert in the ligh! rain ~ hich was then tailing. As we continued tl/('r{' Was IlloI'(? a n d i11o1c g r e e n growtil a n d m o r t : [;q:lrtlailel~lt v e g e t a i i o n than I had expected. The ~oad became more and more slippery and Ihcrc in front of us, bogged in a diagonal position across the road, was the suppl?, truck, whose drixtq had spoken to Robb b} phone. Robb did his best to stay in a position to pass, but a l a s , Wl' WCI'C b o ~ g c d .
Tht: p a s s a g e a b o w : is t a k e n f r o m t h e d i a r y o f a n e l d e r l y w o m a t l w h o w a s part of an organized group tour of the Australian outback. The diary which she kept was a rich, contextualizcd narrative of the tour written from her pe.rspective. Unprompted by the 1)robing questions of a survey, she has recorded the places, smells, sights, people, events, and experienccs which h a d s o m e m e a n i n g o r i t n p o r t a n c e t o h e r as s h e t r a v e l e d w i t h h e r 12 c o m p a n i o n s t h r o u g h o u t t h e h a r s h o u t b a c k c o u n t r y . T h i s is n o t to s u g g e s t t h a i h e r d i a r y is I h e c o m p l e t e s t o r y o f t h e t o u r a n d n o r is it t h e o n l y s t o r y o f l h e tOtll'. No d o u b t h e r d i a r y is a n e d i t e d v e r s i o n o f t h e r e a l i t y w h i c h s h e e x p e r i e n c e d , f i h e r c d as it w a s t h r o u g h a n a r r a y o f s o c i a l a n d c u h u r a l " l e n s e s " , j u s t as t h e h o l i d a y p h o l o a l b u i n t e n d s to ( ' e a t u r e t h e " g o o d t i m e s " rather than images of negative oi mundane experiences. However, the w o n m I t s d i a r \ d o e s p r o v i d e a windo'a t h r o u g h w h i c h t h e t o u r i s i n r c s t : a r ( h e r c a n ' c x p l o r e t h e ways b y w h i c h s h e c a m e to u n d e r s t a n d a n d give m e a n i n g to h e r experietwes as a t o t t r i s t ( S q u i r e s 1994).
228
RESEARCH NOTES AND REPORTS
229
Increasingly, empirical tourism research is employing methodologies which are informed by phenomenological and interpretivist frameworks, and a pluralistic approach to social scientific research and knowledge has emerged which embraces both quantitative and qualitative approaches. Qualitative methodologies are concerned with gaining an understanding of the lived experience largely through the voices of those whose experiences are being explored. H u m a n behavior is considered to be a product of how people define their own reality and the specific social contexts in which the p h e n o m e n a occur are considered to be important influences on the data (Taylor and Bogdan 1984). One of the most significant methodological issues for tourism research is the potential problem of reactivity in the research setting. Tourists may be reluctant to participate in studies where they are to be interviewed or required to complete a questionnaire simply because they are on holiday and do not wish to be disturbed. Additionally, the presence of the researcher in the setting may alter to a greater or lesser extent the behavior and experiences of the tourists. Yet, as Pearce has argued, "[t]he researcher needs to seek the behavior and experience of the tourist in a natural context" (Pearce 1988:46). The particular challenge, then, for the researcher, is to construct a research design which maximizes naturalness but minimizes reactivity. One research strategy which can to some extent overcome many of these problems is the use of personal diaries in which participants are asked to record in their own words their feelings, impressions, and anything else which they wish to note. The diaries can be structured by the inclusion of specific questions, or instructions as to when and where they should be completed, or they can be completed entirely at the discretion of the participants. Although research using diaries within tourism has been limited, it has been noted by DeLongis, Hemphill and Lehman (1992) that there are a number of reasons for using a diary method. Diaries assist in monitoring processes and changes which might occur over the duration of a tour, and also allow an understanding of human emotions outside a staged research setting, increasing ecological validity. Importantly, they provide information from multiple situations and perspectives. Tourism diaries reveal information regarding the tour from a longitudinal aspect where the thoughts and the feelings of the visitors developed while the trip proceeded (Pearce, 1988). Thus, the diaries allow the researcher to gain a perspective of the tour as viewed by the participant. Importantly, changes in emotional responses to the tour, or even contradictions or inconsistencies in attitudes, can be identified from analysis of diaries which otherwise might never be ascertained from a questionnaire or even interview carried out at a single point in time. Diaries have been used with some success on a number of occasions. In a recent study examining the dynamics of nature-based tourism, diaries were used along with other methods such as pre- and post-tour interviews, on site observations and photograph analysis. A specially designed diary was made up for the participants (the majority of whom were in their early 20s) and each person was asked to complete the diary. O f the 20 participating in the tour, 6 wrote entries in these diaries, several others also made theirs available for review. The researcher also kept a comprehensive diary comprising observations made during the tour, descriptions of the settings and experiences which occurred, as well as his own thoughts, feelings, and reactions. In a second study investigating elements of satisfaction within an ecotour, 11 tour participants were given a diary at the pre-trip interview and asked to write their feelings of the tour as it progressed. The diaries were
230
RESEARCH NOTES AND REPORTS
collected by the researcher during the post-tour interview. Each of the 11 participants wrote in their diary every day, with daily entries 1-4 pages long. The very high level of compliance achieved in this study may reflect the age reached by the participants (their average age was 69 years). The tour leader was also given a diary and asked to record his own feelings and observations. This perspective proved to be very beneficial, especially because the researcher was unable to participate in the trip. Generally female participants wrote substantially more than the males, and the style of response ranged from a systematic description of the daily events to a more analytical review of the situations occurring each day. (More research is needed to examine this possible gender difference in the use of diaries.) The diary entries were used in a n u m b e r of different ways. The diaries were read by the researchers prior to the post-tour interviews and they provided much useful material which could form the basis of questions. They were also useful in helping to identify a number of key events which were then used as elements for analysis. Having access to a number of perspectives on the same event allowed the researcher to identify similarities and differences in the reactions and feelings of the tour participants. The diaries contained considerable material which otherwise may have remained hidden from the researchers. For example, in the study of the satisfaction of elderly ecotourists, participants wrote of having fun, that the trip was an adventure which provided opportunities for play. These notions of fun and playfulness were then able to be addressed by questions in the post-tour interview. It is quite possible that such meanings which the tour had for at least some of these older tourists may have not emerged had the study been dependent on interviews alone where the interviewer himself may have played a much greater role in shaping and defining the meanings of the experience. As with most research involving human subjects, there are ethical issues associated with the use of diaries in tourism research. Applications to this university's H u m a n Research Ethics Committee have stressed that participation in the studies is entirely voluntary; that participants have the right to veto access to part or all of their completed diaries; and that they are free to withdraw from the study at any time if they so wish. While obviously allowing participants to submit their diaries anonymously would result in a loss of information, this scenario is b e t t e r than not being able to use diaries at all. With respect to the degree to which involvement in a diary study intrudes into the tourist experience, experience indicates that those who agree to participate do not feel that diary writing is a chore. In fact the majority of elderly tourists in one of the studies looked forward to their "diary time" each afternoon as an occasion to reflect on the day's events. Thus, provided ethical considerations guide the overall research design, and participants are fully informed of their rights, travel diaries are a potentially effective and useful way for tourism researchers to gain a more complete understanding of the dynamics of tourist experiences, particularlv when used in combination with interviews, photograph analysis and onsite observations (Ellen 1984). In this way the richly contextualized descriptions, observations, interpretations and reflections embodied in the diary entries can offer much valuable information which might otherwise go undetected. [] []
Mr Kevin MarkweU, Department of Leisure and Tourism Studies, Central Coast Campus, The University of Newcastle, Ourimbah 2258, Australia. Email [email protected].
RESEARCH NOTES AND REPORTS
231
REFERENCES DeLongis, A., K. Hemphill, and D. Lehman 1992 Structured Diary Methodology for the Study of Daily Events. In Methodological Issues in Applied Social Psychology,F. Bryant, ed., pp 83-109. New York: Plenum Press. Ellen, R. F. 1984 Ethnographic Research: A Guide to General Conduct. London: Academic Press. Pearce, P. 1988 The Ulysses Factor: Evaluating Visitors in Tourist Settings. New York: Springer-Verlag. Squires, S.J. 1994 Accounting for Cultural Meanings: The Interface between Geography and Tourism Studies Re-examined. Progress in Human Geography 18:1-16. Taylor, S.J. and R. Bogdan 1984 Introduction to Qualitative Research Methods: The Search for Meanings, (2nd ed.). New York; Wiley. Submitted 5 February 1997 Resubmitted 18 April 1997 Accepted 30 May 1997
PII: S0160-7383 (97) 00075-3
Ecotourism in Canada D. A. F e n n e l l University of Regina, Canada One of the spin offs of the tremendous influx of new papers on sustainable tourism and nature tourism has been a discussion related to the origins and usage of ecotourism. Historically one has been led to believe that the term originated or was coined in 1983 by Ceballos-Lascur~iin (Canadian Environmental Advisory Council 1992); however, some have contended that it first appeared as early as 1978 (Ashton and Ashton 1993). This paper is developed with the purpose of adding to the discussion on the foundations ofecotourism by analyzing a program of ecotours initiated by the Canadian government in the mid-70s. The ecotours in question were developed by Environment Canada (the agency responsible for Parks Canada at the time) in association with other Canadian departments and ministries (e.g., The Forestry Service, Indian and Northern Affairs, and the International Man and the Biosphere Program/Canada). Upon further analysis, the researcher discovered that the ecotours were undertaken by government to provide an enhanced sense of the Canadian identity through the interpretation of its natural environment and resources. More specifically, there was an attempt to enable the traveler to better understand the m a n - l a n d relationship in Canada with an eye to illustrating how people and the natural world are intricately linked (personal communication with M. Greco in early 1997). The ecotours were almost exclusively planned around the Trans-Canada highway, the main artery that links Canada from East to West. However, although the highway component is critical as a means by which to connect travelers with the supply, the experience was planned and designed on the basis of the different ecological zones found along the highway corridor, not on the highway itself.