Using Species Distribution Modeling to contextualize Lower Magdalenian social networks visible through portable art stylistic similarities in the Cantabrian region (Spain)

Quaternary International xxx (2015) 1e12

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Using Species Distribution Modeling to contextualize Lower Magdalenian social networks visible through portable art stylistic similarities in the Cantabrian region (Spain) Claudine Gravel-Miguel School of Human Evolution and Social Change, Arizona State University, P.O. Box 872402, Tempe, AZ 85287-2402, USA

a r t i c l e i n f o

a b s t r a c t

Article history: Available online xxx

This research argues for a refocus of the study of prehistoric social networks that involves contextualizing the inter-site links that are often interpreted as indicators of inter-site social interactions. It focuses on the social networks created during the Lower Magdalenian of the Cantabrian region (Spain), and visible through similarities of portable art representations. It uses Species Distribution Modeling and Maximum Classification Likelihood on faunal presence data to reconstruct prehistoric biomes, and contextualize the networks reconstructed through the art analysis. It demonstrates the potential of mapping the recreated networks onto the reconstructed biomes and of identifying the linked sites' foraging and minimal band territories to distinguish between local mobility movement and inter-group social alliances. The results show that, during the Lower Magdalenian, the majority of movements seen through artistic similarities probably represent the seasonal mobility of one or two hunter-gatherer groups, and that only a few intersite links represent social networks used to exchange mates and gather information. © 2015 Elsevier Ltd and INQUA. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Cantabrian region Lower Magdalenian Social networks Portable art objects Species Distribution Modeling GIS

1. Introduction 1.1. Cantabrian Lower Magdalenian The Magdalenian (c. 20e14 cal ka BP) follows the Last Glacial Maximum (LGM) and is characterized by an overall increase in temperature with high frequency and high amplitude climate variation (McCabe et al., 1998; Ahn, 2012). Through its temporal range and geographical distribution, the Magdalenian remained a coherent culture (Aura et al., 2012; Otte, 2012), as groups of huntergatherers aggregated into temperate refugia during the LGM (Jochim, 1987; Clark et al., 1996) only to re-colonize high-altitude and high-latitude regions during the following Interstadial (Clottes, 1989; Schwendler, 2004; Langlais et al., 2009; Miller, 2012; Straus et al., 2012). Research on the Magdalenian of France and Spain have demonstrated the existence of local and long-distance social contacts within and between these regions through the study of

E-mail address: [email protected].



ndez, marine shell distribution (e.g., Taborin, 1993; Alvarez-Fern a 2002, 2006, 2009), raw material sourcing (e.g., Fullola et al.,
tillon, 2008; Corcho
n Rodríguez et al., 2009), and art 2008; Pe style similarities (e.g., Sieveking, 1978; Bahn, 1982; Buisson et al., 1996; Fritz et al., 2007; Sauvet et al., 2008; Rivero and Sauvet, 2014). Ethnography shows that modern hunter-gatherers tend to create inter-group alliances as insurance against resource failure during times of climate change and resource insecurities (Wobst, 1974, 1977; Wiessner, 1982; Kelly, 1995, 2013; Whallon, 2006). The use of this specific type of social network has been suggested for the Mesolithic (Whallon, 2006), but remains to be studied for the Magdalenian. This article presents preliminary results from a research aimed to contextualize Magdalenian social networks, and here focuses on Cantabrian Lower Magdalenian (c. 20e17.5 cal ka BP) social networks visible through portable art similarities. The main point of this article is not to reconstruct the entire social networks of the Cantabrian Lower Magdalenian, but rather to recreate their social, geographical, and environmental contexts to better classify and interpret them. As ethnographic studies show that stylized nonutilitarian objects are often exchanged to create and maintain

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.quaint.2015.08.029 1040-6182/© 2015 Elsevier Ltd and INQUA. All rights reserved.

Please cite this article in press as: Gravel-Miguel, C., Using Species Distribution Modeling to contextualize Lower Magdalenian social networks visible through portable art stylistic similarities in the Cantabrian region (Spain), Quaternary International (2015), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/ j.quaint.2015.08.029

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inter-group social networks (McCarthy, 1939; Mulvaney, 1976; Wobst, 1977; Wiessner, 1983; Hayden, 1987), this study follows the formal methods used by Buisson et al. (1996), Fortea et al. (2004), Pigeaud (2007), and Rivero and Sauvet (2014) to analyze the formal attributes of certain portable art representations and use stylistic similarities found between representations as a proxy for the presence of social network. Going beyond previous studies on portable art similarities, this research then demonstrates the benefits of contextualizing the reconstructed social networks to better understand their meaning. 1.2. Species Distribution Modeling Anthropological and ethnographic research has shown the influence of climate and resource distribution on the lifestyle of hunter-gatherers (e.g., Dyson-Hudson and Smith, 1978; Binford, 1980: Kelly, 1995, 2013). As a result, an increasing number of archaeologists have attempted to reconstruct past environments to understand behaviors in their general context (e.g., van Andel, 2002;
n et al., 2008; Marean, 2010). The traditional way to reconCorcho struct past environments, using proxies for environmental data (e.g., pollen, fauna, speleothems) in archaeological sites (e.g., Marín, 2004; Sommer and Nadachowski, 2006; Bar-Matthews et al., 2010; Laine et al., 2010) is an efficient way to reconstruct the past. However, this traditional method is spatially restricted by its focus on individual sites, and thus cannot efficiently predict past regional environments. The recent introduction of predictive models (Verhagen and Whitley, 2012) provides an alternative to produce more comprehensive paleoenvironmental reconstructions. In the past few decades, Species Distribution Modeling (SDM, also called Ecological or Niche Modeling) have gained in popularity in ecological disciplines, following the increase in computing power that allowed for increasingly accurate predictions (Franklin et al., 2015). For the most part, SDM use presence observations of a given species as the dependent variable and its environmental context as the independent variable to predict the probabilities of finding this species in places where it has not been observed (Franklin, 1995; Guisan and Thuiller, 2005; Elith et al., 2006; Elith and Leathwick, 2009). Despite their infrequent use in archaeology, SDM are valuable tools to reconstruct spatial probability distributions of prehistoric species (Politis et al., 2011). Lately, high-resolution Global Climate Models (GCM) outputs have allowed a handful of archaeologists to contextualize certain prehistoric behavioral patterns, by projecting modern specieseclimate correlations onto past climatic conditions (e.g. Banks et al., 2008, 2009, 2013; Politis et al., 2011; Hufford et al., 2012; Moriondo et al., 2013). Despite having great potential for the study of social networks in prehistory, this method has not yet been applied to this field of study. This research is thus the first to contextualize Lower Magdalenian social networks with the use of SDM.

Table 1 List of studied representations per artifact. The letters between parentheses next to the site names indicate the shortened code for each site. The period acronym refers to the Lower Magdalenian (LM). The numbers below the two animal taxa provide the number of representations of each taxon per artifact. Reference key: 1. Almagro
n Rodríguez, 1986; 4. Corcho
n Rodríguez, Basch, 1976; 2. Barandiar
an, 1973; 3. Corcho
lez 2005; 5. Freeman and Gonz
alez Echegaray, 1982; 6. Freeman and Gonza
lez Morales Echegaray, 2001; 7. Gomez Fuentes and Becares Perez, 1979; 8. Gonza
lez Morales et al., 2007; 10. Mene
ndez Ferna
ndez, and Straus, 2009; 9. Gonza
ndez Ferna
ndez and García S

ndez 1997; 11. Mene anchez, 1999; 12. Mene
ndez Ferna
ndez et al., 2000; 14. Fern
andez and Martínez Villa, 1992; 13. Mene Montes Bernardez, 1978; 15. Montes Barquin and Munoz Fernandez, 2001; 16. Moure-Romanillo, 1985; 17. Utrilla, 1979. Site

Number

Period

Cervids

Equids

References

El Castillo (E.Ca) El Castillo (E.Ca) El Castillo (E.Ca) El Castillo (E.Ca) El Castillo (E.Ca) El Castillo (E.Ca) El Castillo (E.Ca) El Castillo (E.Ca) El Castillo (E.Ca) El Castillo (E.Ca) El Castillo (E.Ca) El Castillo (E.Ca) El Castillo (E.Ca) El Castillo (E.Ca) El Castillo (E.Ca) El Castillo (E.Ca) El Castillo (E.Ca) El Castillo (E.Ca) Altamira (A) Altamira (A) Altamira (A) Altamira (A) Altamira (A) Altamira (A) El Cierro (E.Ci) El Juyo (EJ) El Juyo (EJ) El Miron (EM) El Miron (EM) El Pendo (EP) El Pendo (EP) Guelga (G)

51/37/100/2/1 51/37/100/2/2 51/37/100/2/3 51/37/100/2/4 51/37/100/2/5 51/37/100/2/6 51/37/100/2/8 51/37/100/2/9 51/37/100/2/10 51/37/100/2/11 51/37/100/2/12 51/37/100/2/13 51/37/100/2/14 51/37/100/2/16 51/37/100/2/17 51/37/100/2/19 51/37/100/2/20 51/37/100/2/21 A2-12037 AL.23 CE04003 CE04004 CE47180 DO00004 EC.LM.1 CE57950 CE57952 1981 EM.3 2.065 5904 02861

LM LM LM LM LM LM LM LM LM LM LM LM LM LM LM LM LM LM LM LM LM LM LM LM LM LM LM LM LM LM LM LM

2 1 2 2 1 1 1 3

1

1,3 1,3,17 1,3,17 1,3,17 1,2,3,17 1,3,17 1,3,17 1,3,17 1,3,17 1,3,17 1,3,17 1,3,17 1,3,17 1,17 1,17 1,3,17 1,3,17 1,17 2,3,6 2,3,6 2,3,6,14 2,3,6,14 Unpublished 2,4,6,14 7 3,5,16 3,5,16 8,9 9 15 15 10,11,12,13

1

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 3 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 3

As this research encompasses several visual aspects, a basemap of the geographical region has been created by combining a United States Geological Survey GMTED2010 Digital Elevation Model (DEM) to the ETOPO1 (Amante and Eakins, 2009) bathymetric map. The basemap created was smoothed to obtain a resolution of 90 m throughout. The position of the Lower Magdalenian shore (
116 m below modern) is based on Peltier and Fairbanks (2006) research on Quaternary sea level change. Fig. 1 presents the basemap and the geographical positions of all sites considered in this study (coded by data type).

2. Materials and methods 2.1. Statistical analysis of Lower Magdalenian art representations The following research is divided into two parts. The first is a study of portable art objects' stylistic similarities to reconstruct part of the Lower Magdalenian social networks. For this study, the focus is placed on engraved pieces of bones and stones with recognizable representations of cervid and equid attributed to the Lower Magdalenian of the Cantabrian region. A literature review provided a sample of 41 representations on 32 artifacts from 7 sites. Table 1 provides the list of representations studied. The second part entails using a Species Distribution Model on Lower Magdalenian faunal data (Table 2) to contextualize the networks reconstructed in the first part.

Drawings of the representations were used to identify the presence/absence of specific formal attributes, the majority of which were established by previous work (e.g., Buisson et al., 1996;
, 2010; Rivero and Fortea et al., 2004; Pigeaud, 2007; Rivero Vila Sauvet, 2014) (Table 3). Cervid and equid representations were statistically analyzed individually. As the presence/absence data were recorded nominally, the Gower dissimilarity index was calculated for each pair of representations. When computing the dissimilarity coefficient (0 being identical and 1 completely different), all features were weighted equally to avoid subjectively

Please cite this article in press as: Gravel-Miguel, C., Using Species Distribution Modeling to contextualize Lower Magdalenian social networks visible through portable art stylistic similarities in the Cantabrian region (Spain), Quaternary International (2015), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/ j.quaint.2015.08.029

C. Gravel-Miguel / Quaternary International xxx (2015) 1e12

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Table 2 Faunal assemblages used for the biomes reconstruction. The period acronyms refer to the Lower Magdalenian (LM) and Archaic Magdalenian (AM) References key: 1. Altuna,

ndez, 2009; 6. Cabrera Valde
s, 1984; 7. Freeman and Gonza
lez Echegaray, 1995; 8. 1981; 2. Altuna, 1986; 3. Altuna, 1995; 4. Altuna and Mariezkurrena, 1996; 5. Alvarez-Fern a
lez Morales and Straus, 2009; 9. Janssens and Gonzalez Echegaray, 1958; 10. Landry and Burke, 2006; 11. Mene
ndez Ferna
ndez et al., 2005; 12. Moure Romanillo, 1979; Gonza
ndez Hevia, 1981; 15. Straus, 1977; 16. Straus, 1992; 17. Straus and Clark, 1986. 13. Freeman et al., 1988; 14. Soto and Mele Site

Layer

Period

Bos

Capra

Altamira Cueto de la Mina Cueva el Rascano Cueva el Rascano Cueva el Rascano Ekain El Castillo El Juyo El Juyo El Juyo El Miron El Miron El Miron El Miron Erralla Guelga Guelga La Paloma La Riera La Riera La Riera La Riera Las Caldas Las Caldas Las Caldas Santimamine Tito Bustillo Tito Bustillo Urtiaga

2 D 3 4 5 VII B (8) 7 8 11 Outer Vestibule 14 Outer Vestibule 15 Outer Vestibule 16 Outer Vestibule 17 V Zone A, 3c Zone C, contact 2e3 8 17 18 19 20 Sala II, XI Sala II, XII Sala II, XIII VII 2 1a F

LM LM LM LM AM LM LM LM LM LM LM LM LM LM LM LM LM LM AM LM LM LM LM LM LM LM LM LM LM

X X X X X X X X X

X X X X X X X X

X

X X

X X X X

X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X

Capreolus

Cervus

Equus

X

X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X

X X X X X X X X X

X X X X

X

X

X

X X X

Rangifer

Rupicapra

X

X

X

X

X X X X X X X

X

X X X X

X

X X

X X X X

X X

X

X X X X

References 5,13,16 3,16 1,16 1,16 1,16 4 6,10 7,9,15,16 16 7,9,15 8 8 8 8 4 11 11 16 2,17 16 2,17 2,17 14 14 14 4 16 12,16 4

Fig. 1. Geographic location of the sites used in this research. Legend: 1. Las Caldas, 2. Guelga, 3. El Cierro, 4. Tito Bustillo, 5. Cueto de la Mina and La Riera, 6. Balmori, 7. La Paloma, 8. Altamira, 9. El Castillo, 10. El Juyo, 11. El Pendo, 12. Cueva el Rascano, 13. El Miron, 14. Santimamine, 15. Urtiaga, 16. Ekain, 17. Erralla.

skewing the results. The threshold used to distinguish between similar and dissimilar representations was obtained through a Zscore standardization of the dissimilarity indices. All pairwise representations with a Z-score >1s had a dissimilarity coefficient <0.35. This was then refined through the subjective observations of a few pairs of representations with 0.3125 dissimilarity coefficients (see Fig. 2). As those were not deemed similar enough to suggest

clear social contact between their makers, the dissimilarity threshold was set to 0.30. Therefore, pairs of representations with dissimilarity indices <0.30 were considered statistically similar. The similarity links between sites were then visualized in GIS through the use of least-cost paths, which consider the topography between two sites and identify the route with the lowest travel cost (Rees, 2004). These inter-site links are assumed to represent possible

Please cite this article in press as: Gravel-Miguel, C., Using Species Distribution Modeling to contextualize Lower Magdalenian social networks visible through portable art stylistic similarities in the Cantabrian region (Spain), Quaternary International (2015), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/ j.quaint.2015.08.029

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inter-site social contacts leading to similarities in artistic style through cultural transmission. These reconstructed social networks were then placed in their geographical and environmental contexts using Species Distribution Modeling.

environments found around each site. Therefore, using the exact coordinates of the sites to reconstruct the distribution of prehistoric species was problematic, as it did not account for the fact that most fauna were hunted elsewhere, and thus, that the environmental

Table 3 List of formal features evaluated for each art representation. Taxon

Features

Possible answers

All

Technique Outline Traits Hump Demarcation hump Ear Horns Forelock Eye Lacrimal caruncle Arch below the eye Nostril Beard Face muscles Facial coat Legs Tail Body muscles Body coat Antlers Ear Eye Lacrimal caruncle Arch below the eye Nostril Lips Face muscles Facial coat Legs Tail Body muscles Body coat Mane Ear Forelock Eye Lacrimal caruncle Arch below the eye Nostril Lips Face muscles Facial coat Legs Tail Body muscles Body coat

Bas relief Single line Anatomical Dots Linear Detailed 1 Simple curved Dots Punctiform Present Present Detailed Present Present Present Unfinished Short Present Present Detailed Detailed Punctiform Present Present Detailed Detailed Present Present Unfinished Simple linear Present Present Single linear Detailed Present Punctiform Present Present Detailed Detailed Present Present Unfinished Simple linear Present Present

Bovid

Cervid

Equid


Champ-leve Multiple lines Angular Hatching Hatching Simple 2 Double curved Hatching Oval/round Absent Absent Simple Absent Absent Absent Pointy Long Absent Absent Simple Simple Oval/round Absent Absent Simple Simple Absent Absent Pointy Double linear Absent Absent Single hatching Simple Absent Oval/round Absent Absent Simple Simple Absent Absent Pointy Double linear Absent Absent

2.2. Reconstructing the distribution of Lower Magdalenian biomes Presence data on seven animal taxa were collected through a literature review of archaeological assemblages dated to the Lower Magdalenian of the Cantabrian region (Table 2). The focus was placed on the presence of ungulates due to their importance in Upper Paleolithic hunter-gatherers' diet (Marín Arroyo, 2013). For sites with multiple Lower Magdalenian layers, a taxon was assumed to have been present as long as it was found in one layer (e.g. Bos in La Riera). Multiple faunal assemblages found in a single site were aggregated into one palimpsest, thus producing a total of 15 assemblages to use for the biomes reconstruction. As Lower Magdalenian sites were preferentially located midslope of major river valleys (Garcia, 2013), the environmental characteristics associated with the faunal assemblages found therein were roughly similar, and did not represent the variety of


coupe
Contour de Hatching Rounded Hatched lines Absent Absent 1 Simple curved Hatched lines Double

Engraving Mix

Sculpture

None

2 Double curved None Schematic

Absent

Schematic

Absent

Absent

Anatomical Absent

Absent Absent Double

Absent Absent

Anatomical Multiple linear

Double pointy

Single mixed Absent

Double linear

Double hatching

Double

Schematic

Absent

Double mixed

Absent Absent

Anatomical Multiple linear

Double pointy

characteristics of a particular species' habitat might have differed from the characteristics of the site where its remains were found. In order to correct for this bias, it was assumed that all faunal remains came from the catchment area surrounding the site in which they were found, which, according to modern ethnographic studies (Binford, 1980; Kelly, 1995, 2013) and recent archaeological research (Marín Arroyo, 2009), would have covered a radius of roughly 10 km (2 h walking time). In the GIS GRASS, r.walk was used to create buffers representing the terrain covered by 2 h of walking time around each site, to represent the realistic catchment area that would have been accessible in different parts of the Cantabrian mountainous coast. This algorithm used the default walking cost values based on Naismith's rule on walking time (Aitken, 1977; Langmuir, 1984). In each of those buffers, 5 random points were created, each of which took the faunal values of the buffer's central site (Fig. 3). The arbitrary number of random points

Please cite this article in press as: Gravel-Miguel, C., Using Species Distribution Modeling to contextualize Lower Magdalenian social networks visible through portable art stylistic similarities in the Cantabrian region (Spain), Quaternary International (2015), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/ j.quaint.2015.08.029

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Fig. 2. Example of the subjective pairwise comparisons used to identify the dissimilarity threshold. The Gower dissimilarity coefficients are found next to the lines between
ndez Ferna
ndez, 1997 (C-G-3) and Corcho
n Rodríguez, representations, and show that similar styles are better reflected by coefficients below 0.30. Drawings reproduced from Mene 1986 (C-ECa-9 and C-ECa-20).

(5) was set to avoid over-representing the regions nearest the sites while including potential areas where the species might have lived. This created 75 random training points, each with their presence/ absence faunal data. The SDM MaxEnt (Phillips et al., 2006) was used to evaluate the climatic context associated to the presence data of the 75 random points in order to create probabilistic distribution maps. The choice of MaxEnt was based on Elith et al. (2006) comparative study, in which it was ranked amongst the easiest SDM to work with, and the most accurate. MaxEnt evaluates a given species' geographical distribution (presence data) in terms of its climatic context (climate maps), and produces a distribution map of presence probability, which identifies the spatial extent of the species' suitable conditions (Politis et al., 2011). As its algorithm evaluates multiple points, it reduces the impact of individual points representing specialized hunting sites (such as La Paloma, Ekain, and El Rascano) that might skew the results (as mentioned in Altuna and Mariezkurrena, 1996). The set of climate maps used for this research was obtained from WorldClim (www.worldclim.org), which provides sets of prehistoric maps for both LGM and mid-Holocene. Due to the dates of the Lower Magdalenian, the LGM data was deemed more appropriate for this research. The chosen set included 20 bioclimatic maps downscaled from the CCSM4 model to 30 arc-seconds (900 m) resolution maps (Hijmans et al., 2005). Given their coarse resolution, each bioclimatic map was interpolated, using lanczos-f in GRASS, to create 90 m resolution maps that would allow MaxEnt to create precise species distributions of the same resolution as the basemap. Following Franklin et al. (2015) argument, a DEM was not included in the model, as its effect was already accounted for in the bioclimatic maps produced by the GCM. However, a slope map of the region was included to evaluate its effects on the species distributions. A test run of MaxEnt was done for each of the seven taxa to evaluate the impact of each bioclimatic variable on the predicted species distributions. For this run, the default parameter values

were kept, and a jackknife test was performed. This test runs the algorithm multiple times, excluding each variable in turn and then using each individually to calculate its effect on the predicted distributions. To follow Franklin et al. (2015) recommendation that all models should be tested with empirical data, the distributions created by MaxEnt were tested against the real presence data of the 15 archaeological assemblages. The results of the jackknife tests for all species (Fig. 4) suggest that all bioclimatic maps contribute to the accuracy of the distribution, whereas the slope map decreases it. The slope map was thus removed from the set used in the subsequent run. The Area Under Curve (AUC), a measure of the model's ability to discriminate between sites where the species is present and sites where it is absent (Hanley and McNeil, 1982), was observed for each species. All values were satisfying (Table 4), which demonstrated the validity of using the 75 random points as training data to reconstruct realistic and accurate species distributions. Table 4 AUC values of the probability distributions created for each taxon. The AUC is a measure of the model's ability to discriminate between sites where the species is present and sites where it is not (Hanley and McNeil, 1982).

AUC

Bos

Capra

Capreolus

Cervus

Equus

Rangifer

Rupicapra

0.975

0.973

0.980

0.971

0.972

0.974

0.964

Following the test run, the model was run again for the seven species; however, here, the cross-validation setting was used for 10 replications; therefore, for each species, 10 different runs were done with 10 different subsets of the 75 training points used for results validation, thus using all points as training and testing data. MaxEnt summarized the results of the multiple distributions in 5 outputs: 1. Average distribution, 2. Median distribution, 3. Minimum distribution, 4. Maximum distribution, and 5. Standard deviation of the distributions. Following Politis et al. (2011), these

Please cite this article in press as: Gravel-Miguel, C., Using Species Distribution Modeling to contextualize Lower Magdalenian social networks visible through portable art stylistic similarities in the Cantabrian region (Spain), Quaternary International (2015), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/ j.quaint.2015.08.029

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C. Gravel-Miguel / Quaternary International xxx (2015) 1e12

Fig. 3. Steps followed to create the 5 random points (triangles in D) around the site of El Miron (circle). The legend in B represents the walking distance in seconds.

MaxEnt probability distributions (on a scale from 0 to 1) were converted into binary distributions (absence/presence) and compared to the empirical Lower Magdalenian faunal data. The 10th percentile training presence logistic threshold provided for

each taxon by the MaxEnt outputs was used to make the conversion. This test showed that the maximum probability distribution was the most accurate for all taxa (predicting accurately 80.95% of all presence/absence data). Therefore, only the

Fig. 4. Results of the Jackknife test for the probability distribution of Bos/Bison. The horizontal lines represent the prediction impact of each environmental variable onto the Area Under Curve (AUC on the x axis). The light blue line indicates how well the test performed without the variable, and the dark blue how well it did when using only this variable. AUC values over 0.75 are considered good predictors. (For interpretation of the references to colour in this figure legend, the reader is referred to the web version of this article.)

Please cite this article in press as: Gravel-Miguel, C., Using Species Distribution Modeling to contextualize Lower Magdalenian social networks visible through portable art stylistic similarities in the Cantabrian region (Spain), Quaternary International (2015), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/ j.quaint.2015.08.029

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similar representation pairs between sites, while the white and grey areas around each site represent their 9 h (minimal band area) and 2 h (catchment area) walking buffers, respectively. Table 5 Count of similar representations per site pairs.

El El El El El

Fig. 5. Number of similar representations per site pairs plotted against their inter-site distance.

maximum probability distribution maps were used for the subsequent step. 2.3. Maximum likelihood classification As the goal of this part was to reconstruct general biomes rather than individual species' distributions, the maximum probability distribution maps of the seven taxa were statistically grouped using the GRASS tool i.cluster to perform an unsupervised maximum likelihood classification with i.maxlik. This allowed smoothing out any irregularities found in the individual distribution maps that might have occurred because of site specialization or taphonomical processes (as mentioned in de los Terreros and Castanedo, 2010). The cluster tool implemented a maximum of 30 iterations with 98% convergence and 0 cluster separation. In order to avoid creating arbitrary clusters, this was run four times for different initial cluster numbers (2, 4, 6, and 8). The output of i.cluster shows that the run made for 6 initial clusters was the most stable (98.37% points stable). This was the cluster signature used in the final maximum likelihood classification, which produced a distribution map of these clusters. A 3 km buffer along the coast was added to this map as a separate biome to reflect the difference between inland and coastal resources. 3. Results 3.1. Lower Magdalenian social networks reconstructed through portable art stylistic similarity Table 5 provides the count of similar representations of both taxa per pairs of sites, which is plotted against inter-site distance in Fig. 5. Although this relationship does not follow a strong linear regression, there is a certain correlation between the number of similar representations and geographical distance; the number of similar representations is higher between closely located sites than between distant ones. One could interpret this as suggesting that the social networks created during the Lower Magdalenian were mostly local. However, when analyzed within their social context, the inter-site links of similar representations present a more complex and interesting picture. Fig. 6 presents visually the results of the statistical analysis of portable art stylistic similarities. The width of the inter-sites lines represents the number of statistically

Castillo Cierro Juyo Miron Pendo

Altamira

El Castillo

El Cierro

El Juyo

El Miron

20 0 1 2 1

6 6 14 2

0 0 0

1 0

0

The results of the statistical analysis of engraved equids (Fig. 6a) show that most representations differ significantly inter- and intrasite. Only the similarity of pair E.EP.1-E.ECa.3 proves to be statistically significant (Gower ¼ 0.18), which might be explained by the fact that those two representations are the only ones with missing heads due to breakage. However, even if we would consider these to be similar enough to infer the presence of social contact, their sites of discovery are within the same minimal band territory (white area), which suggests that their makers might have been from the same band. Therefore, the results of the equid representations' analysis cannot be used to infer the presence of social networks in the Lower Magdalenian of the Cantabrian region. Fortunately, the higher number of mostly complete cervid representations allows us to look at possible social networks. In Fig. 6b, one can see that most of the inter-site links remain in the same minimal band area, with only a few going beyond (the links between El Cierro and El Castillo, and between El Miron and El Castillo, El Pendo and Altamira). Some of these short-distance links are found between sites with overlapping catchment areas. This suggests that one or a few makers from a single minimal band probably made the majority of the similar cervid representations. These representations might have been done over multiple generations of the same band and transported to the different sites occupied during the band's seasonal movements. This interpretation is supported by previous research done on the Magdalenian fauna of the Cantabrian region, suggesting that hunter-gatherers moved seasonally between mountains and coast to use each region's seasonal resources (Sieveking, 1978; Straus, 1986; Straus et al., 2002; Marín Arroyo, 2009, 2013). Fig. 6b also shows the presence of a few long-distance inter-sites links that go beyond the approximate boundaries of each site's minimal band territory. These links, while less numerous than the intra-territory ones, still provide information on the social organization of the Lower Magdalenian in the Cantabrian region, as they imply the presence of social contact between groups that were not directly related to one another. Moreover, the location of the path linking El Cierro and El Castillo intersects with the site of Altamira, demonstrating its “central” location, and providing another support to Conkey (1980) claim that it could have been used as an aggregation site.

3.2. Contextualization of inter-site links in their reconstructed biomes In an attempt to explain the presence of the long-distance links and test the assumption that these reflect the creation of social safety nets to use in times of need, these links were positioned on the biomes map (Fig. 7). This map presents the geographical distribution of 6 regions with different species composition, and produces an important visual support to previous research on

Please cite this article in press as: Gravel-Miguel, C., Using Species Distribution Modeling to contextualize Lower Magdalenian social networks visible through portable art stylistic similarities in the Cantabrian region (Spain), Quaternary International (2015), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/ j.quaint.2015.08.029

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Fig. 6. Networks derived for the two taxa represented, placed in their social context. A. Equids, and B. Cervids. The width of the inter-site least-cost path represents the number of similar pairwise representations between two sites. The white area represents the 9 h walking buffer around each site (minimal band area), and the grey represents the 2 h catchment area. Legend: 1. El Castillo, 2. El Pendo, 3. El Juyo, 4. El Cierro, 5. Guelga, 6. Altamira, 7. El Miron.

prehistoric fauna, which suggested the presence of different biomes following the flanks of the mountain range (Uzquiano, 1992;
lez Morales, 2007). Marín, 2004; Marín Arroyo and Gonza Fig. 7 shows the main contextualization of the long-distance inter-site links reconstructed in this research. Its embedded table demonstrates the area of each biome covered by each of the 3 minimal band territories, which shows that all territories cover a different range of biomes. The statistical significance of those differences is confirmed by a X2 test (X2 <0.001) and Gower dissimilarity coefficients computed for territory pairs (Table 6). This suggests that the long-distance links found between those territories might in fact show the presence of social networks used as safety nets.

Table 6 Gower dissimilarity coefficients comparing the biome content of the three minimal band territories. The number represents the coefficient of the Gower test on area (km2), while the number between parentheses is the coefficient of the test done with the biomes' percentages of the whole area covered.

Middle Western

Eastern

Middle

0.80 (0.92) 0.66 (0.74)

0.54 (0.34)

4. Discussion 4.1. Network contextualization Recent archaeological studies have called for a better contextualization of archaeological sites and their record (e.g., Eriksen, 1997; Garcia Moreno, 2008; Garcia Moreno and Fano Martinez, 2011; Garcia, 2013). In an attempt to do so, this research is the first to contextualize the social networks that are so often mentioned in studies of portable art (e.g., Sieveking, 1978; Bahn, 1982; Fritz, 1999; Fortea et al., 2004; Fritz et al., 2007; Sauvet et al., 2008; Rivero and Sauvet, 2014), but rarely interpreted in their environmental context. Therefore, this article brings a new method to analyze and interpret these well-studied networks. It combines well-published and well-analyzed data on faunal assemblages and portable art objects to provide information on where and why certain social networks were created in the Lower Magdalenian of the Cantabrian region. In this research, the use of least-cost paths and walking buffers helped differentiate between the links that were most likely the result of seasonal mobility of one or two single minimal bands (within the minimal band area), and the ones that might have been the result of social networks (beyond the minimal band area). In

Please cite this article in press as: Gravel-Miguel, C., Using Species Distribution Modeling to contextualize Lower Magdalenian social networks visible through portable art stylistic similarities in the Cantabrian region (Spain), Quaternary International (2015), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/ j.quaint.2015.08.029

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Fig. 7. Description of the minimal band territories' biome coverage. The table presents the area of each biome covered in km2 and area percentage.

other words, this allowed interpreting the data as social outcomes embedded into their social and geographical contexts rather than just straight lines between dots. Here, the results show that the majority of the inter-site links are found within 3 minimal band territories, which suggests that most artistic similarities reflect seasonal mobility rather than social networks. This supports previous studies documenting the presence of seasonal mobility in the Lower Magdalenian (Sieveking, 1978; Altuna, 1981; Altuna and Mariezkurrena, 1985; Straus, 1986; Straus et al., 2002; Marín Arroyo and Gonzalez Morales, 2007, Marín Arroyo, 2009, 2013). A few longer links found between these territories most likely reflect the use of a few social alliances between territories with different biome compositions. However, all these long-distance links remain within what could be considered the maximal or regional band territory that spans roughly 123 km radius (Whallon, 2006). Therefore, this suggests that the networks were created within groups sharing a certain cultural affiliation, which is coherent with ethnographic data on social networks (Wiessner, 1982; Kelly, 2013). This, in turn, supports Straus et al. (2012) assumption that these long-distance links represent inter-group social networks used as safety nets (sensu Whallon, 2006) and created to obtain mates or share information on available resources. In terms of the maintenance of the social networks created, the results of this study would suggest that the social networks of the Lower Magdalenian were not regularly maintained, based on the low number of long-distance links (only one representation in El

Cierro and another one in El Miron, both similar to multiple representations from the central sites). However, it is important to keep in mind that portable art objects are only one of the artifact types that can be used to infer the presence of social networks. Therefore, it is highly possible that the results of this study are not representative of the whole Lower Magdalenian social organization. This research might show that the social network maintenance of the Lower Magdalenian might not have been done through the exchange of portable art objects. Mapping and contextualizing other types of mobility through raw material movement and shell distribution would likely allow for a betterinformed interpretation. Contextualizing a statistical analysis of parietal representations, similar to the one practiced here, would help clarify the results obtained with portable art, as parietal representations are more numerous. 5. Conclusion Portable art objects have been studied for more than a century; therefore, their temporal and geographical contexts are widely known. Surprisingly, however, the environmental context in which they were produced, used, and discarded is still mostly unexplored. This research demonstrated the utility of using GIS and Species Distribution Models to contextualize the distribution of similar art representations. By mapping the networks created through portable art similarities against their sites' foraging and minimal

Please cite this article in press as: Gravel-Miguel, C., Using Species Distribution Modeling to contextualize Lower Magdalenian social networks visible through portable art stylistic similarities in the Cantabrian region (Spain), Quaternary International (2015), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/ j.quaint.2015.08.029

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band territories, this study showed that the majority of those similarities probably represent the seasonal residential mobility of only one or two hunter-gatherer groups to obtain a variety of resources from different biomes. This research argues for a refocus of the study of prehistoric social networks that involves a contextualization of inter-site links to identify which most likely reflect inter-group social alliances, and focus on those when talking about social networks. Through this refocus, this study demonstrated that, despite the relatively high number of inter-site links identified through similar artistic styles, only a few were likely used as social safety nets during the Lower Magdalenian. Therefore, this research contributes a new method to contextualize and better interpret the social networks reconstructed through studies of art similarities and raw material movement. Future work involves using this method on portable art objects of the Middle and Upper Magdalenian of the Cantabrian region to study the evolution of both seasonal mobility and social networks over time, and in other regions to study the impact of the geographical context on the networks' structure. Acknowledgments I would like to thank Dr. C. Michael Barton, Dr. Colin Wren, and my colleagues Grant Snitker and Sean Bergin for their help on this project. I would also like to thank Dr. Carmen Cacho Quesada for inviting me to contribute to this issue. This research was conducted as part of my doctoral dissertation and was supported by the Social Science and Humanities Research Council (Fellowship 752-20111015-A14) and a Doctoral Fellowship from the School of Human Evolution and Social Change at Arizona State University (Tempe, USA). References Ahn, J., 2012. Abrupt climate change and atmospheric CO2 during the last glacial period. Quaternary International 279e280, 12. Aitken, R., 1977. Wilderness Areas in Scotland (Unpublished thesis). University of Aberdeen, Aberdeen. Almagro Basch, M., 1976. Los omoplatos decorados de la cueva de “El Castillo”. Puente Viesgo (Santander). Trabajos de Prehistoria 2, 9e99.
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