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Utilization of butter and oleogel blends in sweet pan bread for saturated fat reduction: Dough rheology and baking performance
LWT - Food Science and Technology 125 (2020) 109194
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Utilization of butter and oleogel blends in sweet pan bread for saturated fat reduction: Dough rheology and baking performance
T
Daeun Junga, Imkyung Ohb, JaeHwan Leec, Suyong Leea,∗ a
Department of Food Science & Biotechnology and Carbohydrate Bioproduct Research Center, Sejong University, Seoul, 05006, South Korea Department of Food Science & Technology, Sunchon National University, Suncheon, 57922, South Korea c Department of Food Science and Biotechnology, Sungkyunkwan University, Suwon, South Korea b
ARTICLE INFO
ABSTRACT
Keywords: Thermo-mechanical analysis Oleogelation Solid fat Texture Fatty acid
Rice bran oil oleogel was prepared with candelilla wax and then blended with solid fat (butter) to reduce the content of saturated fat in yeast-leavened baked goods. The solid fat content of butter and oleogel blends became less sensitive to temperature change with increasing levels of oleogel. While higher proportions of oleogel in the blends decreased the thermo-mechanical properties of wheat flour dough, they did not negatively affect the dough stabililty. Dynamic oscillatory and extensional measurements demonstrated that the viscous nature of the dough became more dominant as the level of oleogel in the blends increased. When breads with butter and oleogel blends were baked, no significant differences in the specific volume of the bread were noted from the control prepared with butter until 75% replacement with oleogel. The smaller bread volume generally gave rise to greater bread hardness. The ratio of saturated to unsaturated fatty acids in the baked breads containing oleogel were distinctly reduced to 0.34, compared to the control butter bread (2.44).
1. Introduction Solid fats have been extensively used in a wider variety of food products owing to several processing advantages over liquid oils. Specifically, their high melting point and possession of plasticity provide processing benefits such as extended shelf-life, enhanced oxidative stability, a crispy texture, and handling convenience (Oh & Lee, 2018). However, as the relationship between diets and health has become a greater concern in the general public, health concerns of solid fats derived from a high level of saturated fat have risen. Recent studies reported that an increased intake of saturated fats correlated with higher mortality by showing that total mortality was reduced by 27 and 13% by the 5% replacement of energy from saturated fats with that from poly- and mono-unsaturated fatty acids, respectively (Wang et al., 2016). In addition, based on the World Health Organization (WHO) dietary guidelines, saturated fat intake should be less than 10% of total energy intake. As a means of reducing the saturated fat intake, the WHO recommends replacing solid fat such as butter with liquid oils high in polyunsaturated fatty acids. As a promising strategy to replace solid fats high in saturated fatty acids, oleogelation has been recently suggested since liquid oil can be converted into solid-like gels without the chemical modification of the oil (Patel & Dewettinck, 2016). Therefore, a number of recent studies ∗
have reported the utilization of oleogels as an alternative to solid fat for food applications. Ethylcellulose (Zetzl, Marangoni, & Barbut, 2012) and hydroxypropyl methylcellulose (Oh, Lee, Lee, & Lee, 2019) oleogels were used for animal fat replacement in frankfurters and meat patties, respectively. Furthermore, palm oil was replaced with shellac oleogel for chocolate pastes (Patel et al., 2014), beeswax oleogel for confectionery fillings (Doan et al., 2016), and carnauba wax oleogel for instant fried noodles (Lim, Jeong, Oh, & Lee, 2017). Baking is also one of the most popular areas for oleogel application since solid fats (e.g. shortening and butter) are necessarily incorporated for desirable baking characteristics. Thus, different types of oleogels were applied to replace shortening for baked goods such as cookies (Mert & Demirkesen, 2016; Ylmaz & Ogutcu, 2015), muffins (Lim, Jeong, Lee, et al., 2017), and cakes (Patel et al., 2014). However, most of the baking applications of oleogels focused on pastry products where chemical leavening agents are generally used. To our best knowledge, there are only a few studies on the use of oleogels in yeast-leavened food systems such as breads that sodium stearoyl lactylate (SSL) (Meng, Guo, Wang, & Liu, 2019) and ethylcellulose (Ye, Li, Lo, Fu, & Cao, 2019) were applied. Thus, in this study, rice bran oil oleogels were prepared with candelilla wax and then incorporated as a butter replacer in sweet pan bread made from yeast-leavened dough with high amounts of fat. The effects of butter replacement with oleogles on the physicochemical
Corresponding author. 209 Neungdong-ro, Gwangjin-gu, 05006, South Korea. E-mail address: [email protected] (S. Lee).
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lwt.2020.109194 Received 18 November 2019; Received in revised form 10 February 2020; Accepted 20 February 2020 Available online 24 February 2020 0023-6438/ © 2020 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
LWT - Food Science and Technology 125 (2020) 109194
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properties of bread doughs were characterized primarily in terms of rheology and baking performance.
within the linear viscoelastic region. 2.6. Extensional measurements
2. Materials and methods
The uniaxial extensional properties of the doughs were assessed using a texture analyzer (TA-XT plus, Stable Micro System Ltd., Surrey, UK) equipped with the Kieffer dough and gluten extensibility rig. In the tension mode, the hook was raised at a crosshead speed of 200 mm/min to extend a dough strip until fractured. The maximum peak force and displacement were recorded.
2.1. Materials Butter (Seoul Milk Co., Seoul, Korea) and rice bran oil (CJ Co., Seoul, Korea) were purchased from commercial sources, and candelilla wax was obtained from TER Chemicals (Hamburg, Germany). According to the methods of Lim et al. (2017), the rice bran oil in a beaker was placed in a water bath (90 °C) and mixed with candelilla wax at a weight ratio of 90:10, followed by continuous agitation until completely dissolved. The mixture was placed at room temperature for 1 h and stored in a refrigerator until used, leading to the formation of oleogel. Butter and oleogel blends were prepared on a replacement basis - 100:0 (control, B100), 75:25 (B75–O25), 50:50 (B50–O50), 25:75 (B25–O75) and 0:100 (O100).
2.7. Determination of specific volume The bread loaf volume was measured at room temperature using a Volscan Profiler (VSP 600, Stable Micro System Ltd.). 2.8. Texture analysis
The solid fat content of butter and oleogel blends was measured by nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) (Oxford MQC+, Oxon, UK. Each sample blend was loaded in a NMR tube (10 mm diameter), melted at 90 °C for 15 min, and held at 60 °C for 10 min and 0 °C for 60 min. The tube was then placed at the temperatures from 10 °C to 90 °C at an interval of 10 °C for 30 min, followed by the NMR measurement.
The texture profile analysis of the bread samples was carried out using a texture analyzer (TA-XT plus, Stable Micro System Ltd.) equipped with a 5 kg load cell. A 20 mm thick bread slice was subjected to a double compression with a cylindrical probe (20 mm diameter) at a crosshead speed of 60 mm/min to 70% of its thickness. Also, trigger force and time elapsed between two compressions were 0.05 N and 2 s, respectively. Textural parameters (hardness, adhesiveness, springiness, cohesiveness, and chewiness) were obtained from the force-distance curves.
2.3. Thermo-mechanical analysis
2.9. Analysis of fatty acid composition
The effect of butter replacement with oleogel on the thermo-mechanical characteristics of wheat flour was assessed using a Mixolab (Chopin, Tripetteet Renaud, Paris, France). Hard wheat flour (CJ Co., Seoul, Korea) with butter and oleogel blends was loaded into the Mixolab bowl and distilled water was automatically injected to reach an optimal torque value (1.1 Nm). The operating conditions used in this study were as follows - kneading speed at 80 rpm, mixer temperature at 30 °C, heating rate of 4 °C/min to 90 °C, and cooling rate of 4 °C/min to 50 °C.
According to the method of Oh, Amoah, Lim, Jeong, and Lee (2017), the fatty acid compositions of the breads prepared with butter and oleogel blends were investigated using a gas chromatograph (HewlettPackard 6890, Agilent Technologies, Palo Alto, CA, USA) with a flame ionization detector. The oils extracted from the bread samples were injected to a 100 m × 0.25 mm SP-2560 capillary column (Supelco Inc., Bellefonte, PA, USA), and helium was used as the carrier gas. The temperature of inlet and detector was 225 and 285 °C, respectively.
2.2. Analysis of solid fat content
2.10. Statistical analysis
2.4. Preparation of sweet pan bread
Three batches of bread samples were prepared for each formulation, and all the measurements were replicated more than three times. Experimental results (thermo-mechanical property, extensional property, specific volume, texture, and fatty acid composition) were statistically processed using the R statistical package (The R Foundation for Statistical Computing, Vienna, Austria). Analysis of variance was carried out using the general linear models (GLMs) procedure to determine significant differences among the samples and Duncan's multiple range test was used to compare means at a significance level of 0.05.
Based on the method of Zettel and Hitzmann (2016), sweet pan bread samples were prepared with different butter and oleogel blends. The bread formulation was composed of 100 g hard wheat flour (CJ Co.), 26.5 g butter-oleogel blend, 15 g sugar (Samyang Co., Seoul, Korea), 7 g whole egg, 6 g whole milk powder (Seoul Milk Co., Seoul, Korea), 2.4 g instant dry yeast (Lesaffre Yeast Col, Milwaukee, WI, USA), 1.5 g salt (CJ Co.), and 44 g water. The optimum mixing time and water absorption were determined from the Mixolab experiments. A Swanson mixer (National Mfg. Co. Lincoln, NE, USA) was used to prepare dough, which was divided into 160 g pieces. The first and second punch occurred at 105 and 130 min, respectively. After proofing at 30 °C (85% relative humidity) for 62 min, the dough samples were baked in an oven (top 160 °C/bottom 180 °C) for 30 min, followed by cooling at room temperature for 60 min.
3. Results and discussion The solid fat contents of butter and oleogel blends were investigated as a function of temperature. As can be seen in Fig. 1, the solid fat content of butter (B100) was determined to be 40 g/100 g at 10 °C while the oleogel (O100) exhibited the solid fat content of 10 g/100 g. Thus, the butter exhibited the highest solid fat content at the temperatures lower than 25 °C, and the solid fat content had a tendency to decrease with increasing levels of oleogel. It was however interesting to note that the butter and oleogel blends showed different sensitivity of solid fat content to temperature. A sharp decrease in the solid fat content of the butter (B100) was clearly detected in the temperature range from 10 to 40 °C. On the other hand, the solid fat content of the oleogel (O100) remained relatively constant at the temperatures lower than 30 °C, and then the oleogel started to lose its crystalline phase by
2.5. Dynamic viscoelastic measurements The changes in the dynamic viscoelastic properties of dough samples by butter replacement with oleogel were investigated using a Discovery HR-2 rheometer (TA Instrument, New Castle, DE, USA). The measurement was made with 40 mm diameter parallel geometry at 25 °C and the exposed dough surface was coated with mineral oil to prevent dehydration during testing. A frequency sweep test ranging from 0.1 to 10 Hz, was carried out at a constant strain of 0.1% that was 2
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Fig. 1. Solid fat contents of butter and oleogel blends ( B100, B75/O25, B50/O50, B25/O75, O100).
Moreover, the fact that the values of tanδ (the ratio of G″ to G′) were less than 1.0 implied that the dough samples rheologically belonged to viscoelastic solids (Mezger, 2014). As shown in Fig. 2(a), the dough with butter (B100) showed higher values of G’ and G” than those with oleogel. Also, both viscoelastic moduli had a tendency to decrease as the proportion of oleogel increased. Furthermore, the increasing levels of oleogel distinctly raised the values of tanδ. Therefore, the viscous properties of the dough samples became more dominant as the levels of oleogel increased. It was previously reported that the reduction of solid fat or use of liquid oil for solid fat led to reduced dough stiffness (Baltsavias, Jurgens, & Van Vliet, 1997). Thus, the lowered viscoelastic moduli could be explained by the fact that the oleogel where liquid oils were entrapped, gave rise to greater lubrication of the dough as already mentioned in Table 1. The rheological changes of the dough samples with butter and oleogel blends were evaluated in terms of extensional properties. Table 2 presents Rmax and extensibility that indicate maximum resistance to extensional deformation and extended distance at fracture, respectively (Jang, Kim, & Lee, 2016). As presented in Table 2, higher proportions of oleogels in the blends significantly lowered the values of Rmax, indicating reduced dough strength. In the case of extensibility, the dough samples became more extensible as the levels of oleogel increased. It is recognized that the ratio of Rmax to E is a measure of the balance between elastic and viscous behavior of dough (Aamodt, Magnus, & Faergestad, 2003). The values of Rmax/E distinctly decreased with increasing amounts of oleogel, showing the rheological contribution of oleogel to the viscous nature of dough. This trend was in good agreement with the viscoelastic behaviors observed by the oscillatory dynamic measurements (Fig. 2). Loaf specific volume is considered a critical factor to assess the
melting. The trend was consistent with the results of Lim et al. (2017) who compared the solid fat contents of three different oleogels prepared with candelilla, carnauba, and beeswax. The thermo-mechanical properties of wheat flour containing butter and oleogel blends were characterized using a Mixolab. Under the condition of C1 = 1.1 ± 0.04 Nm, the C2 (protein weakening), C3 (starch gelatinization), C4 (stability of gelatinized starch granules), and C5 (starch retrogradation) (Cho, Bae, Inglett, & Lee, 2014) appeared to decrease as the levels of oleogel increased, as presented in Table 1. Thus, these results indicated that the degree of starch gelatinization and retrogradation varied depending on the ratio of butter and oleogel. It is recognized that the addition of lipids plays a role in lubricating the matrix of dough (Huschka, Challacombe, Marangoni, & Seetharaman, 2011). The blends with more amounts of oleogel seemed to be smeared over the flour particles in the dough upon mixing. Thus, compared to butter, oleogel might be effective in coating flour particles in dough, consequently less resistance against mixing (that is, lower Mixolab parameters). Furthermore, a slightly higher water absorption was needed to hydrate the wheat flour with more levels of oleogel to reach an optimal dough consistency (C1 = 1.1 Nm). However, regardless of the ratio of butter and oleogel, it took nearly similar times to reach the consistency. In addition, the changes in the dough stability by the replacement of butter with oleogel were not significantly distinct until 75% replacement with oleogel. Thus, it seemed that the use of oleogel did not negatively contribute to maintaining the dough stability. The effects of butter and oleogel blends on the dynamic viscoelastic properties of dough were investigated as shown in Fig. 2. All the dough samples showed higher values of G’ (storage modulus) than G” (loss modulus) in the frequency range tested in this study, and both moduli increased with increasing frequency, showing frequency-dependence.
Table 1 Thermo-mechanical properties of wheat flour with butter and oleogel blends (means with different letters in the same row differ significantly at p < 0.05). B100 Torque (Nm)
Water absorption (g/100 g) Dough development time (min) Dough stability (min)
C1 C2 C3 C4 C5
1.09 0.51 1.20 0.68 1.09
± ± ± ± ±
0.00a 0.00a 0.00a 0.00a 0.02a
51.3 ± 0.1d 7.80 ± 0.04a 12.7 ± 0.3 ab
B75/O25
B50/O50
B25/O75
O100
1.09 0.48 1.17 0.68 1.07
1.10 0.46 1.13 0.67 1.06
1.09 0.43 1.08 0.67 1.05
1.10 0.42 1.09 0.67 1.05
± ± ± ± ±
0.01a 0.00b 0.02 ab 0.00 ab 0.01b
52.0 ± 0.1c 8.02 ± 0.30a 13.3 ± 0.1a
3
± ± ± ± ±
0.03a 0.01c 0.00bc 0.00bc 0.01b
52.4 ± 0.0b 7.74 ± 0.26a 12.8 ± 0.3a
± ± ± ± ±
0.01a 0.01d 0.01c 0.00bc 0.00b
52.4 ± 0.2b 7.19 ± 0.33a 12.6 ± 0.3 ab
± ± ± ± ±
0.01a 0.01e 0.06c 0.01c 0.02b
52.7 ± 0.1a 7.48 ± 0.42a 12.1 ± 0.6b
LWT - Food Science and Technology 125 (2020) 109194
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Fig. 2. Dynamic viscoelastic properties of wheat flour doughs with butter and oleogel blends: (a) G′ and G”; (b) tanδ ( B100, B75/O25, B50/O50, B25/O75, O100).
Table 2 Extensional properties of wheat flour doughs with butter and oleogel blends (means with different letters in the same row differ significantly at p < 0.05).
Rmax (mN) Extensibility (mm) Rmax/E
B100
B75/O25
B50/O50
B25/O75
O100
1254 ± 232a 26.0 ± 2.4b 48.6 ± 10.0a
1229 ± 92a 26.1 ± 2.2b 47.2 ± 2.7a
1085 ± 160 ab 26.4 ± 3.6b 41.8 ± 8.8a
996 ± 69bc 30.9 ± 2.9a 32.5 ± 3.0b
867 ± 85c 32.1 ± 2.6a 27.2 ± 3.4b
Table 3 Specific volume of breads with butter and oleogel blends (means with different letters in the same row differ significantly at p < 0.05).
Specific volume (mL/g)
B100
B75/O25
B50/O50
B25/O75
O100
4.78 ± 0.28a
4.81 ± 0.11a
4.84 ± 0.07a
4.75 ± 0.12a
4.51 ± 0.07b
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Table 4 Textural properties of breads with butter and oleogel blends (means with different letters in the same row differ significantly at p < 0.05).
Hardness (N) Adhesiveness (N·mm) Springiness Cohesiveness Chewiness (N·mm)
B100
B75/O25
B50/O50
B25/O75
O100
2.86 ± 0.17b −0.03 ± 0.02a 0.91 ± 0.01a 0.69 ± 0.02 ab 1.79 ± 0.06b
2.55 ± 0.13c −0.04 ± 0.02a 0.91 ± 0.01a 0.7 ± 0.01a 1.61 ± 0.07c
2.28 ± 0.10c −0.03 ± 0.00a 0.91 ± 0.01a 0.69 ± 0.01 ab 1.43 ± 0.09c
3.01 ± 0.33b −0.05 ± 0.04a 0.91 ± 0.03a 0.67 ± 0.01bc 1.84 ± 0.19b
3.71 ± 0.26a −0.07 ± 0.03a 0.90 ± 0.01a 0.66 ± 0.02c 2.18 ± 0.11a
Table 5 Fatty acid composition of breads with butter and oleogel blends (means with different letters in the same row differ significantly at p < 0.05). Fatty acid (g/100 g)
B100
C4:0 C6:0 C8:0 C10:0 C12:0 C14:0 C16:0 C18:0 C18:1 C18:2 C18:3 C20:0
1.34 1.55 1.10 2.87 4.21 11.9 34.1 13.7 23.7 5.33 – 0.18
SFA USFA SFA/USFA
71.0 ± 0.6a 29.0 ± 0.6e 2.44 ± 0.06a
± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ±
0.14a 0.09a 0.03a 0.04a 0.05a 0.1a 0.4a 0.2a 0.6e 0.01e
± 0.00e
B75/O25
B50/O50
B25/O75
O100
1.04 1.19 0.82 2.13 3.07 8.73 30.2 10.5 28.1 13.9 – 0.36
0.76 0.86 0.57 1.48 2.10 6.08 27.0 7.71 30.8 21.2 1.03 0.49
– – – 0.79 1.15 3.52 23.9 5.17 35.0 28.5 1.28 0.62
– – – – – 1.07 20.7 2.76 38.5 34.7 1.51 0.75
± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ±
0.04b 0.02b 0.00b 0.00b 0.01b 0.02b 0.0b 0.0b 0.0d 0.1d
± 0.00d
58.0 ± 0.1b 42.0 ± 0.1d 1.38 ± 0.00b
± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ±
0.03c 0.03c 0.01c 0.01c 0.01c 0.02c 0.0c 0.01c 0.1c 0.1c 0.01c 0.00c
47.1 ± 0.1c 52.9 ± 0.2c 0.89 ± 0.00c
quality attributes of bread since it is a quantitative measure of baking performance (Minarro, Albanell, Aguilar, Guamis, & Capellas, 2012). The effect of butter and oleogel blends on the specific volume of bread was thus investigated as shown in Table 3. No significant differences in the specific volume were noted from the control prepared with butter until 75% replacement with oleogel. It is well-recognized that lipids have a large impact on bread volume (Pareyt, Finnie, Putseys, & Delcour, 2011). Specifically, the incorporation of liquid oil into the bread formulation was reported to cause a smaller increase in bread volume than that of solid fat since the gas cells entrapped during mixing were surrounded and stabilized by protein-lipid crystal films (Smith & Johansson, 2004). Therefore, oleogel with solid-like properties seemed to be very effective in compensating for the role of butter in incorporating and stabilizing air cells in bread. Furthermore, the textural changes of the bread samples with butter and oleogel blends were investigated. As presented in Table 4, the bread samples prepared only with oleogel (O100), exhibited a firmer and chewier texture than the control made from butter. This result could be related to the decreased specific bread volume of the 100% oleogel sample (Table 3) that might have a dense crumb structure (Katina, Heiniö, Autio, & Poutanen, 2006). It was also noted that the bread samples (B75/O25 and B50/O50) showed lower values of hardness and chewiness probably due to their higher specific volumes although their mean values were not significantly different from the control (Table 3). In addition, the oleogel could be used to completely replace butter without significant changes in adhesiveness and springiness. The composition of total fatty acids in the bread samples was investigated, and the results are presented in Table 5. The most abundant fatty acids of the bread with butter were myristic acid (C14:0), palmitic acid (C16:0), stearic acid (C18:0), and oleic acid (C18:1). On the other hand, the breads with oleogel were high in oleic acid (C18:1) and linoleic acid (C18:2), which together accounted for approximately 73.2 g/100 g of total fatty acids. Thus, the replacement of butter with oleogel produced bread samples with lower amounts of saturated fat and higher amounts of unsaturated fat, consequently reducing the ratio of saturated and unsaturated fat from 2.44 to 0.34.
± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ±
0.00d 0.01d 0.01d 0.0d 0.01d 0.1b 0.1b 0.00b 0.00b
35.1 ± 0.1d 64.9 ± 0.1b 0.54 ± 0.00d
± ± ± ± ± ± ±
0.01e 0.0e 0.02e 0.1a 0.2a 0.00a 0.01a
25.3 ± 0.1e 74.7 ± 0.1a 0.34 ± 0.00e
4. Conclusions Wheat flour doughs tended to have lower resistance against mixing, and their rheological properties became more viscous as the level of oleogel in the blends increased. Furthermore, the replacement of butter with oleogel at up to 75% by weight produced baked breads with similar specific volume to the control bread prepared only with butter. In addition, the bread sample where butter was replaced with oleogel at 75%, did not present significant differences with the control regarding hardness. The use of oleogel for butter contributed to nutritional superiority by reducing the saturated fat content from 71.0 to 25.3 g/ 100 g. As oleogel has received considerable attention from scientific and industrial communities, the application of oleogel to sweet pan bread in this study might provide useful information on the processing performance of oleogel in yeast-leavened baked products, probably encouraging the food industry to extend the use of oleogel to a wider variety of baked goods. CRediT authorship contribution statement Daeun Jung: Conceptualization, Methodology, Investigation, Writing - original draft, Writing - review & editing. Imkyung Oh: Conceptualization, Investigation, Writing - original draft, Project administration. JaeHwan Lee: Investigation, Writing - original draft. Suyong Lee: Conceptualization, Methodology, Writing - original draft, Writing - review & editing, Supervision, Funding acquisition. Acknowledgement This research was supported by the Research Program through the Yang Young Foundation in Korea. References Aamodt, A., Magnus, E., & Faergestad, E. (2003). Effect of flour quality, ascorbic acid, and datem on dough rheological parameters and hearth loaves characteristics. Journal of Food Science, 68(7), 2201–2210.
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Utilization of butter and oleogel blends in sweet pan bread for saturated fat reduction: Dough rheology and baking performance
T
Daeun Junga, Imkyung Ohb, JaeHwan Leec, Suyong Leea,∗ a
Department of Food Science & Biotechnology and Carbohydrate Bioproduct Research Center, Sejong University, Seoul, 05006, South Korea Department of Food Science & Technology, Sunchon National University, Suncheon, 57922, South Korea c Department of Food Science and Biotechnology, Sungkyunkwan University, Suwon, South Korea b
ARTICLE INFO
ABSTRACT
Keywords: Thermo-mechanical analysis Oleogelation Solid fat Texture Fatty acid
Rice bran oil oleogel was prepared with candelilla wax and then blended with solid fat (butter) to reduce the content of saturated fat in yeast-leavened baked goods. The solid fat content of butter and oleogel blends became less sensitive to temperature change with increasing levels of oleogel. While higher proportions of oleogel in the blends decreased the thermo-mechanical properties of wheat flour dough, they did not negatively affect the dough stabililty. Dynamic oscillatory and extensional measurements demonstrated that the viscous nature of the dough became more dominant as the level of oleogel in the blends increased. When breads with butter and oleogel blends were baked, no significant differences in the specific volume of the bread were noted from the control prepared with butter until 75% replacement with oleogel. The smaller bread volume generally gave rise to greater bread hardness. The ratio of saturated to unsaturated fatty acids in the baked breads containing oleogel were distinctly reduced to 0.34, compared to the control butter bread (2.44).
1. Introduction Solid fats have been extensively used in a wider variety of food products owing to several processing advantages over liquid oils. Specifically, their high melting point and possession of plasticity provide processing benefits such as extended shelf-life, enhanced oxidative stability, a crispy texture, and handling convenience (Oh & Lee, 2018). However, as the relationship between diets and health has become a greater concern in the general public, health concerns of solid fats derived from a high level of saturated fat have risen. Recent studies reported that an increased intake of saturated fats correlated with higher mortality by showing that total mortality was reduced by 27 and 13% by the 5% replacement of energy from saturated fats with that from poly- and mono-unsaturated fatty acids, respectively (Wang et al., 2016). In addition, based on the World Health Organization (WHO) dietary guidelines, saturated fat intake should be less than 10% of total energy intake. As a means of reducing the saturated fat intake, the WHO recommends replacing solid fat such as butter with liquid oils high in polyunsaturated fatty acids. As a promising strategy to replace solid fats high in saturated fatty acids, oleogelation has been recently suggested since liquid oil can be converted into solid-like gels without the chemical modification of the oil (Patel & Dewettinck, 2016). Therefore, a number of recent studies ∗
have reported the utilization of oleogels as an alternative to solid fat for food applications. Ethylcellulose (Zetzl, Marangoni, & Barbut, 2012) and hydroxypropyl methylcellulose (Oh, Lee, Lee, & Lee, 2019) oleogels were used for animal fat replacement in frankfurters and meat patties, respectively. Furthermore, palm oil was replaced with shellac oleogel for chocolate pastes (Patel et al., 2014), beeswax oleogel for confectionery fillings (Doan et al., 2016), and carnauba wax oleogel for instant fried noodles (Lim, Jeong, Oh, & Lee, 2017). Baking is also one of the most popular areas for oleogel application since solid fats (e.g. shortening and butter) are necessarily incorporated for desirable baking characteristics. Thus, different types of oleogels were applied to replace shortening for baked goods such as cookies (Mert & Demirkesen, 2016; Ylmaz & Ogutcu, 2015), muffins (Lim, Jeong, Lee, et al., 2017), and cakes (Patel et al., 2014). However, most of the baking applications of oleogels focused on pastry products where chemical leavening agents are generally used. To our best knowledge, there are only a few studies on the use of oleogels in yeast-leavened food systems such as breads that sodium stearoyl lactylate (SSL) (Meng, Guo, Wang, & Liu, 2019) and ethylcellulose (Ye, Li, Lo, Fu, & Cao, 2019) were applied. Thus, in this study, rice bran oil oleogels were prepared with candelilla wax and then incorporated as a butter replacer in sweet pan bread made from yeast-leavened dough with high amounts of fat. The effects of butter replacement with oleogles on the physicochemical
Corresponding author. 209 Neungdong-ro, Gwangjin-gu, 05006, South Korea. E-mail address: [email protected] (S. Lee).
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lwt.2020.109194 Received 18 November 2019; Received in revised form 10 February 2020; Accepted 20 February 2020 Available online 24 February 2020 0023-6438/ © 2020 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
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properties of bread doughs were characterized primarily in terms of rheology and baking performance.
within the linear viscoelastic region. 2.6. Extensional measurements
2. Materials and methods
The uniaxial extensional properties of the doughs were assessed using a texture analyzer (TA-XT plus, Stable Micro System Ltd., Surrey, UK) equipped with the Kieffer dough and gluten extensibility rig. In the tension mode, the hook was raised at a crosshead speed of 200 mm/min to extend a dough strip until fractured. The maximum peak force and displacement were recorded.
2.1. Materials Butter (Seoul Milk Co., Seoul, Korea) and rice bran oil (CJ Co., Seoul, Korea) were purchased from commercial sources, and candelilla wax was obtained from TER Chemicals (Hamburg, Germany). According to the methods of Lim et al. (2017), the rice bran oil in a beaker was placed in a water bath (90 °C) and mixed with candelilla wax at a weight ratio of 90:10, followed by continuous agitation until completely dissolved. The mixture was placed at room temperature for 1 h and stored in a refrigerator until used, leading to the formation of oleogel. Butter and oleogel blends were prepared on a replacement basis - 100:0 (control, B100), 75:25 (B75–O25), 50:50 (B50–O50), 25:75 (B25–O75) and 0:100 (O100).
2.7. Determination of specific volume The bread loaf volume was measured at room temperature using a Volscan Profiler (VSP 600, Stable Micro System Ltd.). 2.8. Texture analysis
The solid fat content of butter and oleogel blends was measured by nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) (Oxford MQC+, Oxon, UK. Each sample blend was loaded in a NMR tube (10 mm diameter), melted at 90 °C for 15 min, and held at 60 °C for 10 min and 0 °C for 60 min. The tube was then placed at the temperatures from 10 °C to 90 °C at an interval of 10 °C for 30 min, followed by the NMR measurement.
The texture profile analysis of the bread samples was carried out using a texture analyzer (TA-XT plus, Stable Micro System Ltd.) equipped with a 5 kg load cell. A 20 mm thick bread slice was subjected to a double compression with a cylindrical probe (20 mm diameter) at a crosshead speed of 60 mm/min to 70% of its thickness. Also, trigger force and time elapsed between two compressions were 0.05 N and 2 s, respectively. Textural parameters (hardness, adhesiveness, springiness, cohesiveness, and chewiness) were obtained from the force-distance curves.
2.3. Thermo-mechanical analysis
2.9. Analysis of fatty acid composition
The effect of butter replacement with oleogel on the thermo-mechanical characteristics of wheat flour was assessed using a Mixolab (Chopin, Tripetteet Renaud, Paris, France). Hard wheat flour (CJ Co., Seoul, Korea) with butter and oleogel blends was loaded into the Mixolab bowl and distilled water was automatically injected to reach an optimal torque value (1.1 Nm). The operating conditions used in this study were as follows - kneading speed at 80 rpm, mixer temperature at 30 °C, heating rate of 4 °C/min to 90 °C, and cooling rate of 4 °C/min to 50 °C.
According to the method of Oh, Amoah, Lim, Jeong, and Lee (2017), the fatty acid compositions of the breads prepared with butter and oleogel blends were investigated using a gas chromatograph (HewlettPackard 6890, Agilent Technologies, Palo Alto, CA, USA) with a flame ionization detector. The oils extracted from the bread samples were injected to a 100 m × 0.25 mm SP-2560 capillary column (Supelco Inc., Bellefonte, PA, USA), and helium was used as the carrier gas. The temperature of inlet and detector was 225 and 285 °C, respectively.
2.2. Analysis of solid fat content
2.10. Statistical analysis
2.4. Preparation of sweet pan bread
Three batches of bread samples were prepared for each formulation, and all the measurements were replicated more than three times. Experimental results (thermo-mechanical property, extensional property, specific volume, texture, and fatty acid composition) were statistically processed using the R statistical package (The R Foundation for Statistical Computing, Vienna, Austria). Analysis of variance was carried out using the general linear models (GLMs) procedure to determine significant differences among the samples and Duncan's multiple range test was used to compare means at a significance level of 0.05.
Based on the method of Zettel and Hitzmann (2016), sweet pan bread samples were prepared with different butter and oleogel blends. The bread formulation was composed of 100 g hard wheat flour (CJ Co.), 26.5 g butter-oleogel blend, 15 g sugar (Samyang Co., Seoul, Korea), 7 g whole egg, 6 g whole milk powder (Seoul Milk Co., Seoul, Korea), 2.4 g instant dry yeast (Lesaffre Yeast Col, Milwaukee, WI, USA), 1.5 g salt (CJ Co.), and 44 g water. The optimum mixing time and water absorption were determined from the Mixolab experiments. A Swanson mixer (National Mfg. Co. Lincoln, NE, USA) was used to prepare dough, which was divided into 160 g pieces. The first and second punch occurred at 105 and 130 min, respectively. After proofing at 30 °C (85% relative humidity) for 62 min, the dough samples were baked in an oven (top 160 °C/bottom 180 °C) for 30 min, followed by cooling at room temperature for 60 min.
3. Results and discussion The solid fat contents of butter and oleogel blends were investigated as a function of temperature. As can be seen in Fig. 1, the solid fat content of butter (B100) was determined to be 40 g/100 g at 10 °C while the oleogel (O100) exhibited the solid fat content of 10 g/100 g. Thus, the butter exhibited the highest solid fat content at the temperatures lower than 25 °C, and the solid fat content had a tendency to decrease with increasing levels of oleogel. It was however interesting to note that the butter and oleogel blends showed different sensitivity of solid fat content to temperature. A sharp decrease in the solid fat content of the butter (B100) was clearly detected in the temperature range from 10 to 40 °C. On the other hand, the solid fat content of the oleogel (O100) remained relatively constant at the temperatures lower than 30 °C, and then the oleogel started to lose its crystalline phase by
2.5. Dynamic viscoelastic measurements The changes in the dynamic viscoelastic properties of dough samples by butter replacement with oleogel were investigated using a Discovery HR-2 rheometer (TA Instrument, New Castle, DE, USA). The measurement was made with 40 mm diameter parallel geometry at 25 °C and the exposed dough surface was coated with mineral oil to prevent dehydration during testing. A frequency sweep test ranging from 0.1 to 10 Hz, was carried out at a constant strain of 0.1% that was 2
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Fig. 1. Solid fat contents of butter and oleogel blends ( B100, B75/O25, B50/O50, B25/O75, O100).
Moreover, the fact that the values of tanδ (the ratio of G″ to G′) were less than 1.0 implied that the dough samples rheologically belonged to viscoelastic solids (Mezger, 2014). As shown in Fig. 2(a), the dough with butter (B100) showed higher values of G’ and G” than those with oleogel. Also, both viscoelastic moduli had a tendency to decrease as the proportion of oleogel increased. Furthermore, the increasing levels of oleogel distinctly raised the values of tanδ. Therefore, the viscous properties of the dough samples became more dominant as the levels of oleogel increased. It was previously reported that the reduction of solid fat or use of liquid oil for solid fat led to reduced dough stiffness (Baltsavias, Jurgens, & Van Vliet, 1997). Thus, the lowered viscoelastic moduli could be explained by the fact that the oleogel where liquid oils were entrapped, gave rise to greater lubrication of the dough as already mentioned in Table 1. The rheological changes of the dough samples with butter and oleogel blends were evaluated in terms of extensional properties. Table 2 presents Rmax and extensibility that indicate maximum resistance to extensional deformation and extended distance at fracture, respectively (Jang, Kim, & Lee, 2016). As presented in Table 2, higher proportions of oleogels in the blends significantly lowered the values of Rmax, indicating reduced dough strength. In the case of extensibility, the dough samples became more extensible as the levels of oleogel increased. It is recognized that the ratio of Rmax to E is a measure of the balance between elastic and viscous behavior of dough (Aamodt, Magnus, & Faergestad, 2003). The values of Rmax/E distinctly decreased with increasing amounts of oleogel, showing the rheological contribution of oleogel to the viscous nature of dough. This trend was in good agreement with the viscoelastic behaviors observed by the oscillatory dynamic measurements (Fig. 2). Loaf specific volume is considered a critical factor to assess the
melting. The trend was consistent with the results of Lim et al. (2017) who compared the solid fat contents of three different oleogels prepared with candelilla, carnauba, and beeswax. The thermo-mechanical properties of wheat flour containing butter and oleogel blends were characterized using a Mixolab. Under the condition of C1 = 1.1 ± 0.04 Nm, the C2 (protein weakening), C3 (starch gelatinization), C4 (stability of gelatinized starch granules), and C5 (starch retrogradation) (Cho, Bae, Inglett, & Lee, 2014) appeared to decrease as the levels of oleogel increased, as presented in Table 1. Thus, these results indicated that the degree of starch gelatinization and retrogradation varied depending on the ratio of butter and oleogel. It is recognized that the addition of lipids plays a role in lubricating the matrix of dough (Huschka, Challacombe, Marangoni, & Seetharaman, 2011). The blends with more amounts of oleogel seemed to be smeared over the flour particles in the dough upon mixing. Thus, compared to butter, oleogel might be effective in coating flour particles in dough, consequently less resistance against mixing (that is, lower Mixolab parameters). Furthermore, a slightly higher water absorption was needed to hydrate the wheat flour with more levels of oleogel to reach an optimal dough consistency (C1 = 1.1 Nm). However, regardless of the ratio of butter and oleogel, it took nearly similar times to reach the consistency. In addition, the changes in the dough stability by the replacement of butter with oleogel were not significantly distinct until 75% replacement with oleogel. Thus, it seemed that the use of oleogel did not negatively contribute to maintaining the dough stability. The effects of butter and oleogel blends on the dynamic viscoelastic properties of dough were investigated as shown in Fig. 2. All the dough samples showed higher values of G’ (storage modulus) than G” (loss modulus) in the frequency range tested in this study, and both moduli increased with increasing frequency, showing frequency-dependence.
Table 1 Thermo-mechanical properties of wheat flour with butter and oleogel blends (means with different letters in the same row differ significantly at p < 0.05). B100 Torque (Nm)
Water absorption (g/100 g) Dough development time (min) Dough stability (min)
C1 C2 C3 C4 C5
1.09 0.51 1.20 0.68 1.09
± ± ± ± ±
0.00a 0.00a 0.00a 0.00a 0.02a
51.3 ± 0.1d 7.80 ± 0.04a 12.7 ± 0.3 ab
B75/O25
B50/O50
B25/O75
O100
1.09 0.48 1.17 0.68 1.07
1.10 0.46 1.13 0.67 1.06
1.09 0.43 1.08 0.67 1.05
1.10 0.42 1.09 0.67 1.05
± ± ± ± ±
0.01a 0.00b 0.02 ab 0.00 ab 0.01b
52.0 ± 0.1c 8.02 ± 0.30a 13.3 ± 0.1a
3
± ± ± ± ±
0.03a 0.01c 0.00bc 0.00bc 0.01b
52.4 ± 0.0b 7.74 ± 0.26a 12.8 ± 0.3a
± ± ± ± ±
0.01a 0.01d 0.01c 0.00bc 0.00b
52.4 ± 0.2b 7.19 ± 0.33a 12.6 ± 0.3 ab
± ± ± ± ±
0.01a 0.01e 0.06c 0.01c 0.02b
52.7 ± 0.1a 7.48 ± 0.42a 12.1 ± 0.6b
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Fig. 2. Dynamic viscoelastic properties of wheat flour doughs with butter and oleogel blends: (a) G′ and G”; (b) tanδ ( B100, B75/O25, B50/O50, B25/O75, O100).
Table 2 Extensional properties of wheat flour doughs with butter and oleogel blends (means with different letters in the same row differ significantly at p < 0.05).
Rmax (mN) Extensibility (mm) Rmax/E
B100
B75/O25
B50/O50
B25/O75
O100
1254 ± 232a 26.0 ± 2.4b 48.6 ± 10.0a
1229 ± 92a 26.1 ± 2.2b 47.2 ± 2.7a
1085 ± 160 ab 26.4 ± 3.6b 41.8 ± 8.8a
996 ± 69bc 30.9 ± 2.9a 32.5 ± 3.0b
867 ± 85c 32.1 ± 2.6a 27.2 ± 3.4b
Table 3 Specific volume of breads with butter and oleogel blends (means with different letters in the same row differ significantly at p < 0.05).
Specific volume (mL/g)
B100
B75/O25
B50/O50
B25/O75
O100
4.78 ± 0.28a
4.81 ± 0.11a
4.84 ± 0.07a
4.75 ± 0.12a
4.51 ± 0.07b
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Table 4 Textural properties of breads with butter and oleogel blends (means with different letters in the same row differ significantly at p < 0.05).
Hardness (N) Adhesiveness (N·mm) Springiness Cohesiveness Chewiness (N·mm)
B100
B75/O25
B50/O50
B25/O75
O100
2.86 ± 0.17b −0.03 ± 0.02a 0.91 ± 0.01a 0.69 ± 0.02 ab 1.79 ± 0.06b
2.55 ± 0.13c −0.04 ± 0.02a 0.91 ± 0.01a 0.7 ± 0.01a 1.61 ± 0.07c
2.28 ± 0.10c −0.03 ± 0.00a 0.91 ± 0.01a 0.69 ± 0.01 ab 1.43 ± 0.09c
3.01 ± 0.33b −0.05 ± 0.04a 0.91 ± 0.03a 0.67 ± 0.01bc 1.84 ± 0.19b
3.71 ± 0.26a −0.07 ± 0.03a 0.90 ± 0.01a 0.66 ± 0.02c 2.18 ± 0.11a
Table 5 Fatty acid composition of breads with butter and oleogel blends (means with different letters in the same row differ significantly at p < 0.05). Fatty acid (g/100 g)
B100
C4:0 C6:0 C8:0 C10:0 C12:0 C14:0 C16:0 C18:0 C18:1 C18:2 C18:3 C20:0
1.34 1.55 1.10 2.87 4.21 11.9 34.1 13.7 23.7 5.33 – 0.18
SFA USFA SFA/USFA
71.0 ± 0.6a 29.0 ± 0.6e 2.44 ± 0.06a
± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ±
0.14a 0.09a 0.03a 0.04a 0.05a 0.1a 0.4a 0.2a 0.6e 0.01e
± 0.00e
B75/O25
B50/O50
B25/O75
O100
1.04 1.19 0.82 2.13 3.07 8.73 30.2 10.5 28.1 13.9 – 0.36
0.76 0.86 0.57 1.48 2.10 6.08 27.0 7.71 30.8 21.2 1.03 0.49
– – – 0.79 1.15 3.52 23.9 5.17 35.0 28.5 1.28 0.62
– – – – – 1.07 20.7 2.76 38.5 34.7 1.51 0.75
± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ±
0.04b 0.02b 0.00b 0.00b 0.01b 0.02b 0.0b 0.0b 0.0d 0.1d
± 0.00d
58.0 ± 0.1b 42.0 ± 0.1d 1.38 ± 0.00b
± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ±
0.03c 0.03c 0.01c 0.01c 0.01c 0.02c 0.0c 0.01c 0.1c 0.1c 0.01c 0.00c
47.1 ± 0.1c 52.9 ± 0.2c 0.89 ± 0.00c
quality attributes of bread since it is a quantitative measure of baking performance (Minarro, Albanell, Aguilar, Guamis, & Capellas, 2012). The effect of butter and oleogel blends on the specific volume of bread was thus investigated as shown in Table 3. No significant differences in the specific volume were noted from the control prepared with butter until 75% replacement with oleogel. It is well-recognized that lipids have a large impact on bread volume (Pareyt, Finnie, Putseys, & Delcour, 2011). Specifically, the incorporation of liquid oil into the bread formulation was reported to cause a smaller increase in bread volume than that of solid fat since the gas cells entrapped during mixing were surrounded and stabilized by protein-lipid crystal films (Smith & Johansson, 2004). Therefore, oleogel with solid-like properties seemed to be very effective in compensating for the role of butter in incorporating and stabilizing air cells in bread. Furthermore, the textural changes of the bread samples with butter and oleogel blends were investigated. As presented in Table 4, the bread samples prepared only with oleogel (O100), exhibited a firmer and chewier texture than the control made from butter. This result could be related to the decreased specific bread volume of the 100% oleogel sample (Table 3) that might have a dense crumb structure (Katina, Heiniö, Autio, & Poutanen, 2006). It was also noted that the bread samples (B75/O25 and B50/O50) showed lower values of hardness and chewiness probably due to their higher specific volumes although their mean values were not significantly different from the control (Table 3). In addition, the oleogel could be used to completely replace butter without significant changes in adhesiveness and springiness. The composition of total fatty acids in the bread samples was investigated, and the results are presented in Table 5. The most abundant fatty acids of the bread with butter were myristic acid (C14:0), palmitic acid (C16:0), stearic acid (C18:0), and oleic acid (C18:1). On the other hand, the breads with oleogel were high in oleic acid (C18:1) and linoleic acid (C18:2), which together accounted for approximately 73.2 g/100 g of total fatty acids. Thus, the replacement of butter with oleogel produced bread samples with lower amounts of saturated fat and higher amounts of unsaturated fat, consequently reducing the ratio of saturated and unsaturated fat from 2.44 to 0.34.
± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ±
0.00d 0.01d 0.01d 0.0d 0.01d 0.1b 0.1b 0.00b 0.00b
35.1 ± 0.1d 64.9 ± 0.1b 0.54 ± 0.00d
± ± ± ± ± ± ±
0.01e 0.0e 0.02e 0.1a 0.2a 0.00a 0.01a
25.3 ± 0.1e 74.7 ± 0.1a 0.34 ± 0.00e
4. Conclusions Wheat flour doughs tended to have lower resistance against mixing, and their rheological properties became more viscous as the level of oleogel in the blends increased. Furthermore, the replacement of butter with oleogel at up to 75% by weight produced baked breads with similar specific volume to the control bread prepared only with butter. In addition, the bread sample where butter was replaced with oleogel at 75%, did not present significant differences with the control regarding hardness. The use of oleogel for butter contributed to nutritional superiority by reducing the saturated fat content from 71.0 to 25.3 g/ 100 g. As oleogel has received considerable attention from scientific and industrial communities, the application of oleogel to sweet pan bread in this study might provide useful information on the processing performance of oleogel in yeast-leavened baked products, probably encouraging the food industry to extend the use of oleogel to a wider variety of baked goods. CRediT authorship contribution statement Daeun Jung: Conceptualization, Methodology, Investigation, Writing - original draft, Writing - review & editing. Imkyung Oh: Conceptualization, Investigation, Writing - original draft, Project administration. JaeHwan Lee: Investigation, Writing - original draft. Suyong Lee: Conceptualization, Methodology, Writing - original draft, Writing - review & editing, Supervision, Funding acquisition. Acknowledgement This research was supported by the Research Program through the Yang Young Foundation in Korea. References Aamodt, A., Magnus, E., & Faergestad, E. (2003). Effect of flour quality, ascorbic acid, and datem on dough rheological parameters and hearth loaves characteristics. Journal of Food Science, 68(7), 2201–2210.
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