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Utopia
cum-social movement, Utopia itself, a fantasy written by Sir Thomas More in 1515. Compiled by an architect and a sociologist, this welcome addition to the literature of utopian comment and criticism strikes a nice balance between the physical and social plans for Utopia. Through the illustrations, especially, we are given some good images of what Utopia might actually look like (and what it did, or does, look like in the attempts to build it for real). At the same time the commentary outlines the social and political backgrounds of the motley planners of Utopia and the societal rearrangements of which they dreamed and schemed. Another feature of this book is that it includes not only the usual,
Structured programming Edward Yourdon Managing the structured techniques Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, USA (1979) 266 pp £16.20 This is an important book and, although stated to be the second edition, it is considerably changed, even with respect to its title which was How to manage structured programming. This earlier title helps to convey what the book is about. Although the book deals largely with programming from the view point of office-type data processing systems its primary thrust deals with methods of putting together large software schemes and ways to introduce them into wofldng organizations. Structured programming as such provides a design approach to reduce difficulties with large systems. This approach emerged as an academic interest in the mid-1960s and became commercially successful through the 'New York Times Project' conducted by IBM, details of which were published in the early 1970s. The essence of structured programming is that any flowchart (procedural logic) can be derived from combinations of three basic kinds of primitive flowchart patterns ('sequence', 'IFTHENELSE' and 'DOWHILE'). Each of these has a single entry point, a single exit point, and has a blackbox activity in between. The use of such modules, although now seemingly obvious, contrasted strongly with programming practice at the time and stin tends to do so, particulady with that of traditional 'hit-and-miss' programmers.
316
well-known examples of theoretical drafts and beyond-the-fringe practical applications of Utopia, but also the various'official Utopias', of this century: the Garden Cities and suburbs, the New Towns and estates, and the architectural and planning ideas that underlay them. Significantly, the literary versions of Utopia in this century have tended to be antiUtopias, such as 1984, Brave New World and The Machine Stops. As designers and planners have become more powerful and pervasive, so the artists have become more disillusioned with 'progress', and utopianism has turned into dystopianism. Where are the positive visions that will help us re-orientate our plans?
quantitative basis come from reduction of customer interface complexity, being followed-by qualification and experience effects. The techniques of 'chief programmer team', 'structured code', 'topdown development', and 'code reviews' produce productivity improvements lying between 1.5 and 2.0. Information on program reliability is not so well documented but there is a strong indication that bugreduction gives up to 100 times more reliability. Under commercial conditions, special procedures such as structured techniques can give significant advantages over previous approaches. This is worth seeing in a more general way. Programming techniques bear a strong Nigel Cross affinity to design methods. Little has been published of a quantitative nature to suggest that specific design methods which have been advanced have any advantage over traditional approaches. Here, in the case of programming, is substantial evidence in favour of specific programming techThe values which come from niques which lends colour to the posstructured programming derive from sibility that design methods of a comthe reduction of ad hoc cross-linking parable character may indeed be of by careful interfacing between parts of value to the user. This "is a subject a large program, and from the consequent worthy of further exploration. ability to build on the basis of work by Sydney Gregory a number of people as well as to exploit already existing modules. The task of commissioning newly programmed systems is greatly eased because of the substantial reduction of 'bugs' and the easier identification of sites of error. Development of structured programming has brought with it a number of other useful techniques. An imporMichael Blakstad The risk business tant p~t of the book deals with ways Design Council, London (1979) of getting structured techniques adopted. 144 pp £3.50 Regardless of its dedication to these The author comments that this book specific techniques, this section is an is about designers and, of all people excellent example of tackling the introwithin industry, that designers are duction of technical change at the those who can be related directly to various relevant levels within an indusdecisions ~vhich affect markets, protrial organization, from top management duction, and costs, who have to cross downwards. The line of argument is boundaries to get their projects off first to throw doubt on existing methods the ground. and then to demonstrate the value of The book developed from work new ways. For this latter purpose facby the author on television prograrnmes tual information is provided from a aimed to reflect the progress of technodetailed study. Existing methods are logy. It makes no pretence of scholarly associated with high variability in effort but represents the output of a programmers' abilities, overall low thoughtful professional journalist tryproductivity, much time spent in ing to find hard facts and a dear and testing, and file perpetuation of 'bugs'. communicable outline likely tohave Bugs particularly affect large projects; an impact on a wide audience. If any programmers are not good at overcomconclusion can be drawn from the ing them; the cost of after-installation handful of stories it is that the way of service is becoming too high. the innovator is hard, but not hopeless. The most significant changes (IBM Systems 3. January 1977) on a Sydney Gregory
Design" risky business
DESIGN STUDIES
Structured programming Edward Yourdon Managing the structured techniques Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, USA (1979) 266 pp £16.20 This is an important book and, although stated to be the second edition, it is considerably changed, even with respect to its title which was How to manage structured programming. This earlier title helps to convey what the book is about. Although the book deals largely with programming from the view point of office-type data processing systems its primary thrust deals with methods of putting together large software schemes and ways to introduce them into wofldng organizations. Structured programming as such provides a design approach to reduce difficulties with large systems. This approach emerged as an academic interest in the mid-1960s and became commercially successful through the 'New York Times Project' conducted by IBM, details of which were published in the early 1970s. The essence of structured programming is that any flowchart (procedural logic) can be derived from combinations of three basic kinds of primitive flowchart patterns ('sequence', 'IFTHENELSE' and 'DOWHILE'). Each of these has a single entry point, a single exit point, and has a blackbox activity in between. The use of such modules, although now seemingly obvious, contrasted strongly with programming practice at the time and stin tends to do so, particulady with that of traditional 'hit-and-miss' programmers.
316
well-known examples of theoretical drafts and beyond-the-fringe practical applications of Utopia, but also the various'official Utopias', of this century: the Garden Cities and suburbs, the New Towns and estates, and the architectural and planning ideas that underlay them. Significantly, the literary versions of Utopia in this century have tended to be antiUtopias, such as 1984, Brave New World and The Machine Stops. As designers and planners have become more powerful and pervasive, so the artists have become more disillusioned with 'progress', and utopianism has turned into dystopianism. Where are the positive visions that will help us re-orientate our plans?
quantitative basis come from reduction of customer interface complexity, being followed-by qualification and experience effects. The techniques of 'chief programmer team', 'structured code', 'topdown development', and 'code reviews' produce productivity improvements lying between 1.5 and 2.0. Information on program reliability is not so well documented but there is a strong indication that bugreduction gives up to 100 times more reliability. Under commercial conditions, special procedures such as structured techniques can give significant advantages over previous approaches. This is worth seeing in a more general way. Programming techniques bear a strong Nigel Cross affinity to design methods. Little has been published of a quantitative nature to suggest that specific design methods which have been advanced have any advantage over traditional approaches. Here, in the case of programming, is substantial evidence in favour of specific programming techThe values which come from niques which lends colour to the posstructured programming derive from sibility that design methods of a comthe reduction of ad hoc cross-linking parable character may indeed be of by careful interfacing between parts of value to the user. This "is a subject a large program, and from the consequent worthy of further exploration. ability to build on the basis of work by Sydney Gregory a number of people as well as to exploit already existing modules. The task of commissioning newly programmed systems is greatly eased because of the substantial reduction of 'bugs' and the easier identification of sites of error. Development of structured programming has brought with it a number of other useful techniques. An imporMichael Blakstad The risk business tant p~t of the book deals with ways Design Council, London (1979) of getting structured techniques adopted. 144 pp £3.50 Regardless of its dedication to these The author comments that this book specific techniques, this section is an is about designers and, of all people excellent example of tackling the introwithin industry, that designers are duction of technical change at the those who can be related directly to various relevant levels within an indusdecisions ~vhich affect markets, protrial organization, from top management duction, and costs, who have to cross downwards. The line of argument is boundaries to get their projects off first to throw doubt on existing methods the ground. and then to demonstrate the value of The book developed from work new ways. For this latter purpose facby the author on television prograrnmes tual information is provided from a aimed to reflect the progress of technodetailed study. Existing methods are logy. It makes no pretence of scholarly associated with high variability in effort but represents the output of a programmers' abilities, overall low thoughtful professional journalist tryproductivity, much time spent in ing to find hard facts and a dear and testing, and file perpetuation of 'bugs'. communicable outline likely tohave Bugs particularly affect large projects; an impact on a wide audience. If any programmers are not good at overcomconclusion can be drawn from the ing them; the cost of after-installation handful of stories it is that the way of service is becoming too high. the innovator is hard, but not hopeless. The most significant changes (IBM Systems 3. January 1977) on a Sydney Gregory
Design" risky business
DESIGN STUDIES