Vaccine Preventable Diseases and Vaccination Policy for Indigenous Populations

Vac c i n e P re v e n t a b l e Diseases and Vac c i n a t i o n P o l i c y f o r In d i g e n o u s Populations Robert I. Menzies,

MPH

a

, Rosalyn J. Singleton,

MD, MPH

b,c,

*

KEYWORDS  Vaccine-preventable disease  Indigenous population  Vaccination strategy  Health policy

There are many similarities between the historical experiences, current social situations, and health status of indigenous people in the 4 English-speaking developed countries of North America and the Pacific, where they are all now minority populations. In the United States, American Indians and Alaska Native (AI/AN) people make up 1.5% of the population overall1 while Alaska Native (AN) people make up 19.0% of the Alaska population2; in Canada the First Nations and Inuit people constitute 3.2%3; and in Australia, Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people are 2.4% of the population.4 Finally, in New Zealand, Maori make up 14% of the population.5 Indigenous populations have experienced European colonization, loss of traditional lands, devastation from introduced infections,6,7 cultural marginalization, and reduced access to health services. Although vaccines have contributed to the reduction or elimination of disease disparities for many infections, indigenous people continue to have higher morbidity and mortality from many chronic and infectious diseases compared with the general populations in their countries.8–11 This review summarizes the available data on the epidemiology of vaccine-preventable diseases in indigenous populations in these 4 countries in the context of the vaccination strategies used and their impact, with the aim of identifying successful strategies with the potential for wider implementation.

a

The National Centre for Immunisation Research and Surveillance of Vaccine Preventable Diseases (NCIRS), Sydney, Australia b Arctic Investigation Program–CDC, 4055 Tudor Center Drive, Anchorage, AK 99508, USA c Alaska Native Tribal Health Consortium, D-CHS Clinical and Research Services, 4315 Diplomacy Drive, Anchorage, AK 99508 * Corresponding author. Alaska Native Tribal Health Consortium, D-CHS Clinical and Research Services, 4315 Diplomacy Drive, Anchorage, AK 99508. E-mail address: [email protected] (R.J. Singleton). Pediatr Clin N Am 56 (2009) 1263–1283 doi:10.1016/j.pcl.2009.09.006 0031-3955/09/$ – see front matter. Published by Elsevier Inc.

pediatric.theclinics.com

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METHODS

Information for this review was collected systematically through searches of Medline and government websites from the United States, Canada, Australia, and New Zealand. A major focus of this report is nationally recommended and funded vaccination schedules. Nationally recommended vaccines are funded in New Zealand12; and in the United States, all nationally recommended childhood vaccines are funded for all indigenous children, through the Vaccines for Children Program.13 In Australia, most nationally recommended childhood vaccines have been funded,14 whereas in Canada recommendations are made at a national level, but funding and delivery of vaccines is the responsibility of provinces.15 The term ‘‘indigenous’’ in this report refers to the range of peoples who inhabited these countries before European colonization, that is, AI/AN, First Nations and Metis people of Canada, Canadian Inuit, Australian Aboriginal people, Torres Strait Islanders, and New Zealand Maori. HAEMOPHILUS INFLUENZAE TYPE B DISEASE (INVASIVE) Epidemiology

The highest rates of invasive Haemophilus influenzae type b (Hib) disease reported in the prevaccine era were in indigenous populations (Table 1), characterized by a younger age of onset32,33 and rarity of epiglottitis.32 Vaccination Schedules

The available Hib vaccines have differences relevant to the specific epidemiology in indigenous populations. The polyribosylribitol phosphate Neisseria meningitidis outer membrane protein vaccine (PRP-OMP) gives significant immune response following the first dose at 2 months of age, whereas the other conjugated vaccines require at least 2 doses to reach similar levels.34,35 PRP-OMP is therefore frequently recommended for indigenous populations because of their earlier average age of Hib disease.31 PRP-OMP does not achieve as high a peak antibody concentration after a full course,36 suggesting that it may have less impact on nasopharyngeal carriage of Hib compared with other vaccines. However, although high carriage rates have been shown in highly vaccinated populations in Alaska,37 they have not been found in highly vaccinated White Mountain Apache or Navajo populations.38 The reemergence of Hib disease in Alaska in 1996, following replacement of PRP-OMP by a DiphtheriaTetanus-whole cell Pertussis (DTPw)-HbOC vaccine, highlighted the importance of early immunity to Hib in indigenous children.34 Control of Hib disease improved after reintroduction of PRP-OMP into Alaska in 2001. The vaccination schedules used in the 4 countries are shown in Table 1. All countries with the exception of Canada have had a specific role for PRP-OMP vaccine. However, this changed in 2008 due to the shortage of PRP-OMP vaccine, with PRP-OMP being prioritized for use in AI/AN children in the United States,24 and in indigenous children in the Northern Territory in Australia, and non-OMP recommended for all New Zealand children.18 Disease Impact

Universal conjugate Hib vaccine programs for infants have resulted in spectacular decreases in the reported incidence of invasive Hib disease for all children younger than 5 years in all 4 countries, by 98% by 1995 in the United States,38 more than 99% in Canada by 2000,15 95% by 2000 in Australia,16 and 92% in New Zealand by 1995 to 2000.27 Although the declines in indigenous populations were also considerable (eg, 95% decrease in Alaska Native children), the relative burden in indigenous

Vaccination Policy for Indigenous Populations

Table 1 Haemophilus influenzae type b vaccines currently used for indigenous infants, and disease incidence in indigenous children younger than 5 years, before and after widespread infant vaccination Cases Per 100,000 Per Year, Age <5 Years Country

Hib Vaccine

Prevaccine

Postvaccine

Australia

PRP-OMP/Othera

278–529,d 6 times higher than nonindigenous16

4.3f (3–5 times higher than nonindigenous)

Canada

PRP-Tb,17

N/A

8.3,g 17.0h (8–15 times higher than nonindigenous)

New Zealand

PRP-Tb,18

United States

28e (38 for all children <5) c

PRP-OMP/Other

19–21

250–500, 5–10 times higher than nonindigenous

4.1i 5.4,j 6.0,k 9l (>5 times higher than nonindigenous)

Abbreviation: N/A Not available. a Polyribosylribitol phosphate Neisseria meningitidis outer membrane protein conjugate vaccine (PRP-OMP) was funded for all indigenous infants from 1993 to 200522; from November 2005, it was funded only for indigenous infants in Queensland, the Northern Territory, South Australia, and Western Australia, and from October 2009 OMP vaccines were no longer available due to an international vaccine shortage. Non-OMP vaccines were used in other jurisdictions. b Polyribosylribitol phosphate tetanus toxoid conjugate vaccine (PRP-T). In New Zealand, changed from PRP-OMP in March 2008. c National universal recommendations are for either PRP-OMP or other vaccines23; PRP-OMP is recommended for AI/AN populations.24 d Northern Territory 1985 to 198825 and 1989 to 1993.26 e Based on hospitalizations for Haemophilus influenzae meningitis and epiglottitis, notification data not available.27 f 2003 to 2006.28 g 2000 to 2004.17 h 2001 to 2007 Northern Canada (Arctic Investigations Program—CDC, International Circumpolar Surveillance, unpublished, 2009). i 2006 to 2007.29,30 j Alaska 2001 to 2004.31 k Alaska 2001 to 2007 (Arctic Investigations Program—CDC, International Circumpolar Surveillance, unpublished, 2009). l 9 (95% confidence interval: 3, 18) Navajo and White Mountain Apache, 2006 to 2008. (Katherine O’Brien, personal communication, 2009).

children has remained several orders of magnitude higher than the general population in United States AI38 and AN children,31 Australia39 and New Zealand,27 and Canada.40 Possible explanations for the continuing higher rates include persistent nasopharyngeal colonization34 (possibly due to environmental factors such as crowding and lack of running water), poorer immunologic responses due to environmental factors,41 and delayed vaccination.37 Recent data suggest that in the New Zealand,29,30 the United States,31,38 Australia,39 and Canada,9,40 indigenous Hib disease incidence remains higher than that of comparator populations, although the absolute numbers of cases are small (see Table 1). HEPATITIS A Epidemiology

In the absence of funded vaccination programs, indigenous populations experienced higher rates of hepatitis A in all 4 countries,42–44 with the possible exception of

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New Zealand (Table 2). The epidemic patterns ranged from being hyperendemic in young children,49 to regular community-wide epidemics in older children and adults, including deaths.44,46,50–52 Vaccination Schedules

Nationally funded hepatitis A vaccination programs are in place only in the United States and Australia. In the United States a recommendation for high-rate populations, including AI/AN children, was implemented in 199653 followed by a universal childhood recommendation in 2006.23 In Australia, hepatitis A was recommended in 2005 for indigenous children in high prevalence areas (see Table 2).54 Local or regional programs targeting children in regions with large indigenous populations have previously been implemented in Canada9 and Australia,50 and the Province of Quebec currently funds universal hepatitis A (with hepatitis B as Twinrix) immunization in primary schools.55 Disease Impact

Nationally and regionally funded vaccination programs, whether targeted solely at indigenous populations or the broader population, have proved very effective in reducing hepatitis A in indigenous populations. In the United States, since 2001 rates among AI/ANs have been lower than or similar to those for other races.56 Programs targeting Indigenous people in specific geographic regions have been very successful in reducing disease incidence in Canada9 and Australia50 (see Table 2), including reductions in nontarget populations (ie, nonindigenous children).50 HEPATITIS B Epidemiology

In nonindigenous populations the predominant modes of hepatitis B virus transmission were in adulthood, via sexual or parenteral means. In contrast, in indigenous Table 2 Funded hepatitis A vaccination for indigenous children, and disease incidence in indigenous populations before and after widespread infant vaccination

Country

Hepatitis A Vaccination Program

Australia

Yearly All-Age Incidence Prevaccine

Postvaccine

High prevalence areasa

110/100,000d 4 times nonindigenous rate45

4/100,000e,45

Canada

Noneb

12 times higher than nonindigenous9

N/A

New Zealand

None18

0.8/100,000 (2.0 for all races/ethnicities combined)29,30

N/A

United States

Universal, 1 year of agec

3–10 times higher than non-AI/AN46

0.5/100,000, no different to rates in non-AI/AN47

a 1999 to 2005, indigenous children in north Queensland only45; from November 2005, indigenous children age 1 to 5 years in Queensland, the Northern Territory, South Australia, and Western Australia.22 b Funded vaccination in Quebec Province only, primary school children in fourth grade.48 c From 2006. Previously all children in states, counties or areas with notification rates R20/100,000 population, from 1999.47 d North Queensland, 1996 to 1999.45 e North Queensland, 2000 to 2003.45

Vaccination Policy for Indigenous Populations

populations infection usually occurred in early childhood, and though largely asymptomatic, led to high rates of chronic carriage and hepatic cancer.57 High rates of infection, chronic carriage, and hepatocellular carcinoma have been reported from indigenous populations in all 4 countries, especially among AN people in whom 5% to 29% were hepatitis B surface antibody positive,58,59 before routine vaccination programs (Table 3). There seem to be some exceptions in Canada, where rates in First Nations populations were similar to nonindigenous rates, and a less virulent hepatitis B strain among Inuit was postulated.67 Vaccination Schedules

In Alaska a vaccine trial was conducted in 1981 to assess adequate response to the vaccine in AN,68 which was followed by a comprehensive vaccination program of AN in 1984.69 This trial included screening of pregnant women, routine infant vaccination at birth, and an extensive catch-up program. Elsewhere in the United States and in Canada, Australia, and New Zealand, vaccination strategies initially targeted infants of carrier mothers or those from racial or risk groups from the mid-1980s.70–73 Following the limited success of these targeted approaches, universal infant or adolescent vaccination was adopted, first in New Zealand71 and the United States (see Table 3).63 Disease Impact

The comprehensive vaccination program in AN people was highly successful in preventing disease in all age groups.68,74 However, other targeted programs, which were often conducted in a less intensive manner or in regions where high-risk populations were more difficult to target, had limited impact.75,76 Universal infant or adolescent vaccination programs have been very successful in preventing disease

Table 3 Funded hepatitis B vaccination, disease incidence, and prevalence in indigenous populations, before and after widespread infant vaccination Indigenous Incidence/Prevalence

a b c d e

Country

Vaccination Program

Prevaccine

Postvaccine

Australia

Universal infant and adolescent catch-up22

5%–30% carriers,60 HCCb (10 times higher than nonindigenous)

Indigenous <5 y 0.6/ 100,000, nonindigenous 0.3/ 100,000c

Canada

Universal preadolescent and infanta

Inuit 5% carriers (20 times higher than nonindigenous First Nations 0.3%–3%, same as nonindigenous)15,61

0 casesd

New Zealand

Universal infant and <16 y catch-up18

7% carriers, HCC 10 times higher than nonindigenous62

Maori all age 1.6/ 100,000, European 1.5/100,000e

United States

Universal infant and %18 y catch-up63

5%–29% carriers57–59

84% decline, 0–18 y63

Preadolescent programs in all provinces, infant programs in 6 of 13 provinces.64 Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC), Northern Territory Aboriginals.65 2003 to 2006.28 British Columbia, 2001.66 2007.30

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in vaccinated indigenous age groups, while higher incidence continues in young adults.28,68 A significant decline in national indigenous notification rates has been reported in the United States77 and one Canadian province, and low hepatitis B incidence rates were reported post vaccination in Australia and New Zealand (see Table 3). HUMAN PAPILLOMAVIRUS Epidemiology

Mortality from cervical cancer is at least 5 times higher in indigenous than in nonindigenous women in Australia and New Zealand, and the United States Northern Plains (Table 4) In Australia there is also a strong gradient toward higher mortality in remote compared with metropolitan indigenous women. Although the disparity in cancer incidence is lower than that for mortality (approximately twofold higher in indigenous women), diagnoses in indigenous women are more often at a later stage of tumor development. There is no clear difference in rates of human papilloma virus (HPV) infection83 or cervical intraepithelial neoplasia79 in indigenous compared with nonindigenous Australian women, suggesting the major contributing factor to higher mortality is access to the highly successful cervical screening programs.79 In the United States, cervical cancer incidence is also up to 3 times higher in indigenous AI/AN women than in non-Hispanic white women, but rates vary dramatically by region.84 Vaccination Schedules

Two vaccines have recently been licensed in most developed countries, both of which contain the 2 HPV types responsible for at least 70% of cervical cancer (16 and 18), while one also includes types 6 and 11, which cause 90% of genital warts. Funded

Table 4 Currently funded human papillomavirus vaccination programs for adolescents, and disease incidence before and after widespread vaccination

a

Cervical Cancer Mortality Rate, Indigenous Women

Country

Funded HPV Vaccination Program

Australia

Yesa

Canada

Yes48

New Zealand

Yesb

10.9/100,000, >4 times higher than in non-Maori womend

N/A

United States

Yes78

15.6/100,000, 5 times higher than in nonindigenous womene 1.8/100,000, similar to nonindigenousf

N/A

Prevaccine

Postvaccine

9.9/100,000, >4 times higher than in nonindigenous womenc

N/A

N/A

Females age 10 to 13 years with catch-up to 27 years, from 2007. Vaccine also licensed but not funded for adolescent males.22 b Females age 12 years, with catch-up to 18 years, from 2008.18 c Age 20 to 69 years, 2001 to 2004.79 d 1996 to 2000.80 e 1989 to 1993, Northern Plains.81 f 1994 to 1998, Alaska.82

Vaccination Policy for Indigenous Populations

universal vaccination programs for adolescent girls commenced in the United States in 2006, in Australia in 2007,22 and in New Zealand in 2008.18 Disease Impact

No data on disease impact are yet available. INFLUENZA Epidemiology

Influenza hospitalization rates have been reported as severalfold higher in indigenous than in nonindigenous children in Australia.28,85 In the United States, numerous reports have noted high attack rates and high burden of morbidity and mortality associated with influenza outbreaks in AI/AN, and a greater burden of pneumonia and influenza mortality compared with the United States population.86 The role of influenza as a major cause of morbidity in children,87 the high frequency of secondary pneumonia,87 and high rates of morbidity and mortality due to pneumonia in indigenous populations, are well documented and indicate the importance of influenza as a cause of vaccine-preventable disease.8,11 Vaccination Schedules

The United States recently expanded universal influenza recommendations to include children 6 months to 18 years,88 while influenza remains recommended in Canada for children age 6 to 23 months.89 (Table 5). In New Zealand influenza vaccine is funded for children with high-risk medical conditions, while in Australia this is recommended but not funded. All 4 countries have funded vaccination for the elderly, with varying age

Table 5 Currently funded influenza vaccination programs, and hospitalization or death rates due to influenza or pneumonia in indigenous people, before and after widespread vaccination

b c d e

Hospitalization or Death Rates Due to Influenza and/or Pneumonia Prevaccine

Postvaccine

Australia

Indigenous R50 y Indigenous 15–49 y with risk factors All R65 y22

N/A

Hospitalizations: 46/100,000 (3.0 times higher than nonindigenous)d

Canada

All R65 y, <65 y with risk factorsa All 6–23 mo89

N/A

Cause of 6% of deaths aged R65 ye

New Zealand

All R65 y, <65 y with risk factors18

Hospitalizations: Maori 9.5/100,000, nonindigenous 7.3/ 100,000b

N/A

United States

All R50 y All 6 mo to 18 y88

Deaths: 22/100,000 (1.5 times United States all races rate)c

N/A

Country

a

Funded Influenza Program

Eligibility expanded to R55 years in Nunavut province. 1990 to 1999 all ages, influenza only, pneumonia not included.12 1987 to 1996.11 2003 to 2006, age R50 years.28 1999.9

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cutoffs, and including young adults with medical risk factors in Canada and New Zealand. Programs specific to indigenous adults are in place in Australia (age 50–64 years and 15–49 years with risk factors), and one Canadian Territory with a large indigenous population has extended age eligibility (Nunavut, 55–64 years). Disease Impact

Data are generally not available comparing influenza and pneumonia rates in indigenous populations before and after immunization programs. However, where data are available, influenza and pneumonia remain significant causes of morbidity and mortality, particularly in indigenous adults (see Table 5). PNEUMOCOCCAL DISEASE (INVASIVE) Epidemiology

Invasive pneumococcal disease (IPD) rates are highest in young children and the elderly. The rates in indigenous populations in central Australia and certain indigenous groups in the United States (AN, White Mountain Apache, and Navajo people) were among the highest ever reported for both children and adults90–92 (Table 6), but case-fatality rates were about the same as in the nonindigenous population.99 Vaccination Schedules

The 23-valent polysaccharide pneumococcal vaccine (23 vs PPV) includes the serotypes of an estimated 90% of IPD cases internationally106; however, as with other Table 6 Currently funded pneumococcal vaccination programs for indigenous children, and disease incidence before and after widespread vaccination

a

Cases Per 100,000 Per Year, Indigenous Children

Country

Funded Childhood Pneumococcal Vaccination Program

Prevaccine

Postvaccine

Australia

Yesa

180–2053 (up to 15 times higher than nonindigenous)d

73i

Canada

Yesb

225 (0 nonindigenous cases)e

39f

New Zealand

Yes18

127 (107 for all races/ ethnicities <2)g

N/A

United States

Yesc

300–1820 (18–52 times higher than United States non-natives)h

6,j 244,k 120l

Indigenous infants from 2001, all infants from 2005.22 Recommended from 2002,15 funded in all provinces by 2005.64 c From 2000, with catch-up for AI/AN and other high-risk children <5 years.93 d Indigenous children <2 years of age, central Australia 1985 to 1990,92 Northern Territory 1994 to 1998,94 Western Australia 1993.95 e 2001, North Canadian indigenous children.96 f Alberta indigenous children 0 to 6 years, 2006.97 g 1984 to 1992.98 h <2 years old, White mountain Apache 1983 to 1990,99 Alaskan natives 1980 to 1986,100 Navajo 1996.101 i Australian indigenous children <2 years, 2006.102 j AI/AN children <5 years, 2003.103 k AN children <2 years, 2004 to 2006.104 l White Mountain Apache children <5 years, 2001 to 2006.105 b

Vaccination Policy for Indigenous Populations

polysaccharide vaccines, 23vPPV is poorly immunogenic in children younger than 2 years and has no impact on mucosal carriage.106 The currently licensed 7-valent pneumococcal conjugate vaccine (7vPCV) is highly efficacious against IPD in infants, and also has some effectiveness against pneumonia and acute otitis media.107,108 However, the proportion of IPD that was caused by vaccine serotypes in the prevaccine era, and was therefore vaccine preventable, was generally lower in indigenous (67%–77%) than in nonindigenous children (84%–86%).91,92,109,110 New expanded valency 10-valent and 13-valent pneumococcal conjugate vaccines are on the verge of licensure in several countries. Funded universal infant conjugate vaccination programs are in place in all 4 countries. Such a program was first introduced in the United States with a 4-dose series in 2000, followed by Canada from 2002 (used in a 4-dose series in most provinces and in the indigenous population) and Australia (a 3-dose primary series followed by 23vPPV at 18 months in Aboriginal children from 2001, and a 3-dose primary series for other Australian children from 2005), and a 4-dose schedule was introduced in New Zealand in mid 2008 (see Table 6). Disease Impact

The impact of infant conjugate vaccination programs on vaccine serotype IPD in indigenous children has been impressive; however, increases in nonvaccine serotypes have limited the impact of 7vPCV vaccination in some populations. Before use of 7vPCV vaccine the incidence of IPD in the United States among AI/AN children in the southwest and Alaska was 5 to 24 times higher than the incidence among other United States children.91,99,105 Since the routine use of PCV there has been a virtual elimination of vaccine serotype IPD among previously high-risk AI/AN children from the Southwest United States and Alaska.90,104,111 Despite the tremendous effectiveness of 7vPCV, Southwest and Alaska AI/AN children have continued to have disproportionate rates of IPD due to nonvaccine serotypes. Whereas the rate of nonvaccine serotypes has been stable in most populations including Southwest AI children, in AN children an increase in the annual rate of nonvaccine serotype disease led to a doubling of the rate of IPD between the periods 2001 to 2003 and 2004 to 2006.111 In Australia, 5 to 7 years after commencement of the targeted program 7vPCV vaccine serotype, IPD had decreased by more than 80% in indigenous children younger than 2 years and rates of nonvaccine serotype IPD were unchanged.95,102,112 Otitis media has been identified as a significant cause of morbidity among indigenous children from the United States and Australia, and approximately one-third of otitis media is mediated by Streptococcus pneumoniae. Despite the low efficacy in clinical trials, greater serotype diversity, greater potential for serotype switching, and early colonization,113 a significant decrease in otitis media visits has been identified in the general child populations in the United States114 and Australia,115 and in AI populations in the United States, but decreases have not been observed in AN116 or remote Australian Aboriginal children.117 Available regional data on IPD in Canadian indigenous children continues to show disparity in IPD (at least fourfold higher than the general population in Alberta).118 ROTAVIRUS Epidemiology

Diarrhea is a leading cause of morbidity and mortality in developing countries, and even in the United States results in 50,000 to 70,000 hospitalizations per year.119 In the period 1980 to 1982, the rate of diarrhea-associated hospitalizations in AI/AN

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children younger than 5 years was nearly twice as high as the United States rate.120 By 2000 to 2004, this disparity had disappeared in the under-5 age group, whereas in infants the rate remained nearly twice as high in AI/AN compared with all United States infants.121 In Australia it is estimated that 1 in 27 children are hospitalized with rotavirus by the age of 5 years, and in indigenous children the rates are 3 to 5 times higher, occur at a younger age, and have a longer duration of stay compared with nonindigenous children (Table 7).22 Vaccination Schedules

A live pentavalent rotavirus vaccine was tested in a large multicenter trial that included AI/AN children from the Navajo and Apache reservations in the United States. Among Navajo and Apache infants, the vaccine had 98% efficacy (95% confidence interval: 88.3%, 100%) against severe rotavirus disease.122 Rotavirus vaccine was licensed in the United States in 2006 and is recommended for all United States children. In Australia vaccination was funded for all children in the Northern Territory in 2006 and nationally from 2007.123,124 The vaccine is licensed in Canada for infants 6 to 32 weeks old; however, it is not funded by any Provincial/Territorial programs.125 The vaccine is not part of the New Zealand Immunization Schedule.18 Disease Impact

At this stage data on the impact of vaccination are limited. During the second season of vaccine use, rotavirus activity in the United States was substantially delayed in onset and diminished in magnitude compared with the 15 previous years.126 OTHER VACCINE-PREVENTABLE DISEASES

Indigenous children historically experienced higher measles and pertussis morbidity than the general child populations of their respective countries. For measles, pertussis, and meningococcal disease, vaccination strategies have not been specifically targeted to indigenous populations. Universal 2-dose childhood vaccination for measles has been implemented in all 4 countries,14,127–129 and incidence has been reduced to local outbreaks related to imported cases.15,130 For pertussis, universal childhood and, in some cases, adolescent programs are in place.14,127–129 Pertussis epidemics continue to occur due to waning vaccine-induced immunity, and there

Table 7 Currently funded rotavirus vaccination programs for indigenous children, and disease incidence before and after widespread vaccination

a

Hospitalizations Per Year, Indigenous Children

Country

Funded Rotavirus Vaccination Program

Australia

Yes22

Canada

No48

New Zealand

No18

N/A

United States

Yes78

26.2/1000 (2 times higher than nonindigenous)b

Prevaccine

Postvaccine

1–3/1000 (4–8 times higher than nonindigenous)a

N/A N/A N/A

Age <1 year, 1993 to 2002, rotavirus gastroenteritis (ICD9 008.61, ICD10 A08.0) as principal or contributing cause of hospitalization. b Age <1 year, 2000 to 2004, diarrhea hospitalizations.119

Vaccination Policy for Indigenous Populations

have been reports of higher mortality,131 hospitalization,132 and disease notification rates9 in indigenous infants, possibly related to delayed vaccination.132 Universal childhood vaccination for meningococcal disease has been introduced in Canada129 and Australia,14 and for adolescents in the United States.133 In New Zealand, a national 15-year epidemic of a serotype B clone was particularly focused in Maori and Pacific Island children, and led to the development of a clone-specific vaccine and national vaccination program for all children younger than 18 years.134 A national vaccination program for all younger than 20 years commenced in 2004 and ended in 2008, following a substantial decline in reported cases to slightly higher than preepidemic levels.135 VACCINATION COVERAGE

In the United States, analysis of the National Immunization Survey (NIS) data from 2000 to 2005 showed that AI/AN children overall had lower immunization rates than white children at 24 months; however, in 2007 the NIS reported comparable coverage rates in AI/AN (83% AI/AN vs 78% white children fully vaccinated for DTaP, IPV, Hib, Hep B).136 Although national data on immunization coverage is unavailable for Canada, in the Alberta region coverage for First Nations children is 30% lower than rates for the general Alberta population.118 In Australia, vaccination coverage in indigenous children was in the past substantially lower than in nonindigenous children.28 In more recent years, however, the disparities are less pronounced. In 2007 coverage was 7% lower in indigenous than in nonindigenous children at 12 months of age (83% vs 90% fully vaccinated for DTP, IPV, Hib, Hep B), due to less timely vaccination of indigenous children, which has been frequently reported.137,138 At 24 months of age vaccine coverage in indigenous children was no different to that in nonindigenous children (91% vs 92% fully vaccinated for doses of DTP, IPV, Hib, Hep B, and MMR, 2007).28 Coverage for vaccines recommended only for indigenous children is consistently lower than for that universally recommended. For example, in Australia only 45% of indigenous children received PPV23 and less than 30% received 2 doses of hepatitis A vaccine within 6 months of the due date, in contrast to 83% vaccinated with DTP, IPV, Hib, and Hep B at 12 months.28 Coverage in Maori children was reported as lower than other racial or ethnic groups in 2005 (69% Maori vs 77% all children fully vaccinated with DTaP, polio, Hib, Hep B, MMR at 2 years of age), and timeliness was also poorer, with 29% of Maori compared with 39% of all children age 2 to 3 years receiving all doses on time.139 SUMMARY

Important lessons and points of continuity emerge from this review that are of relevance to immunization programs for indigenous people in developed countries. There is a higher incidence and earlier age of onset for almost all diseases in all countries, consistent with adverse environmental factors, including household crowding,2,140 low income,11 lack of running water,141 high rates of chronic lung disease, and other medical risk factors.142 Some differences in immunologic responses to vaccines have been demonstrated in indigenous people in some instances, including hepatitis B143 and Hib.41,144 However, the causes of these different responses are not entirely clear, as in at least one study the difference was present at 1 year of age but not at birth, suggesting a role for the environmental conditions in immunologic responses.41 In addition, several vaccine trials have demonstrated high efficacy in indigenous children, no different to that in other populations.145–148 Given the lack of racial links

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but similarities in cultural and economic situations between indigenous people in North America, Australia, and New Zealand, the cause of the greater burden of vaccinepreventable diseases is much more likely to be related to adverse living conditions (poverty, overcrowding, lack of running water, poor indoor air quality) than genetic factors. Therefore, the evidence strongly supports the conclusion that, even in the presence of higher prevaccination rates of morbidity in indigenous children, vaccines have been highly effective and immunization programs have contributed to correcting health inequity for indigenous people. Although the causes of disease disparity are most likely to be socioeconomic, vaccines have contributed to the reduction or elimination of disease disparities while socioeconomic inequities have remained. There do seem, however, to be some policy options that are more effective than others in achieving high population coverage and disease control (Table 8). Nationally

Table 8 Grading of immunization recommendations

a b

Grading of Recommendation

Quality of Supporting Evidence

Intervention

Recommendation

Nationally funded universal vaccination (eg, pertussis, measles, Hib, S pneumoniae, hepatitis B)

1. Highly effective in vaccinated individuals 2. Highly effective in achieving high population coverage and disease control

Strong

Higha

Strong

Moderateb

Nationally funded targeted universal vaccination in geographic regions of high incidence (eg, hepatitis A)

1. Highly effective in vaccinated individuals 2. Highly effective in achieving high population coverage and disease control

Strong

Higha

Strong

Moderateb

Funded targeted vaccination of indigenous people in specific geographic areas

Highly effective in vaccinated individuals Variable effectiveness in achieving high population coverage and disease control

Strong

Higha

Moderateb

Moderateb

Nationally funded targeted vaccination of indigenous people

Highly effective in vaccinated individuals Low effectiveness in achieving high population coverage and disease control

Strong

Higha

Moderateb

Moderateb

Pre-licensure placebo-controlled efficacy trials and post-licensure surveillance. Post-licensure surveillance.

Vaccination Policy for Indigenous Populations

funded universal vaccination programs are clearly the most effective way of reducing disease in indigenous populations, as well as reducing racial disparities. The most successful of these have been for viral diseases in which strain variations are not important and herd immunity is high, such as measles and hepatitis B. For the bacterial infections, significant decreases in disease burden have also occurred. However, strain variations (pneumococcal disease), heavy nasopharyngeal colonization of young infants (pneumococcal and Hib disease), low vaccine effectiveness in adults with high risk factor prevalence (polysaccharide pneumococcal vaccine), and waning immunity (pertussis), have been associated with continuing or widening of disparities between indigenous and nonindigenous populations. Where the conditions are not ideal, environmental factors as well as lower coverage or delayed vaccination have limited program effectiveness. In these situations it seems likely that new, more effective vaccines and vaccine delivery will be needed to achieve further progress. Universal vaccination programs are not always possible. The cost-effectiveness of universal vaccination programs can be limited by low disease rates in nonindigenous populations, especially for expensive vaccines. On the other hand, the high disease burden has sometimes led to vaccines being tested, or programs implemented, in indigenous populations first. However, successful wider implementation has not been limited to fully national universal programs. Geographic targeting, whereby all individuals within certain regions with high disease rates are targeted, has reduced incidence and disparities between high and low incidence populations for hepatitis A in the United States,46 and also influenza in some North American regions.149 Targeting indigenous populations in regions where they are larger proportions of the population have also been pursued successfully.150 The evidence from this review would suggest that national programs targeting only indigenous people are the least effective approach, particularly in urban areas where identifying indigenous people to achieve high vaccine coverage is more difficult.132 Innovative program approaches are particularly needed in these situations. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The authors thank Michael Young (Pediatrics, Northwest Territories, Canada), Katherine O’Brien (Johns Hopkins University), and Amy Groom (Indian Health Service) for their critical review and data contributions. This article includes material from, and updates and expands on, a previous publication: Menzies R, McIntyre P. Vaccine preventable disease and vaccination policy in indigenous populations. Epidemiol Rev 2006;28:71–80. REFERENCES

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