Visitor safety in urban tourism environments: the case of Auckland, New Zealand

Pergamon

PII: S0264-2751(02)00024-0

Cities, Vol. 19, No. 4, pp. 273–282, 2002  2002 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved 0264-2751/02 $ - see front matter

www.elsevier.com/locate/cities

Visitor safety in urban tourism environments: the case of Auckland, New Zealand Michael Barker Centre for Tourism Research, Massey University–Albany, Auckland, New Zealand

*Stephen J. Page Department of Marketing, University of Stirling, Stirling, Scotland FK9 4LA, UK

There is limited research relating to urban tourism and the behaviour of visitors within the urban environment. Comparatively few studies of perceptions of safety in urban areas exist. As a result, there is a poor understanding of visitor safety issues, particularly in relation to special events. This paper examines the scope and dimensions of visitor safety during one hallmark sporting event in Auckland, New Zealand during 2000–2001 – the America’s Cup. The research reviews both the existing research on tourist safety and crime in urban areas and establishes the nature and impact of a sporting event on tourist-related crime.  2002 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved. Keywords: safety, visitor perceptions, special events, urban tourism

Introduction

cial events. This lack of understanding also applies to visitor perceptions of personal safety during special events. Research on tourist perceptions of safety at destinations during their travel exists (eg Demos, 1992; Pinhey and Iverson, 1994), but few studies report the impacts of visitors’ perceptions and experiences of crime and personal safety during special events. Given the apparent deficiencies within the literature concerning safety for urban tourists (with the notable exception of the study by Savitch and Ardashev, 2001), this study was designed to explore visitor perceptions and potential concerns for safety held by different visitor groups, and to scope the extent for further research on this issue. The study was conducted during a major special event in Auckland – the 2000 America’s Cup. This was a significant event upon which to study perceptions as it was the largest event ever staged in New Zealand and was therefore associated with a number of uncertainties regarding its impacts. The America’s Cup provided an opportunity for both Auckland and New Zealand to demonstrate their ability to host major international events and to showcase the destination’s tourism attractions and facilities. In this paper, visitor perceptions at an urban destination are addressed in relation to feelings and experi-

Urban tourism attracts distinct visitor groups based on differences in the type of traveller and in their motivations to visit (Page, 1995; Page and Hall, 2002). One method to promote the city and attract new visitor groups is through the use of special events and the publicity that these can generate for the host destination (Faulkner and Tideswell, 1999). Special events can attract distinct visitor groups (Law, 1993), while some sports events such as the Olympic Games and the America’s Cup can appeal to wider audiences. The presence of large numbers of visitors at events may establish an environment that epitomises the concentration of tourism and tourist opportunities for crime. Such outcomes have become major planning and security considerations within the destinations that host major events. The relationship between tourism and special events has received limited attention in the tourism literature in terms of the impact of crime in the host destination (eg Hall et al, 1995; Barker, 2000). There is also a notable lack of research on visitor behaviour at urban destinations during speE-mail: mbarker—[email protected] ∗Corresponding author. Tel.: +44-1786-466451; fax: +44-1786-464745; e-mail: [email protected]

273

Visitor safety in urban tourism environments: Michael Barker and Stephen J Page

ences of safety. Since the majority of studies focus on residents’ perceptions of tourism and safety, the findings presented in this paper can be used to understand the perceptions held by visitors as these are also important given the efforts and significance of attracting tourists to the city. Thus, by collectively identifying the perceptions among residents, businesses and visitors to Auckland, city and security officials will be better able to identify where their safety efforts should be focused (see Skogan and Maxfield, 1981). However, prior to examining the survey data, it is useful to examine the context of the research and conceptual issues associated with event tourism in an urban context, namely Auckland.

Special event tourism in the urban environment: tourism impacts The impacts of special events are particularly interesting because of the spatial and temporal impacts associated with their hosting (Getz, 1991). According to an economic impact report commissioned by the Office of Tourism and Sport (2000), the America’s Cup regatta generated NZ$473 million for the Auckland economy and NZ$640 million for the New Zealand economy in net additional expenditure. The event attracted Cup-related tourists including syndicates, family, media, sponsors and spectators. Although many of these visitors lived in Auckland for the duration of the event, many used their visit as an opportunity to travel throughout the country during this time. This had a substantial impact on additional visitor expenditure throughout the country (Office of Tourism and Sport, 2000). International visitors to the America’s Cup made a substantial contribution to tourism activity both by travelling outside Auckland and by extending their length of stay, and generating NZ$64 million and NZ$164 million for the Auckland and national economies respectively (Office of Tourism and Sport, 2000). Yet, the fact remains that one of the major difficulties New Zealand faces in attracting international tourists is its relative geographical isolation from the tourist-generating regions of North America and Europe. This distance and related costs was cited as one reason for a lack of European syndicates entered in the 2000 event.

Tourism safety in urban environments: conceptual issues The America’s Cup-related investment in Auckland contributed to a NZ$85.7 million urban redevelopment of the downtown waterfront precinct known as the Viaduct Basin. It included the construction of an America’s Cup marina for the syndicate yachts, residential apartments and numerous restaurants, bars and hospitality services. This created a social and entertainment hub for the event and the city and enhanced the image of the city as a tourism destination. How274

ever, there is often limited investment that is directly channelled towards specific event facilities. At the Barcelona Olympics in 1992, only 10% of the investment was on sports facilities, while the city benefited from major rejuvenation of the waterfront development, transport systems, accommodation and similar urban infrastructure (Law, 1993). An improvement in physical safety is often intimated as a result of these developments since improved lighting and clean and well-maintained surroundings are commonly associated with safety within urban environments (Barker, 2000; Central Area Planning, 2000). Urban areas and their associated activities (eg city walks, shopping and dining) comprise a major part of the tourists’ travel experience and time (Page, 1995). It follows that visitor perceptions of personal safety in these urban areas are important for understanding tourists’ awareness of their environment and how their behaviour and experiences might be affected according to how safe they feel. Perceptions of safety (Williams and Dickson, 1993) are important because they can affect a person’s behaviour including the likelihood of going out at certain times of the day (Valentine, 1989; Madge, 1997), participation in activities and the overall satisfaction with an event and destination. The social changes that occur during events can thereby affect visitors’ perceptions of personal safety and their likelihood of attending an event. Perceptions of crime and safety are influenced by a person’s conditioning to safety, the image portrayed of a destination, and the way in which the media influences perceptions of risk that can affect tourism visitation and restrict behaviour based on the nature and level of reporting of crime. In this sense, perceptions of safety provide visitors with subjective reality. A number of studies have examined the perceived impact of crime on the community (eg Lankford, 1996; Pizam, 1978; Rothman, 1978; Snaith and Haley, 1994; Young, 1988). Research on residents’ perceptions of crime and safety in the presence of tourism have found that residents often perceived a decline in the level of safety as a result of an influx of tourists (Pizam, 1978; Rothman, 1978). There is also research on community behaviour and reaction to increased tourism activity (eg Brown and Giles, 1994; Dogan, 1989). A concern for these impacts led to an increasing number of studies that examine residents’ perceptions of special events on the host community (eg America’s Cup Office, 1987; Ritchie and Lyons, 1990; Soutar and McLeod, 1993). A recent survey of tourists in New Zealand found that tourists perceived Auckland as a relatively safe destination, although it was rated the least safe of nine major national destinations among both domestic and overseas travellers (Barker, 2000), a feature reemphasised by Savitch and Ardashev’s (2001) analysis of terror in cities at a global scale. Furthermore, a survey conducted by the Auckland City Council found that 71% of respondents felt there was a need to improve levels of safety in the central city, parti-

Visitor safety in urban tourism environments: Michael Barker and Stephen J Page

cularly among residents of the area (Central Area Planning, 2000; Devereux, 2000). According to Barker (2000), safety during the daytime was perceived among tourists to be very safe, although this perception declined as expected at night particularly among domestic tourists and women.

Crime and urban tourist areas: micro issues Safety and security issues are significant because tourists and tourist areas possess a range of characteristics that make them vulnerable to crime (ChesneyLind and Lind, 1986). These characteristics have received substantial attention in the literature based on reports that tourists have a statistically higher chance of being victimised than residents (eg de Albuquerque and McElroy, 1999; Fujii and Mak, 1980; Jackson and Schmierer, 1996). Such claims however, are more likely to be specific to destinations in which these studies were conducted than as an allencompassing relationship. The enclave nature of many tourism environments can congregate tourists and criminal opportunities (Schiebler et al, 1996), although they also have the capacity to create visitor-friendly environments that are more effectively policed. The tourism industry creates a unique environment whereby the presence of tourists alters the characteristics of the population at risk of crime and thereby the nature of criminal opportunities available and those subsequently committed. Such areas that are conducive to crime are consistent with what Ryan and Kinder (1996) termed a “crimogenic place”. The impact of crime can be compounded during special events where the destination’s carrying capacity may be reached or exceeded and the impacts can be event-specific which means they are difficult to anticipate when hosting events. The characteristics exhibited by tourists and tourist districts can increase the visibility of visitors as outsiders and make them less confident in an unfamiliar environment where they may be constrained by language difficulties and have limited knowledge of their whereabouts. Lynch (1960) suggested that this unfamiliarity and difficulties with environmental learning have implications for a person’s fear, sense of security and emotional stability. Fear of crime can place constraints on a person’s lifestyle behaviour or promote defensive behaviour that encourages them to be more vigilant about crime. Greenberg and Ruback (1992) found that women were more fearful of crime either as a result of perceived vulnerability compounded by sexual risk or by differences in acknowledging fear. There is limited literature on the impact of crime on events, and it posits that some events inherently attract large numbers of people and generate hedonistic activity such as alcohol and drug consumption, with the potential for social changes that can exacerbate crime (Kelly, 1993; Ryan, 1991). An increase in

criminal activity arising from tourism has been noted at previous special events (Burns and Mules, 1989; Hall et al, 1995). The New Zealand Police identified that the America’s Cup would provide an occasion whereby a specific policing strategy would need to be enforced, and had an informed judgement of these expectations with additional contingency plans if greater security was required. The New Zealand Police examined America’s Cup events in Fremantle and San Diego to assist with planning for the strategic management of the 2000 event. This led to the formation of a special policing operation named Operation Marlin which involved 182 police personnel and was established specifically for the America’s Cup event.

Methodology The measurement of visitor perceptions of safety is critical to identifying and addressing the needs and concerns of tourists and thereby improving their travel experience. This was considered of particular importance in this study given the lack of research in urban destinations and at special events. In order to ascertain these perceptions, a convenience sample of domestic and international visitors to Auckland was derived between December 1999 and March 2000 during the America’s Cup regatta. This involved some 1003 personal interviews of visitors aged 16 years and above which were conducted in downtown Auckland and the Viaduct Basin where the America’s Cup syndicates had their bases and a ‘Cup Village’ was constructed for the event. In order to ensure representation of a wide range of visitor types, surveys were conducted at various times between daylight hours of 9 a.m.–9 p.m. and across each day of the week.1

Main findings Of the 1003 respondents, 29% were domestic tourists and 71% were visiting from any one of 45 overseas countries, predominantly those in Europe and North America. There was a wide representation of age groups in the sample and a high proportion of visitors indicated that they were either travelling alone (34%) or with one other person (44%). The characteristics of 1 Questions on travel and demographic information were included and the survey was divided into three major parts – those being visitor perceptions, concerns and experiences of crime and safety. Part one of the survey asked visitors to rate their perceptions of safety based on a 5-point Likert scale ranging from “very unsafe” to “very safe”. A further scale rated visitor perceptions from “very poor” to “excellent” based on experiences had in downtown Auckland where the America’s Cup and Viaduct Basin were based. The second part of the survey examined visitor concerns for personal safety arising from the potential for criminal victimisation and whether these had in any way impeded the visitors’ intended travel behaviour. Concerns for victimisation were measured on a 4-point Likert scale ranging from “not at all concerned” to “very concerned”. Visitors were also asked to indicate whether their concerns were less, the same or greater as a tourist to New Zealand than when they were in their home environment.

275

Visitor safety in urban tourism environments: Michael Barker and Stephen J Page

the sample population are important for understanding differences in the responses to the survey. However, the findings represent the responses of the survey sample only and cannot be assumed to be representative of the total visitor population to Auckland – for which comparable data on visitor origins to Auckland were unavailable. Visitor perceptions of safety Tourists were asked to rate their perceptions of safety based on a range of situations and locations encountered during their visit (Table 1). The America’s Cup Village generated the highest mean in terms of perceptions of safety, where environmental design and the presence of police and other tourists created a perception of a safe visitor enclave. As a destination, New Zealand was perceived as safe by 89% of visitors while 79% felt that Auckland was safe. Perceptions of safety in Auckland as a city, during the day and at night, were also significantly higher among overseas visitors when compared to domestic visitors. Overall, perceptions of safety in Auckland were favourable, although as expected, these perceptions declined substantially at night. Indeed, while 93% of visitors felt safe during the day, this proportion fell to 56% during night hours. This decline in perceptions of safety after dark was most evident among women travellers. Perceptions of overall safety were also lower among women tourists and this supports findings from the city council’s survey of public perceptions of safety (Central Area Planning, 2000). Visitor perceptions of downtown Auckland (see Fig. 1 and Table 2) were also rated according to satisfaction with a number of variables. The overall mean responses of domestic tourists were less favourable with the exception of “the number of police and security”, which was rated lower among international visitors. The literature suggests that an increased presence and interaction between the police and the community can raise public perceptions of safety (Pizam et al, 1997; Barker, 2000; Tarlow, 2000) as well as attitudes towards police, and these were among the major objectives identified by the New Zealand Police

Figure 1 Auckland City and the America’s Cup Village

during the America’s Cup. This objective reflected a visible yet unobtrusive presence of police and security, although it is noted that this may lead to a false sense of security among visitors (Mathieson and Wall, 1982). The presence of tourist enclaves (eg the Viaduct Basin) can also increase tourist confidence both in the physical environment and from the higher ratio of other tourists. The friendliness of people in the area, good lighting in public spaces and the cleanliness and upkeep of the Cup Village undoubtedly also enhanced a safe perception as these factors have previously shown to increase perceptions of

Table 1 Visitor perceptions of safety during the America’s Cup Perception variable

How safe or unsafe do you… Perceive New Zealand to be as a country? Perceive Auckland to be as a city? Perceive the America’s Cup Village to be? Feel in public in Auckland during the day? Feel in public in Auckland during the night? Feel compared with in your home country/town? The large number of people makes me feel The event atmosphere of the AC makes me feel Note: 1=Very unsafe, 2=A bit unsafe, 3=Average, 4=Fairly safe, 5=Very safe

276

P

0.000 0.000 0.970 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.451 0.373

Mean

4.38 4.05 4.49 4.42 3.62 3.91 4.12 4.19

Mean by visitor status Domestic

Overseas

4.11 3.71 4.49 4.26 3.29 3.42 4.09 4.15

4.49 4.19 4.48 4.49 3.75 4.11 4.14 4.20

Visitor safety in urban tourism environments: Michael Barker and Stephen J Page Table 2 Visitor perceptions of downtown Auckland Experience variable

The The The The The The

friendliness of people quality of service from local businesses prices of goods and services feeling of safety amount of lighting at night number of police and security

P

0.000 0.008 0.000 0.001 0.074 0.170

Mean

4.10 3.91 3.41 4.14 3.70 3.64

Mean by visitor status Domestic

Overseas

3.81 3.81 2.94 4.00 3.63 3.70

4.21 3.95 3.60 4.20 3.73 3.61

Note: 1=Very poor, 2=Poor, 3=Average, 4=Very good, 5=Excellent

safety (Evans et al, 1992; Barker, 2000; Skelton and Eccles, 2000). Safety information A recent study by Barker (2000) found that there was an anomaly between the availability of visitor safety information in New Zealand and the demand for this information among certain visitor groups, particularly among culturally different visitors from Japan and other Asian nations. The survey conducted in the present study also asked tourists about the importance of travel safety information with regard to crime awareness and prevention. The findings showed that 93.8% of respondents had never seen and were not aware of the existence of the Police’s tourist safety brochure. Interestingly, however, some 85.1% of visitors felt that this information should be readily available. Moreover, 78.6% of tourists indicated that they would personally read safety information including a higher proportion of women (P = 0.006), first-time visitors (P = 0.016), those travelling in groups ( P = 0.001) and increasingly older travellers ( P = 0.000). A weaker but notable correlation showed that overseas tourists had a greater demand for safety information than domestic tourists. The demand for safety information was most apparent among visitors who were most at risk and concerned for their safety whereby information search is related to perceptions of risk (Roehl and Fesenmaier, 1992). This is an important finding because it implies that any stigma associated with providing safety information needs to be addressed, and correctly managed, and this has previously been shown not to increase concern for crime among visitors (Barker, 2000; World Tourism Organisation, 1997). Visitor concerns for crime The survey also asked tourists about any concerns they held for their personal safety and security (Table 3). Although concerns for personal victimisation of crime were not high overall, the level of concern and fear of victimisation differed markedly between individual tourists, a finding noted in previous research (eg Pawson and Banks, 1993). For instance, differences in ethnicity, age, accommodation choice and the

number of travelling companions affected tourist perceptions and concerns regarding crime and safety. The highest proportion of tourists who were slightly concerned or very concerned about being physically attacked or robbed included Japanese (46.4%), visitors of other decent (43.4%) and other Asians (38.9%). This expression of concern may be due to cultural reasons or a perceived vulnerability among these groups because of their ethnic and touristic visibility whilst travelling, although additional research will help explain such factors. Indeed, previous research (eg Barker, 2000) has found that the real or perceived visibility generated by being a tourist contributed to significant levels of apprehension among some tourists. The highest levels of racially-motivated concern were expressed by other Asian, other origin and Japanese tourists. However, on average there was less concern regarding overall personal safety than when at home (P⬍0.02). With the exception of racial harassment, domestic visitors tended to be more concerned about crime than visitors from overseas. This was most apparent with regards to concerns for theft or burglary, where 64% of domestic tourists were concerned about being victimised compared with 47% of overseas tourists. This was a significant result at the 1% level of significance. The threat of sexual harassment or attack was understandably higher among female tourists than for male tourists, although 93% of tourists (and 90.1% of women) felt that the risk of sexual victimisation was less than or no different to the risk they would encounter at home. Fear of crime Of the respondents who participated in the survey, 10.1% of tourists indicated that they had felt unsafe at some stage during their travel. The major sources from which this fear was derived were related to the perception of personal vulnerability of the tourist. Fear among tourists was related to gender, group size and age, whereby women, those travelling alone and teenagers encountered some experience where they had reason to fear for their safety. Fear was also statistically related to the domestic/overseas status of the tourist at the 5% level of significance ( P = 0.003), where, interestingly, domestic tourists were more likely than overseas tourists to experience 277

Visitor safety in urban tourism environments: Michael Barker and Stephen J Page Table 3 Visitor concern for crime Concern variable

Racially harassed Property stolen through theft or burglary Attacked or robbed Sexually harassed or attacked

Overall Concern

Relative to Home

1

2

3

69.3 23.7 36.8 67.3

17.8 24.3 34.6 18.4

10.3 40.6 22.8 10.0

4

2.6 11.5 5.9 4.4

1

2

19.8 18.8 18.5 11.8

67.2 60.7 67.3 81.2

3

13.0 20.5 14.2 7.1

Note: Tourists rated each concern variable on two different Likert scales. Overall Concern refers to concerns in New Zealand where 1=Not at all concerned, 2=Not very concerned, 3=Slightly concerned, 4=Very concerned. Respondents’ concern Relative to Home is measured by 1=Less, 2=Same, 3=More

fear of crime. This is likely to be explained in part by relative levels of safety perceptions held by inbound visitors to New Zealand. The survey also found that some 19% of visitors changed their behaviour in some way to reduce the risk of possible victimisation. This was primarily done through increasing their alertness of their surroundings and being more vigilant about safety. This included a higher proportion of women, Japanese and other Asians, as well as tourists staying in backpacker accommodation or campervans. Yet, only 1.7% of those who feared for their safety felt it was necessary to restrict their intended behaviour because of a fear of potential victimisation. The findings from the study indicate that some of the most vulnerable tourists for crime had acknowledged their risk and adopted additional precautions to reduce their risk of crime without actually limiting their travel behaviour (eg women, backpacker tourists and non-Europeans). In fact, research has found that women took more safety precautions than men in response to this risk of crime either as a result of perceived vulnerability compounded by sexual risk or by differences in acknowledging fear (Barker, 2000). Yet, the increase in precautions and presumably lowering of risk among women does not appear to minimise their perceptions of personal risk of crime (Weatherburn et al, 1996). Visitor experiences of crime Some 30 respondents, or 3% of the sample, reported a total of 34 incidents of crime. Of these offences, 50% involved the theft or burglary of property from the tourist’s accommodation and 29% involved theft from vehicles. Only two incidents of violent crime were reported by respondents, accounting for 5% of offences. The incidence of tourist victimisation reported in the survey was highest among overseas tourists, those in low-security paid accommodation such as backpacker hostels, those aged 20–39 years of age and those travelling alone. However, given the low sample size of tourist victims, the findings related to tourist victimisation should be treated as indicative rather than conclusive and based on the nature of reported crimes only. There is an important distinction about the victim278

isation rates between tourists and residents. As noted, previous research has argued that tourists are more likely to be victimised than residents. Yet, the victimisation rates between tourists and residents is both unclear and complex and therefore likely to differ across situations than be a rule. The findings presented in this study are more clear in that they indicate that overseas tourists are more likely to be victimised than domestic tourists. This conclusion was derived from a number of critical factors whereby differences in accommodation, visibility and ethnicity were related to the domestic/international status and to victims of crime. Significant differences were also found in the nature of crimes against domestic and international tourists based on differences in their exposure to risk. Despite over four million visits to the Cup Village during the 5-month period of the America’s Cup, Operation Marlin police figures show that only onethird (33%) or 169 of the total of 511 arrests took place within the America’s Cup Village. Table 4 shows the days of the week when arrests were made by Operation Marlin police, the highest occurring on Fridays and Saturdays with some overlay into early Sunday morning. The timing of these arrests are consistent with Barker’s (2000) findings due to the increase in population during these periods when people are not working and the hospitality establishments are open late. It also indicates the periods that generate the greatest demands for police and when their resources need to be allocated. The time of arrest provides interesting, but again not unexpected, findings. Over half (59%) of all arrests occurred between Table 4

Day of arrest

Day of arrest Monday Tuesday Wednesday Thursday Friday Saturday Sunday TOTAL

n

% 39 47 58 57 101 122 87 511

7.6 9.2 11.4 11.2 19.8 23.9 17.0 100.0

Visitor safety in urban tourism environments: Michael Barker and Stephen J Page Table 5 Time of arrest Time of arrest

n

%

06.00–08.59 09.00–11.59 12.00–14.59 15.00–17.59 18.00–20.59 21.00–23.59 00.00–02.59 03.00–05.59 TOTAL Missing

10 14 12 33 38 91 136 53 387 124

2.6 3.6 3.1 8.5 9.8 23.5 35.1 13.7 100.0

the hours of 9 p.m. and 3 a.m. (see Table 5 and Fig. 2). An examination of this data suggests that the incidence of arrests was influenced by several key factors. For instance, the presence of the bar and hospitality establishments and the associated consumption of alcohol suggests that alcohol had a major influence on offending. This was confirmed in the data for offence type whereby 23% of arrest offences were for disorderly and related behaviour alone, some of which were likely occurring when patrons were leaving for home and considerably inebriated. Furthermore, the profile of the visitor to the Viaduct area during that time period was undoubtedly more representative of the younger hedonistic visitor, while family groups by contrast would have been few. The evidence in Auckland suggests that the increased police presence in the vicinity of the Viaduct Basin had a positive effect on deterring crime. Such locations can also create a safe enclave for tourists if there is a sufficient police and security presence to deter crime as demonstrated by Operation Marlin. However, these may also lead to issues of the displacement of crime to other areas. The sociodemographic and socio-economic profile of the community and the event visitor also affects the social and economic impacts generated and the planning of events to satisfy the needs of different markets. The incidence of crimes against tourists during the period of the America’s Cup was low and the preva-

lence of crime was arguably lower given the increase in population to the central city in this time (see Weatherburn et al, 1996 for explanations about the incidence and prevalence of crime). Furthermore, a number of serious crimes (eg assaults and sexual attacks) in the city and subsequent warnings about safety in certain locations at night that were publicised in the media meant that crime was not far from the minds of the public.

Management implications There are important management implications for those involved in policing urban areas and hosting special events. At a management level, this will require increased coordination between the tourism sector and security professionals including the timing and planning of events (Tarlow, 2000; World Tourism Organisation, 1996). The nature of this research will allow police and the tourism industry to identify exactly where their crime prevention and education efforts need to occur. Yet, one of the potential obstacles that may hinder future resourcing from the funding bodies and management of tourism destinations and police departments is the lack of criminal activity associated with the 2000 America’s Cup: this was insufficient to justify significant future resources and expenditure associated with crime prevention for tourists and specifically at special events. However, one of the primary reasons for the low incidence of crime can be attributed to the strong policing measures being in place. What is more, differences in the concerns and victimisation rates of visitor groups, and evidence of increased crime at previous events indicate that the potential for increased crime is real and therefore it cannot be discounted at other events. There are implications for ensuring the provision of safety in tourist areas through crime prevention through environmental design (CPTED) as evident from the America’s Cup Village. The hosting of the America’s Cup and the associated development of bars at the Viaduct Basin has led to a change in the social network of the city. Whether this has merely

Figure 2 Time of arrest by Operation Marlin police

279

Visitor safety in urban tourism environments: Michael Barker and Stephen J Page

resulted in dispersal of patrons across a larger number of bars is uncertain, although it appears that the lowering of the drinking age to 18 years of age in December 1999 and the growth in hospitality services has increased the opportunity for night-time entertainment in Auckland and this has subsequent implications on the management and policing of public activity in the central city. There is also considerable scope for improving security in crime hotspots that were associated with a high proportion of property offences, such as low-security tourist accommodation. Research on visitor satisfaction and the travel experience has significant implications for tourism providers, not least in terms of visitor safety and security. Indeed, it is not solely the risk of crime that is of concern to the industry, but mixed with one of public perception, particularly following negative media coverage about crime.

Policy recommendations There appears to be a lack of collaboration in Auckland with respect to implementing a common strategy for making the central city a safer place to visit. Interest groups such as the Auckland City Council and Safer Auckland, residents’ groups, the business, retail and hospitality sector and the police need to recognise safety in Auckland City as part of a long-term and holistic strategy that is essential to attracting visitors, the community, new residents and shoppers into the central city, as there seems to be a lack of coordination and reluctance to address the safety issues firsthand. Yet, there still seems to be some apprehension among city groups towards safety issues and a lack of coordination to achieve safety objectives for the city and this is counter-productive. The same issues relating to improving safety are recurring and include increased police/security presence and improved lighting; however, there has been a limited response to these areas. In central Auckland there are 16 closed-circuit television cameras (CCTVs) currently in operation by police at known hotspots and these account for a substantial proportion of arrests each year. Yet CCTV is not without its critics as a policy instrument. Fyfe and Banister (1996) questioned the efficacy of deploying public sector resources on capital-intensive measures such as CCTV, where the main beneficiaries financially are local businesses that can develop additional trade. Furthermore, theoretical debates by Giddens (1984) have questioned the role of CCTV as it highlights prevention rather than solution in what has been termed the pursuit of ontological security and a decline in urban public life. From a criminological perspective, Fyfe and Banister (1996) also point to a potential growth in bystander indifference and a drop in the propensity to report incidents to the police. Ironically, when the public have been surveyed on attitudes to CCTV and its use in public places as a surveillance tool to prevent crime, it has been posi280

tively endorsed in many locations due to the impact on perceptions of safety and the “feel good factor”, where a technological solution has been applied to crime. In Auckland, in December 2000, private security patrols funded by the business community were also deployed on Queen Street in an effort to reclaim the decreasing sense of safety amongst the community and shoppers to complement the role of CCTV in the downtown area. However, effective policing needs to have a face in terms of increased public visibility of police personnel. There is a need and demand to increase the police presence on major public and tourist thoroughfares such as Queen Street. In preparation for the 2002/03 America’s Cup in Auckland, resource allocation of police will need to consider the police presence between the Viaduct Basin and areas such as Queen Street where there was a low visibility of beat police due to under-staffing and low public perceptions of safety. There is also less control over the urban environment and an increased diversity of people in and around Queen Street (eg youth and car hoons) with the increased potential for intimidation, fear and criminal activity. The high level of glass litter generated from drinking containers from surrounding bars at the Viaduct Basin was a real concern during the America’s Cup. This became an even greater concern in the Village during the Cup celebrations, with broken beverage glass causing dangers to the public as foot injuries or as potential weapons or missiles. Indeed, the availability of glass drinking vessels at night is one issue that will need to be addressed in preparation for the 2002/03 event and for the Viaduct area in general. Part of this enforcement will involve addressing the problems arising from having drinking establishments in outdoor areas which overflow into public areas where alcohol consumption is not normally tolerated. This may require enforcing “dry zones” where alcohol is strictly not permitted. The lack of division of licensed premises with public spaces can have impacts on disorderly behaviour that was prevalent during the Cup and on the public’s perception of public order. Indeed, the tolerance of consumption of alcohol in public areas was noted one of the most surprising aspects of the event among overseas tourists to Auckland.

Conclusion The study has been important not just from the perspective of assessing the impact of special events on crime, but for analysing the intricacies of crimes against tourists in urban areas. It was also identified that one of the common weaknesses in the literature was a general failure to identify visitor perceptions and concerns of safety. Yet, the paradox is that the perception of crime by tourists is critical to understanding and satisfying their intrinsic needs for safety and in generating repeat visitors. Hosting special

Visitor safety in urban tourism environments: Michael Barker and Stephen J Page

events in urban areas has also highlighted the wider implications for other destinations seeking to plan for major events. Managing the influx of additional visitors certainly poses both policy and management implications for destinations, not least of which are the logistical problems of integrating the event into the locality and the juxtaposition of residents, workers and visitors in the urban environment. One of the least researched areas of tourism remains how public agencies, such as the police, manage and interact with the community and visitors at special events and the impact this has on their normal day-to-day activities. In reality some redeployment of existing resources is implicit in operational plans for policing special events, as well as additional resources to cope with peaks in visitor and resident use. For visitor-related crime, the displacement effect of additional policing at special events may provide criminological opportunities in other parts of the urban environment, if resources are redeployed. The paper has also highlighted the need for local politicians to reassess the commitment to strategies to revitalize urban environments with a tourism strategy based on special events. It may impact upon existing feelings of safety and security which exist and therefore necessitate massive investment in policing and security measures to reassure the visiting public of their safety. It is evident from this study that safety and security for visitors is not a simplistic notion, but an evolving concept that cannot easily be transferred between places. What this means is that even similar events such as the America’s Cup hosted in different locations can yield different safety and crime impacts, as the comparison between the 1987 event in Fremantle, Perth, Western Australia and Auckland, New Zealand had differing impacts and experiences. Whilst this is partly related to the individual factors at work in each destination, it does suggest that deriving generalisations is difficult for other locations hosting similar events. What the America’s Cup research does show is the typical types of problems which visitors experience. The research presented in this paper provides considerable baseline data for the next hosting of the America’s Cup in 2002/03, which will allow important longitudinal comparisons of event-related safety in a single destination. One of the possible drawbacks of this study is that it utilised a convenience sample and surveyed visitors to the America’s Cup Village. This may account for the high readings on the safety-related variables and could have examined those visitors least affected by fear to visit the development and area during the event. However, in spite of these possible limitations, the potential impact of crime at special events is unquestionable based on changes in the status of the population and the criminal opportunities that a seasonal increase in tourism activity presents. This study concludes that visitors to Auckland had a favourable perception of safety during the America’s Cup and that the level of

reported tourist crime was low. However, both perceptions and victimisation differed significantly among identifiable visitor groups including the domestic/international status and gender. The availability and consumption of alcohol played a major part on criminal activity during the America’s Cup, a high police presence and the confined area of the Viaduct Basin made policing far more effective. The visible presence of police has been considered an important factor for improving perceptions of safety and deterring crime and this strategy proved highly effective during the America’s Cup. In terms of victimisation rates, overseas tourists appeared more likely to be victimised than domestic tourists. Similarly, several concerns were expressed towards safety among some visitor groups, particularly towards crimes with potential racial motivations and these need to be addressed. Tourists were most concerned for the security of their personal property and justifiably so, as property crimes were responsible for the highest number of offences against tourists. Concerns for crime, however, were considered no greater that when at home. Indeed, there are some important implications for addressing visitor concerns, controlling crime including increased education and security measures that can be adopted within the tourism industry and by tourists who need to be made aware of the criminal risks that they may face.

References America’s Cup Office (1987) America’s Cup Defence Series, 1986/87: Impact on the community, prepared for the Government of Western Australia and Commonwealth America’s Cup Support Group, Centre for Applied and Business Research, Nedlands, W.A. Barker, M (2000) ‘An empirical investigation of tourist crime in New Zealand: perceptions, victimisation and future implications’ unpublished Ph.D. thesis, Centre for Tourism, University of Otago, Dunedin, New Zealand. Brown, G and Giles, R (1994) Coping with tourism: an examination of resident responses to the social impact of tourism. In Tourism: The State of the Art, (ed.) A V Seaton., pp 755–764. John Wiley & Sons, Chichester. Burns, J P A and Mules, T J (1989) An economic evaluation of the Adelaide Grand Prix. In The Planning and Evaluation of Hallmark Events, (eds) G Syme, B Shaw, D Fenton and W Mueller., pp 172–185. Gower Publishing Company, Aldershot. Central Area Planning (2000) Behaviour and Attitudes and Perceptions of Residents, Workers and Visitors in the Central City. Auckland City Council, Auckland. Chesney-Lind, M and Lind, I Y (1986) Visitors as victims: crimes against tourists in Hawaii. Annals of Tourism Research 13, 167–191. de Albuquerque, K and McElroy, J (1999) Tourism and crime in the Caribbean. Annals of Tourism Research 26(4), 968–984. Demos, E (1992) Concern for safety: a potential problem in the tourist industry. Journal of Travel and Tourism Marketing 1(1), 81–88. Devereux, M (2000) ‘Nights of fear and loathing – Queen St on a Friday night’ The New Zealand Herald 11–12 November, p. A2. Dogan, H Z (1989) Forms of adjustment: socio-cultural impacts of tourism. Annals of Tourism Research 16, 216–236. Evans, D, Fyfe, N and Herbert, D (eds) (1992) Crime, Policing and Place,. Routledge, London.

281

Visitor safety in urban tourism environments: Michael Barker and Stephen J Page Faulkner, B and Tideswell, C (1999) Leveraging tourism benefits from the Sydney 2000 Olympics. Pacific Tourism Review 3, 227–238. Fujii, E T and Mak, J (1980) Tourism and crime: implications for regional development policy. Regional Studies 14, 27–36. Fyfe, N and Banister, J (1996) City watching: closed circuit television surveillance in public spaces. Area 28(1), 37–46. Getz, D (1991) Festivals, Special Events and Tourism. Van Nostrand Reinhold, New York. Giddens, A (1984) The Constitution of Society. Polity Press, Cambridge. Greenberg, M S and Ruback, R B (1992) After the Crime: Victim Decision Making. Plenum Press, New York. Hall, C M, Selwood, J and McKewon, E (1995) Hedonists, ladies and larrikins: crime, prostitution and the 1987 America’s Cup. Visions in Leisure and Business 14(3), 28–51. Jackson, M S and Schmierer, C L (1996) Tourism and crime: more crime but less reporting. In Australian Tourism and Hospitality Research Conference, Southern Cross University, Lismore, Australia. Tourism and Hospitality Research: Australian and International Perspectives., pp 549–559. Kelly, I (1993) Tourist destination crime rates: an examination of Cairns and the Gold Coast, Australia. The Journal of Tourism Studies 4(2), 2–11. Lankford, S V (1996) Crime and tourism: a study of perceptions in the Pacific Northwest. In Tourism, Crime and International Security Issues, (eds) A Pizam and Y Mansfeld., pp 51–58. John Wiley & Sons Ltd, Chichester. Law, C M (1993) Urban Tourism: Attracting Visitors to Large Cities. In Mansell Publishing Limited, London. Lynch, K (1960) The Image of the City. Technology Press, Cambridge, MA. Madge, C (1997) Public parks and the geography of fear. Tijdschrift Voor Economische en Sociale Geografie 88, 237–250. Mathieson, A and Wall, G (1982) Tourism, Economic, Physical and Social Impacts. Longman, Harlow. Office of Tourism and Sport (2000) The Economic Impact of the America’s Cup Regatta, Auckland 1999–2000. McDermott Fairgray Group and Ernst & Young, Auckland. Page, S J (1995) Urban Tourism. Routledge, London. Page, S J and Hall, C M (2002) Managing Urban Tourism. Pearson Education, Harlow. Pawson, E and Banks, G (1993) Rape and fear in a New Zealand city. Area 25, 55–63. Pinhey, T K and Iverson, T J (1994) Safety concerns of Japanese visitors to Guam. Journal of Travel & Tourism Marketing 3(2), 87–94. Pizam, A (1978) Tourism’s impacts: the social costs to the destination community as perceived by its residents. Journal of Travel Research 16(4), 8–12. Pizam, A, Tarlow, P E and Bloom, J (1997) Making tourists feel safe: whose responsibility is it? Journal of Travel Research 36(1), 23–28. Ritchie, J B R and Lyons, M (1990) OLYMPUSE VI: A post-

282

event assessment of resident reaction to the XV Olympic Winter Games. Journal of Travel Research 28(3), 14–23. Roehl, W S and Fesenmaier, D R (1992) Risk perceptions and pleasure travel: an exploratory analysis. Journal of Travel Research 30(4), 17–26. Rothman, R A (1978) Residents and transients: community reaction to seasonal visitors. Journal of Travel Research 16(Winter), 8–13. Ryan, C (1991) Recreational Tourism: A Social Science Perspective. Routledge, London. Ryan, C and Kinder, R (1996) The deviant tourist and the crimogenic place – the case of the tourist and the New Zealand prostitute. In Tourism, Crime and International Security Issues, (eds) A Pizam and Y Mansfeld., pp 23–36. John Wiley & Sons Ltd, Chichester. Savitch, H and Ardasher, G (2001) Does terror have an urban future? Urban Studies 38(13), 2515–2534. Schiebler, S A, Crotts, J C and Hollinger, R C (1996) Florida tourists’ vulnerability to crime. In Tourism, Crime and International Security Issues, (eds) A Pizam and Y Mansfeld., pp 37–50. John Wiley & Sons Ltd, Chichester. Skelton, P and Eccles, R (2000) A Report on the Survey of Safety in Downtown Auckland. Alcohol Healthwatch, Auckland. Skogan, W G and Maxfield, M G (1981) Coping with Crime: Individual and Neighbourhood Reactions. Sage Publications, Beverly Hills, CA. Snaith, T and Haley, A J (1994) Tourism’s impact on host lifestyle realities. In Tourism: The State of the Art, (ed.) A V Seaton., pp 826–835. John Wiley & Sons Ltd, Chichester. Soutar, G and McLeod, P (1993) Resident perceptions on the impact of the America’s Cup. Annals of Tourism Research 20(3), 571–582. Tarlow, P E (2000) Creating safe and secure communities in economically challenging times. Tourism Economics 6(2), 139–149. Valentine, G (1989) The geography of women’s fear. Area 21, 385–390. Weatherburn, D, Matka, E and Lind, B (1996) ‘Crime perception and reality: public perceptions of the risk of criminal victimisation in Australia’ NSW Bureau of Crime Statistics and Research January, No. 28 (online). Available at http://www.lawlink.nsw.gov.au/bocsar1.nsf/pages/c&jbulletins (accessed 3 January 2001). Williams, P and Dickson, J (1993) Fear of crime: read all about it. The relationship between newspaper crime reporting and fear of crime. British Journal of Criminology 33, 33–56. World Tourism Organisation (1996) Tourist Safety and Security: Practical Measures for Destinations. World Tourism Organisation, Madrid. World Tourism Organisation (1997) Calls for Safety Measures (online). Available at http://www.world-tourism.org/newslett/ sepoct97/safety.htm (accessed 12 October 2000). Young, J (1988) Risk of crime and fear of crime: a realist critique of survey-based assumptions. In Victims of Crime: A New Deal?, (eds) M Maguire and J Pointing., pp 164–176. Open University Press, Milton Keynes.