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Vocational interests: A cognitive view
Journal of Vocational Behavior 19, l-14 (1981)
Vocational Interests: A Cognitive View AZY BARAK Tel-Aviv
University
Vocational interests have been in the center of research for decades. While empirical evidence has been gathered and analyzed, the theoretical explanation regarding interest as a psychological construct has been neglected. The current paper reviews and reexamines relationships of vocational interests with some vocational-relevant variables (i.e., ability, success, and satisfaction), oriented toward theoretical construction. It is shown that while there are no correlations between interests and actual relevant abilities and performance, there is a positive relationship with satisfaction. It is theorized that cognitive functions mediate between actual (tested) abilities, previous performance, satisfaction, and interests. The theoretical model proposes that interests are a function of this mediating process, i.e., perceived abilities, expected success, and anticipated satisfaction. The relationships between this model and other relevant theories are discussed as well as its implications to career development theory and research. substantive
Why is a certain individual interested in a particular activity while the very same activity is disliked by another? Why is one person attracted to an occupation, but another thinks this occupation is dull? The study of human interests has attracted many theorists and researchers because it has been believed that interests or preferences should predict the choice, selection, and attainment of success in particular activities by an individual. Moreover, the belief has been strong that interests should predict the degree of an individual’s satisfaction with and success in a particular activity. Since the prediction of choice behavior and its impact on the individual and society are important topics in the science of psychology, the concept of “interests” has been intensely investigated, resulting in the development of numerous instruments which claim to measure the individual’s personal and/or vocational interests. Various studies have supported the hypothesis that interests have an important impact on selection of majors in school (e.g., Morrow, 1971), and on career choice (Barak & Meir, 1974; Strong, 1955), while diversity This article is partially based on a Ph.D. dissertation submitted to The Ohio State University under the direction of Samuel H. Osipow. Requests for reprints should be sent to: Azy Barak, Department of Psychology, Tel-Aviv University, Ramat-Aviv, Tel-Aviv 69978. Israel.
OOOl-8791/81/040001-14$02.00/O Copyright @ I!381 by Academic Press, Inc. All rights of repraductioo in any form reserved.
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or lack of interests may result in career indecision (Osipow, Carney & Barak, 1976). Studies comparing the relative importance of interests in career or major choice versus other psychological variables (e.g., abilities, personality characteristics) have found that interests have received greater attention on the side of the individual (Berdie, 1955; Holland & Nichols, 1964; Pierson, 1962; Sharf, 1970). While the measurement .of interests has flourished, the conceptual definition and theoretical understanding of interests have been neglected. As noted by Crites (1969a), “Conceptual definitions of interests have lagged considerably behind operational definitions. . . , primarily because, from its beginning the field of interest measurement has been dominated by the empirical model of test construction. . . .” (p. 678). Theories of interests and interest development were almost all formulated in the 193Os, 1940s and 1950s. These may be classified into six major approaches (after C&es, 1%9a): (1) Interests are learned (Fryer, 1931; Strong, 1943). (2) Interests are adjustment modes (Carter, 1940). (3) Interests are an aspect of personality (Berdie, 1944; Darley, 1941, 1960; Darley & Hagenah, 1955; Holland, 1959). (4) Interests are an expression of the self-concept (Bordin, 1943; Carter, 1940; Super, 1949, 1954). (5) Interests are motives (Darley & Hagenah, 1955; Strong, 1955). (6) Interests are multiply determined (Carter, 1940; Roe, 1957: Super & C&es, 1962). Besides these theoretical positions, a mass of literature has dealt with vocational interests, especially their development, measurement, stability, and ability to predict various vocational criteria. A current examination is needed to reconsider the theoretical significance of vocational interests and to reexamine several important dimensions of concern regarding the definition of vocational interests, leading toward a modification and extension of the construct of vocational interests. VOCATIONAL
INTERESTS AND ABILITIES
Assuming that there is a consistency in human behavior, the hypothesis that there is a relationship between vocational interests and abilities has been suggested. Interests and abilities were thought to covary with each other in certain occupations or occupational fields. For example, if one is talented in mathematical reasoning or some other task involving numerical aptitude, he should be interested in activities and/or occupations where he can use his special abilities (Strong, 1943, 1955). Although Strong’s theoretical notion seems rational, the empirical evidence does not appear to support it. In the 1940s Strong (1943) correlated the Strong Vocational Interest Survey (SVIB) scales with various ability tests. He found that 80% of the correlations ranged between +.30 and
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- .30, with 97% between + .40 and - .40. Strong concluded that there was no consistent significant relationship between interests and abilities. In a later project, Strong (1955) reported similar findings. In another study, Tyler (1951) correlated interests and abilities in a sample of first-grade children. She found very few significant correlations; most of the coefficients distributed around zero and revealed no meaningful pattern. Darley and Hagenah (1955), referring to this topic, suggested an explanation for the above findings: “The same amount of ability may be possessed by several individuals, each of whom has a different primary interest pattern leading him to a different educational and vocational choice. Alternatively, within one type of primary interest pattern may be found several individuals at varying ability levels, some of whom will fail” (pp. 58-59). Although this notion may justify the inconsistent nature of the correlations, it does not lead to further understanding of the phenomenon. Not convinced by the previous results, Campbell (1971) suggested that “a good study incorporating a wide range of ability tests and interest scales, and using a highly heterogenous population, might reveal some common variance between interests and abilities” (p. 64). Relying on Strong’s (1959) data, Campbell (1971, p. 64) hypothesized that “there seems to be an intellectual versus business dimension here that is reflected in both the interest and the ability scores.” Since such data, with all these conditions, are not yet available, this hypothesis needs to be tested. Nevertheless, data which are available do not seem to confirm it. The General Aptitude Test Battery (GATB) (U.S. Department of Labor, 1967) was correlated in several samples with two interest inventories: The Kuder Preference Record-Vocational (KPR-V) (Kuder, 1960) and the Occupational Interest Inventory (011) (Lee & Thorpe, 1956). An Examination of these correlations can give an idea about the status of Campbell’s hypothesis. By doing so, one could easily infer that there is no consistent relationship such as was hypothesized by Campbell. First, most of the correlations are not significant. Second, the correlation of each GATB score with the Scientific scale is not always higher than that with the Persuasive scale, even without testing the significance of the difference. For example, the Intelligence score (G) correlates higher with the Scientific scale than with the Persuasive scale in five out of six samples studies, which still could be due to chance (p = . 11, according to the binomial test). Third, the correlation pattern with a certain scale does not seem to be consistent among the six samples. Another observation could be based on the correlations of the GATB subscores with two scales (The Sciences and Business) of the Occupational Interst Inventory (Lee & Thorpe, 1956), which correspond to
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Campbell’s hypothesis. Here, too, there is no evidence for systematic relationships between certain abilities with both interest scales. Another source of information enabling further testing of the relationship between abilities and interests, is the data from the Differential Aptitude Tests (DAT) (Bennett, Seashore, & Wesman, 1966). The correlations between the DAT aptitude scores and the nine scales of the KPR-V were studied in grades 10, 11, and 12, by sex. As can be inferred from the data, there is no significant pattern of relationship: by taking into consideration the fact that a significant correlation in the 12th-grade samples is .25 0, < .05, two tailed), most of the correlations do not differ significantly from zero, and those which do total 15 out of the 72 correlations (21%) for the males and 11 out of the 72 correlations (15%) for the females. An examination of the pattern of the correlations reveals that, except for the KPR-V Mechanical scale, there is no consistent relationship, and even for the Mechanical scale the consistent pattern is for the males, but not for the females. Testing Campbell’s hypothesis on these data leads to further rejection. The data available on 10th and 1lth grades show inconsistent correlations as well. Two other studies investigated the relationships between measured interest and tested abilities. Kelso, Holland, and Gottfredson (1977) found low to moderate correlations between the Self-Directed Search and compatible Armed Services Vocational Aptitude Scales in high school girls. Cooley (1967) reported somewhat higher correlations in his high school sample. Vroom (1964), referring to earlier findings on the same dispute, has proposed an explanation: Although the relationship between interest and actual ability has not been empirically demonstrated, there is a great deal of evidence for a relationship between interest and perceived ability. A number of investigators (Thomdike, 1917; King and Adelstein, 1917;Fryer, 1927)have found extremely high relationships between individuals’ reports of their preferences among activities and their estimates of their ability to perform these activities. The activities which are most highly preferred tend to be those in which the person believes himself to possess the greatest ability. (p. 70, italics in original)
Vroom’s suggestion concurs with Super’s (1951, 1953; Super, Starishevsky, Matlin, & Jordaan, 1963) idea that the self-concept is a major factor in career development. However, if perceived ability (or estimated ability, or assumed ability as preferred by some authors) correlates positively with vocational interests, the data presented above imply that there is a low relationship between actual (tested) and perceived abilities. A review of the literature on this point reveals that this is the case. O’Hara and Tiedeman (1959) found that “Aptitude is relatively poorly perceived throughout grades 9 through 12 even by academically
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able boys” (p. 300). In their study, O’Hara and Tiedeman correlated self-estimate and test estimate of students in grades 9 through 12 in five ability areas. The correlations, although mostly statistically significant, were relatively low and ranged from + .03 (grade 11, Abstract Reasoning) to + 58 (grade 12, Mechanical Reasoning), and averaged + .29. Froehlich (1957) also found a similar phenomenon. He reported that 7% of the lOthgrade students in his sample estimated their abilities differently from what their ability tests measured. Furthermore, O’Hara (1966) reported that, because of the low correlation between estimated and tested abilities, the prediction of achievement in high school students was significantly improved by adding estimated ability to the multiple correlation beyond the prediction of tested abilities. On the basis of the empirical evidence it may generally be said that knowledge of an individual’s abilities does not permit confidence in predicting his interests or vocational preferences. Wesley, Corey, and Stewart (1950), however, correlated interests (using the KPR-V) and abilities (using a series of tests) with intraindividual correlations, that is, assessing the compatibility of interests and abilities for each individual separately. By using this method, they showed that the mean correlation of their 100 Ss was .46, with a range from -.57 to 1.00. This finding indicates that there may be a relationship between interests and abilities but on an individual basis rather than an overall correlation among a group of individuals. This conclusion seems to be congruent with Vroom’s theoretical approach because perceived ability relates to the individuals’s frame of reference, rather than to the group’s frame of reference. Crites (1969a) proposed three hypotheses to explain the low correlations between interests and tested abilities: (a) There may be a nonlinear relationship; (b) influence of a third variable which suppresses the correlation; (c) relationship through a moderator variable or a geometric mode. Since these hypotheses have not been tested yet, their status cannot be evaluated. Vroom’s hypothesis was indirectly tested by McCall and Moore (1%5). They administered the KPR-V to 136 male and 107 female ninth-grade students. The KPR-V was given to the same students again 6 months later, but in the instructions they were asked to estimate their abilities to accomplish each of the activities (items of the inventory) rather than their interest in the activities. In correlating the test with the retest, they found unusually high correlations ranging from .49 (females-Computational) to .77 (males-Outdoor), with a mean correlation of .59. It may be summarized and proposed, though, that individual’s interest modification as a function or relation to personal abilities, is mediated by a cognitive process of his perception or believed knowledge of his abilities. Only these beliefs or perceptions are directly and highly related to interests, rather than the actual abilities.
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VOCATIONAL
INTERESTS AND PERFORMANCE
Since the correlation between ability and performance is generally in the range of the .30’s to the SO’s, and since, according to learning theory, an interest is a product of reinforced behaviors (cf. Darley & Hagenah, 1955), there should be an examination of the actual relationship between interests and performance. Common variance between these two variables may result from a casual effect one variable has on the other, a two-way directionality, or the effect of a third variable. However, an examination of the relationship between interest and performance is the first stage in inquiring into such possible causal effects. The studies regarding the relationship between vocational interests and work performance can be considered according to the design employed, i.e., correlational versus experimental. Among the correlational studies, the most impressive data are those reported by Strong (1943) and Kelley and Fiske (1951). Strong (1943) has shown that in some occupations performance is related to the relevant scales on the SVIB. The results describing insurance agents are perhaps the most convincing, with a correlation of .37 between this scale on the SVIB and success in this occupation (amount of new policies per year by their money value). Kelley and Fiske (1951) found some significant correlations between various scores on the SVIB and success in clinical training. The correlation between the Clinical Psychologist key on the SVIB and the criterion of “overall clinical competence’ ’ was .26 (n = 93; p < .05), while the correlation between the Experimental Psychologist scale and the criterion of “research competence” was .16 (n.s.) (the correlations between the Clinical Psychologist key and research competence, and between the Experimental Psychologist key and the overall clinical competence were -.08 and .Ol both n.s., respectively). The SVIB predictions were better than all the other predictors studied except the Miller Analogies Test (MAT). These studies and more recent ones led Campbell (1971) to conclude that there is a relationship between interest and performance. However, a careful review of the available data shows the relationship to be questionable, especially when interest data are not based only on the SVIB but on other measures of interests. Super and Crites (1%2) have mentioned that the correlation between vocational interests as measured by the KPR-V and vocational success is low and not convincing. Further reviews seem to indicate the same phenomenon. Guion (1965) cited 40 studies which sought to find covariation between interests and job success. Of all the statistical tests computed (correlation or group comparison) only 13% showed statistical significance. The outstanding work of Ghiselli (1%6) provides further information on the interest-performance relationship question. The mean correlations
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between interest measures and work proficiency, according to the General Occupational Classification System (developed by Ghiselli), were .22 (Managerial), .12 (Clerical), .31 (Sales), -.Ol (Protective Service), .26 (Vehicle Operators), -. 13 (Trades and Crafts), and .14 (Industrial). Although some of the correlations are relatively high, the overall picture is inconsistent. The mean correlation of all occupational groups is .13, accounting for only 2.6% of overlapping variance. Perhaps a quotation from Cronbach (1970) best summarizes the evidence: “Counselors are likely to misinterpret the interest profile as showing what [clients] can do best. Interests tell nothing about abilities. . . . A high interest score indicates that if a person survives training and enters the occupation, he is likely to enjoy his work. Although interests imply motivation, their influence on success is rather small . . . a person with interests and abilities suitable for an occupation can and will do well in it, a person with suitable abilities but unsuitable interests can do well but may not, and a person with low aptitude will do badly” (p. 476). Campbell (1971) has suggested that the correlation between vocational interest and success is restricted since interests best predict occupational persistence; the range of the surviving members in an occupation is restricted to highly interested people only, thereby lowering the magnitude of the correlation of interest with success. Although the logic of this notion is clear, it cannot explain why correlations of interest with job satisfaction are consistently positive and high, though still subject to the same restriction. Among laboratory experiments concerning the issue, those by Osipow and Scheid (1971) and Osipow (1972) are relevant. Noting the low predictability of success based on interests, Osipow and Scheid (1971) designed a study which intended to test the possibility that task preferences (or, in a broader sense, interests) are caused by previous performance. By using different success ratios as reinforcers on simple tasks, they showed that task preference can be manipulated by the degree of positive feedback. In the later study (Osipow, 1972) the previous results were replicated and extended in that more meaningful tasks were involved. Again, it was found that preferences for less preferred tasks were increased as a result of high success ratios in dealing with those tasks. Two different arguments can be made about the above studies: (a) Showing effects of one variable on the other does not immediately imply that there are no effects of the second on the first. That is, another experiment can control level of preferences and show differential levels of performance, and thus imply two-way direction of causality. Since such a study has not been done, it remains just a hypothesis, but counselors often hear from their clients that lack of success in a course, for instance, is caused by lack of interest. This notion is, however, questionable according to the empirical evidence presented; (b) no attempt was made to
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control or detect intervening or mediating variables. By showing effects of one variable on another, a direct causality is still uncertain and a third variable (e.g., satisfaction, as proposed later) may be affected by success that will affect preference. Vroom (1962) hypothesized that if a person expects successful performance on a task, he will prefer performing that task. In other words, there should be a correlation between the expected success in a task and the interest toward it. Although Vroom (1964) suggested that such a relationship should be studied by experimental manipulation of people’s beliefs concerning the consequences, and measurement of their desire or aversion for those consequences, correlating vocational interests with expected success in parallel areas could test Vroom’s expectancy hypothesis. It may be concluded and proposed that interests are poorly related to degree of performance and the relationships may be mediated by the cognitive variable of believed or expected success. VOCATIONAL INTERESTS AND SATISFACTION As was pointed out, there is a poor relationship between vocational interests and abilities and also between interests and performance. However, generally speaking, there is a correlation between interests and satisfaction. Although some studies (e.g., Dolliver, Irvin & Bigley, 1972; Schlezer, 1966) have revealed poor correlations between individuals’ interests and their job satisfaction in the same occupations, the majority of the studies have shown such a relationship does exist, based on different interest measures (cf. Barak & Meir, 1974; Crites, 1969b; Cronbach, 1970; Holland, 1973; Meir & Barak, 1974). The relationship between interests and satisfaction requires special attention. Are interests the cause for future satisfaction, or are they the product of previous satisfaction? In other words, what is the causal path of the interests-satisfaction relationship? According to theoretical and empirical analyses, it seems that the directionality may exist both ways, that is, there may be two-way causal effects. On the one hand, results of follow-up studies indicate the prediction of satisfaction by interests is enhanced; on the other hand, learning theory suggests that feelings of satisfaction will cause the individual to seek stimuli that are satisfiers, or to show motivation for such tasks. If the assumption that vocational interests are a component of motivation (C&es, 1969b; Strong, 1958)-or, more precisely, a component of intrinsic motivation toward the activity or the work itself (Herzberg, 1966; Herzberg, Mausner, & Snyderman, 1959; Meir & Friedland, 1971)-is acceptable, the satisfaction-causes-interests relationship might be understood.
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A brief review of some approaches to learning may contribute to the understanding of the process. Thorndike (1927), in his Law of Effect, proposed that a “bond” is created between a response and a situation when satisfaction is associated with the response in that situation. This principle holds also for Hull’s (1943, 1951) drive-reduction theory. The Skinnerian approach (Skinner, 1953, 1959), although defining reinforcement in terms of probability of occurrence of behavior, meant, generally, the same principle: Although some reinforcers are common to more than one individual (as food after deprivation to an animal), a reinforcer could be defined as such by its ability to satisfy the individual’s needs (Cautela & Kastenbaum, 1%7; Krumboltz & Thoreson, 1969). This principle may be further understood by utilizing cognitive mediating processes such as “acquired meaning of stimuli” (Mischel, 1973) which emphasize the individual’s own perception and subjective importance of objective stimuli. A similar process is proposed by the social learning approach (Rotter, 1954) of expectation of reinforcement, and Estes’ (1970) anticipation of rewards and punishments. There is some evidence that interests are learned through experience. Besides the studies mentioned already (Osipow & Scheid, 1971; Osipow, 1972), some studies have intended to show that experimental intervention can alter, shape, promote, or diminish interests, and thus have supported the assumption that interests are learnable (Krumboltz & Baker, 1973; Mitchell, Jones, & Krumboltz, 1974). Another approach has been that of Locke (1965). In four separate experiments involving different types of tasks, Locke found correlations in the .40’s between task success and task satisfaction. This phenomenon was successfuly replicated (Locke, 1966; Leonard & Weiz, 1971). Locke (1965) concluded that task success is an important source of attitude toward the task or work. It can be inferred that satisfaction from the task is a mediating variable between success and interest and may explain the low correlation between them. So far, it could be proposed that the process of interest shaping is: differential activities (or experiences) ---, differential success of performance + differential satisfaction + differential interests. However, one link is missing in the above chain: interests are not only a result of an input but, at the same time, represent an attitude toward an output. So, interest is not only an habitual activity (Strong, 1951)but also a dynamic cognition toward various activities. This notion necessitates an additional construct between the individual’s feeling of satisfaction and his interests, which is, as proposed here, anticipated satisfaction from various activities (and, as proposed earlier, perceived abilities and expected success). Fletcher (1966) theoretically analyzed the terms of interests, values and attitudes. He proposed that these constructs have the same characteris-
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tics as concepts in general and develop in a similar way. To every concept that is created, there is an association of “affect charge” which relates to the feeling or emotional tone of satisfying basic needs. Furthermore, “every concept system has an affect charge which is the resultant of the affect charges associated with every experience and concept that make up the system” (p. 133). Hence, “interests . . . are based on or derived from actual experiences: [interest] has its unique affect charge resulting from the processes of generalization, inference and abstraction arising out of particular needs. Concepts we classify as interests tend to deal with ‘doing’ and the affect charges are the satisfactions (or dissatisfactions) relating to need fulfillment (or lack thereof) associated with the particular behaviors in question” (p. 134). To continue with Fletcher’s thinking, anticipated satisfactions for needs, as learned through experience (and concept formation), may explain one’s interests toward various activities. This suggested process is also congruent with the reanalysis of interests by Strong (1958) and Vroom’s (1964) valence theory. THE MODIFICATION
OF INTEREST
In light of the critical review provided above, it is possible to describe and explain the development of interest and, simultaneously, to reformulate the construct of interests. The current model states that there is a path of mediating constructs which, by virtue of the direct causal relationships among them, results in the modification of individuals’ interests. More specifically, the model contains four developmental stages: (a) Differential activities and experiences; (b) Differential success and satisfaction; (c) Mediating cognitions; and (d) Differential interests (see Fig. 1). The relevant antecedent and mediating cognition, as defined in this model, consist of perceived abilities, expected success, and anticipated satisfaction. It is proposed that these later variables are the main modifying components of interests and hence, in terms of testable hypotheses, it is suggested that
Success 1 Satisfaction Y Expected
1 Success
Anticipated
" Satisfaction
Perceived
Abilities
I
FIG. 1.
A
modelof interestsdevelopment and modification.
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each and all of them will be highly correlated with interests, in both concurrent and longitudinal studies. This theoretical model concurs considerably with the cognitive approach to career development, especially the formulations of Vroom (1964), who explicitly theorized about cognitive mediation functions in work-related activities, and Super (e.g., Super et al., 1%3) who initiated the construct of self-concept and its role in career development. Both Vroom and Super theorized-and supplied some empirical data to support their approaches-that cognitive processes mediate between the individual’s input (e.g., experience, learning, inherited abilities) and his vocational-related output (e.g., interests, preferences, occupational stereotypes, work motivation). While Vroom concentrated on the organizational topics (such asjob satisfaction), Super’s theory centered around the individual and his career development. Super’s approach can be summarized in his own words: In expressing a vocational preference (Super, 1951), a person puts into occupational terminology his idea of the kind of person he is. . . .( 1%3, p. 1, italics added)
By exchanging “his idea” into the mediating cognitive variables proposed, there is a congruence between the two models. Some attempts have been made to implement cognitive variables in the study of career development. Those attempts, although not yet clear or consistent, have included variables as cognitive consistency (Korman, 1%8), cognitive differentiation (Bodden & Klein, 1973; Lawlis & Crawford, 1975), cognitive style (Levine, 1968; Osipow, 1%9), cognitive dissonance (Hilton, 1%2; Hilton, Baenninger, & Kom, 1962; Hershenson & Roth, 1%6), and cognitive complexity (Bodden, 1970; Dolliver, 1%7). Theoretical organization and guideline of these and other cognitive variables in line with the current model may prove useful in explaining the career development process and outcome. As pointed out by Osipow (1970, 1973) cognitive variables may prove to have high significance in career development. It seems that the model suggested agrees with Osipow’s statement and provides a needed theoretical organization of this approach. REFERENCES Barak, A., & Meir, E. I. The predictive validity of a vocational interest inventory“Ramak”: Seven year follow-up. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 1974, 4, 377-387. Bennett, G. K., Seashore, H. G., & Wesman, A. G. Manual for the Differential Aptitude Tests. New York: The Psychological Corporation, 1966. Berdie, R. F. Factors related to vocational interests. Psychological Bulletin, 1944, 41, 137-157. Berdie, R. F. Aptitude, achievement, interest, and personality tests: A longitudinal cornparison. Journal of Applied Psychology, 1955, 39, 103-l 14.
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Bodden, J. L. Cognitive complexity as a factor in appropriate vocational choice. Journal of 1970, 17, 364-368. Counseling Psychology, Bodden, J. L., & Klein, A. J. Cognitive differentiation and atfective stimulus value in vocational judgments. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 1973, 3, 75-79. Bordin, E. G. A theory of interests as dynamic phenomena. Educational and Psychological Measurement,
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Campbell, D. P. Handbook for the Strong Vocational Interest Blank. Stanford, Calif.: Stanford Univ. Press, 1971. Carter, H. D. The development of vocational attitudes. Journal of Consulting Psychology, 1940, 4, 185-191. Cautela, J. R., & Kastenbaum, R. A reinforcement survey schedule for use in therapy, training and research. Psychological Reports, 1%7, 20, 111.5-l 130. Cooley, W. W. Interactions among interests, abilities and career plans. Journal of Applied Psychology Monograph, 1%7, 51(5, Whole No. 640). Crites, J. 0. Interests. In R. L. Ebel (Ed.), Encyclopedia of educational research. London: MacMillan, 1%9. (a) C&es, J. 0. Vocational psychology. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1%9. (b) Cronbach, L. J. Essentials of psychological testing (3rd ed.). New York: Harper & Row, 1970. Darley, J. G. Clinical aspects and interpretation of the Strong Vocational interest Blank. New York: The Psychological Corporation, 1941. Darley, J. G. The theoretical basis of interests. In W. L. Layton (Ed.), The SVIB: Research and uses. Minneapolis, Minn.: Univ. of Minnesota Press, 1960. Darley, J. G., & Hagenah, T. Vocational interest measurement: Theory and practice. Minneapolis, Minn.: Univ. of Minnesota Press, 1955. Dolliver, R. H. An adaptation of the Tyler Vocational Card Sort. Personnel and Guidance Journal, 1%7, 45, 916-920. Dolliver, R. H., Irvin, J. A., & Bigley, S. S. Twelve-year followup of the Strong Vocational Interest Bank. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 1972, 19, 212-217. Estes, W. K. Learning theory and mental development. New York: Academic Press, 1970. Fletcher, F. M. Concepts, curiosity and careers. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 1966, 13, 131-138. Froehlich, C. P. A criterion for counseling. Psychological Monographs, 1957,71(15, Whole No. 444). Fryer, D. H. Interest and ability in educational guidance. Journal of Educational Research, 1927, 16, 27-39. Fryer, D. H. The measurement of interest. New York: Holt, 1931. Ghiselli, E. E. The validity of occupational aptitude tests. New York: Wiley, 1966. Guion, R. M. Personnel testing. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1965. Hershenson, D. B., & Roth, R. M. A decisional process model of vocational development. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 1966, 13, 368-370. Herzberg, F. Work and the nature of man. New York: Wodd, 1966. Herzberg, F., Mausner, B., & Snyderman, B. B. The motivation to work. New York: Wiley, 1959. Hilton, T. L. Career decision-making. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 1%2,9,291-298. Hilton, T. L., Baerminger, R., & Kom, J. H. Cognitive processes in career decision-making. Pittsburgh, Pa.: Carnegie Institute of Technology, 1962. Holland, J. L. A theory of vocational choice. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 1959, 6, 35-45. Holland, J. L. Making vocational choice: A theory of careers. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 1973. Holland, J. L., & Nichols, R. C. Explorations of a theory of vocational choice, III. A longitudinal study of change in major field of study. Personnel and Guidance Journal, 1964. 43. 235-242.
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Hull, C. L. Principles of behavior. New York: Appleton-Century, 1943. Hull, C. L. Essentials of behavior. New Haven, Conn.: Yale Univ. Press, 1951. Kelley, E. L., & Fiske, D. W. The prediction of performance in clincal psychology. Ann Arbor, Mich.: Univ. of Michigan Press, 1951. Kelso, G. I., Holland, J. L., & Gottfredson, G. D. The relations of self-reported competenties to aptitude test scores. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 1977, 10, 99-103. King, I., & Adelstein, M. The permanence of interests and their relation to abilities. School and Society, 1917, 6, 359-360. Korman, A. K. Task success, task popularity, and self-esteem as influences on task liking. Journal of Applied Psychology, 1968, 52, 484-490. Krumboltz, J. D., & Baker, R. D. Behavioral counseling for vocational decision. In H. Borow (Ed.), Career guidance for a new age. Boston, Mass.: Houghton MifBin, 1973. Krumboltz, J. D., & Thoreson, C. E. Behavioral counseling: Cases and techniques. New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston, 1%9. Kuder, F. G. Manual for the Kuder Preference Record-Vocational. Chicago, Ill.: Science Research Associates, 1960. Lawlis, G. F., & Crawford, J. D. Cognitive differentiation in women and pioneer-traditional vocational choices. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 1975, 6, 263-267. Lee, E. A., & Thorpe, L. P. Manual for the Occupational Interest Inventory. Monterey, Calif.: California Test Bureau, 1956. Leonard, S., & Weiz, J. Task employment and task perseverence in relation to task success and self-esteem. Journal of Applied Psychology, 1971, 55, 414-421. Levine, F. J. Color-work test performance and drive regulation in three vocational groups. Journal of Clinical and Consulting Psychology, 1968, 32, 642-647. Locke, E. A. The relationship of task success to task liking and satisfaction. Journal of 1%5, 49, 379-385. Applied Psychology, Locke, E. A. The relationship of task success to task liking: A replication. Psychological Reports, 1966, 18, 552-554. McCall, J. N., & Moore, G. D. Do interest inventories measure estimated abilities? Personnel and Guidance Journal, 1%5, 43, 1034-1037. Meir, E. I., & Barak, A. A simple instrument for measuring vocational interests based on Roe’s classification of occupations. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 1974, 4, 33-42. Meir, E. I., & Friedland, N. The relationship between intrinsic-extrinsic needs and occupational preferences. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 1971, 1, 159-165. Mischel, W. Toward a cognitive social learning reconceptualization of personality. Psychological Review, 1973, 80, 252-283. Mitchell, A. M., Jones, G. B., & Krumboltz, J. D. A social learning theory of career decision making. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Health, Education and Welfare, 1974. Morrow, J. M., Jr. A test of Holland’s theory of vocational choice. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 1971, 18, 422-425. O’Hara, R. P. Vocational self-concepts and high school achievements. Vocational Guidance 1966, 15, 106-112. Quarterly, O’Hara, R. P., & Tiedeman, D. V. Vocational self-concept in adolescence. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 1959, 6, 292-301. Osipow, S. H. Cognitive styles and educational-vocational preferences and selection. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 1969, 16, 534-546. Osipow, S. H. Some cognitive aspects of career development. In E. D. Evans (Ed.), Adolescents: Readings in behavior and development. Hinsdale, Ill.: Dryden, 1970. Osipow, S. H. Success and preference: A replication and extension. Journal of Applied Psychology, 1972, 56, 179-180. Osipow, S. H. Theories of career development (2nd ed.). Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 1973.
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Osipow, S. H., Camey, C. G., & Barak, A. A scale of educational-vocational undecidedness: A typological approach. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 1976, 9, 233-243. Osipow, S. H., & Scheid, A. B. The effect of manipulated success ratios on task preference. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 1971, 1, 93-98. Pierson, R. R. Changes in major by university students. Personnel and Guidance Journal, 1%2, 40, 458-461. Roe, A. Early determinants of vocational choice. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 1957, 4, 212-217. Rotter, J. B. Social learning and clinical psychology. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: PrenticeHall, 1954. Schlezer, V. M. SVIB as a predictor of job satisfaction. Journal of Applied Psychology, 1966, 50, 5-8. Sharf, R. Relative importance of interest and ability in vocational decision making. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 1970, 17, 258-262. Skinner, B. F. Science and human behavior. New York: MacMillan, 1953. Skinner, B. F. A case history in scientific method. In S. Koch (Ed.), Psychology: A study of science, Vol. II. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1959. Strong, E. K., Jr. Vocational interests of men and women. Stanford, Calif.: Stanford Univ. Press, 1943. Strong, E. K., Jr. Permanence of interest scores over 22 years. Journal of Applied Psychology, 1951, 35, 89-92. Strong, E. K., Jr. Vocationnl interests 18 years after college. Minneapolis, Minn.: Univ. of Minnesota Press, 1955. Strong, E. K., Jr. Satisfaction and interests. American Psychologist, 1958, 13, 449-456. Strong, E. K., Jr. Strong Vocational Interest Blank mnnual. Palo Alto, Calif.: Consulting Psychologist Press, 1959. Super, D. E. Appraising vocationalfitness. New York: Harper,1949. Super, D. E. Vocational adjustment: Implementing a self-concept. Occupations, 1951, 30, 88-92. Super, D. E. A theory of vocational development. American Psychologist, 1953,8,185-l%. Super, D. E. The measurement of interests. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 1954, 1, 168-172. Super, D. E. Self concepts in vocational development. In D. E. Super, R. Starishevsky, N. Matlin, and J. P. Jordaan (Eds.), Career development; Self-concept theory. New York: College Entrance Examination Board, 1%3. Super, D. E., & Crites, J. 0. Appraising vocationalfitness (2nd ed.). New York: Harper & Row, 1%2. Super, D. E., Starishevsky, R., Matlin, N., & Jordaan, J. P. Career development: Selfconcept theory. New York: College Entrance Examination Board, 1963. Thomdike, E. L. Early interests: Their permanence and relation to abilities. School and Society, 1917, 5, 178-179. Thomdike, E. L. The law of effect. American Journal of Psychofogy, 1927,39,212-222. Tyler, L. E. The relationship of interests to abilities and regulation among first-gmde children. Educational and Psychological Measurement, 1951, 11, 255-264. U. S. Department of Labor, Manual for the General Aptitude Test Battery. Section ZZZ: Development. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Govt. Printing Office, 1%7. Vroom, V. H. Ego-involvement, job satisfaction, and job performance. Personnel Psychology, 1%2, 15, 159-177. Vroom, V. H. Work and motivation. New York: Wiley, 1964. Wesley, S. M., Corey, D. Q., & Stewart, B. M. The intra-individual relationship between interest and ability. Journal of Applied Psychology, 1950, 34, 193-197. Received: September 8, 1977
Vocational Interests: A Cognitive View AZY BARAK Tel-Aviv
University
Vocational interests have been in the center of research for decades. While empirical evidence has been gathered and analyzed, the theoretical explanation regarding interest as a psychological construct has been neglected. The current paper reviews and reexamines relationships of vocational interests with some vocational-relevant variables (i.e., ability, success, and satisfaction), oriented toward theoretical construction. It is shown that while there are no correlations between interests and actual relevant abilities and performance, there is a positive relationship with satisfaction. It is theorized that cognitive functions mediate between actual (tested) abilities, previous performance, satisfaction, and interests. The theoretical model proposes that interests are a function of this mediating process, i.e., perceived abilities, expected success, and anticipated satisfaction. The relationships between this model and other relevant theories are discussed as well as its implications to career development theory and research. substantive
Why is a certain individual interested in a particular activity while the very same activity is disliked by another? Why is one person attracted to an occupation, but another thinks this occupation is dull? The study of human interests has attracted many theorists and researchers because it has been believed that interests or preferences should predict the choice, selection, and attainment of success in particular activities by an individual. Moreover, the belief has been strong that interests should predict the degree of an individual’s satisfaction with and success in a particular activity. Since the prediction of choice behavior and its impact on the individual and society are important topics in the science of psychology, the concept of “interests” has been intensely investigated, resulting in the development of numerous instruments which claim to measure the individual’s personal and/or vocational interests. Various studies have supported the hypothesis that interests have an important impact on selection of majors in school (e.g., Morrow, 1971), and on career choice (Barak & Meir, 1974; Strong, 1955), while diversity This article is partially based on a Ph.D. dissertation submitted to The Ohio State University under the direction of Samuel H. Osipow. Requests for reprints should be sent to: Azy Barak, Department of Psychology, Tel-Aviv University, Ramat-Aviv, Tel-Aviv 69978. Israel.
OOOl-8791/81/040001-14$02.00/O Copyright @ I!381 by Academic Press, Inc. All rights of repraductioo in any form reserved.
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or lack of interests may result in career indecision (Osipow, Carney & Barak, 1976). Studies comparing the relative importance of interests in career or major choice versus other psychological variables (e.g., abilities, personality characteristics) have found that interests have received greater attention on the side of the individual (Berdie, 1955; Holland & Nichols, 1964; Pierson, 1962; Sharf, 1970). While the measurement .of interests has flourished, the conceptual definition and theoretical understanding of interests have been neglected. As noted by Crites (1969a), “Conceptual definitions of interests have lagged considerably behind operational definitions. . . , primarily because, from its beginning the field of interest measurement has been dominated by the empirical model of test construction. . . .” (p. 678). Theories of interests and interest development were almost all formulated in the 193Os, 1940s and 1950s. These may be classified into six major approaches (after C&es, 1%9a): (1) Interests are learned (Fryer, 1931; Strong, 1943). (2) Interests are adjustment modes (Carter, 1940). (3) Interests are an aspect of personality (Berdie, 1944; Darley, 1941, 1960; Darley & Hagenah, 1955; Holland, 1959). (4) Interests are an expression of the self-concept (Bordin, 1943; Carter, 1940; Super, 1949, 1954). (5) Interests are motives (Darley & Hagenah, 1955; Strong, 1955). (6) Interests are multiply determined (Carter, 1940; Roe, 1957: Super & C&es, 1962). Besides these theoretical positions, a mass of literature has dealt with vocational interests, especially their development, measurement, stability, and ability to predict various vocational criteria. A current examination is needed to reconsider the theoretical significance of vocational interests and to reexamine several important dimensions of concern regarding the definition of vocational interests, leading toward a modification and extension of the construct of vocational interests. VOCATIONAL
INTERESTS AND ABILITIES
Assuming that there is a consistency in human behavior, the hypothesis that there is a relationship between vocational interests and abilities has been suggested. Interests and abilities were thought to covary with each other in certain occupations or occupational fields. For example, if one is talented in mathematical reasoning or some other task involving numerical aptitude, he should be interested in activities and/or occupations where he can use his special abilities (Strong, 1943, 1955). Although Strong’s theoretical notion seems rational, the empirical evidence does not appear to support it. In the 1940s Strong (1943) correlated the Strong Vocational Interest Survey (SVIB) scales with various ability tests. He found that 80% of the correlations ranged between +.30 and
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- .30, with 97% between + .40 and - .40. Strong concluded that there was no consistent significant relationship between interests and abilities. In a later project, Strong (1955) reported similar findings. In another study, Tyler (1951) correlated interests and abilities in a sample of first-grade children. She found very few significant correlations; most of the coefficients distributed around zero and revealed no meaningful pattern. Darley and Hagenah (1955), referring to this topic, suggested an explanation for the above findings: “The same amount of ability may be possessed by several individuals, each of whom has a different primary interest pattern leading him to a different educational and vocational choice. Alternatively, within one type of primary interest pattern may be found several individuals at varying ability levels, some of whom will fail” (pp. 58-59). Although this notion may justify the inconsistent nature of the correlations, it does not lead to further understanding of the phenomenon. Not convinced by the previous results, Campbell (1971) suggested that “a good study incorporating a wide range of ability tests and interest scales, and using a highly heterogenous population, might reveal some common variance between interests and abilities” (p. 64). Relying on Strong’s (1959) data, Campbell (1971, p. 64) hypothesized that “there seems to be an intellectual versus business dimension here that is reflected in both the interest and the ability scores.” Since such data, with all these conditions, are not yet available, this hypothesis needs to be tested. Nevertheless, data which are available do not seem to confirm it. The General Aptitude Test Battery (GATB) (U.S. Department of Labor, 1967) was correlated in several samples with two interest inventories: The Kuder Preference Record-Vocational (KPR-V) (Kuder, 1960) and the Occupational Interest Inventory (011) (Lee & Thorpe, 1956). An Examination of these correlations can give an idea about the status of Campbell’s hypothesis. By doing so, one could easily infer that there is no consistent relationship such as was hypothesized by Campbell. First, most of the correlations are not significant. Second, the correlation of each GATB score with the Scientific scale is not always higher than that with the Persuasive scale, even without testing the significance of the difference. For example, the Intelligence score (G) correlates higher with the Scientific scale than with the Persuasive scale in five out of six samples studies, which still could be due to chance (p = . 11, according to the binomial test). Third, the correlation pattern with a certain scale does not seem to be consistent among the six samples. Another observation could be based on the correlations of the GATB subscores with two scales (The Sciences and Business) of the Occupational Interst Inventory (Lee & Thorpe, 1956), which correspond to
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Campbell’s hypothesis. Here, too, there is no evidence for systematic relationships between certain abilities with both interest scales. Another source of information enabling further testing of the relationship between abilities and interests, is the data from the Differential Aptitude Tests (DAT) (Bennett, Seashore, & Wesman, 1966). The correlations between the DAT aptitude scores and the nine scales of the KPR-V were studied in grades 10, 11, and 12, by sex. As can be inferred from the data, there is no significant pattern of relationship: by taking into consideration the fact that a significant correlation in the 12th-grade samples is .25 0, < .05, two tailed), most of the correlations do not differ significantly from zero, and those which do total 15 out of the 72 correlations (21%) for the males and 11 out of the 72 correlations (15%) for the females. An examination of the pattern of the correlations reveals that, except for the KPR-V Mechanical scale, there is no consistent relationship, and even for the Mechanical scale the consistent pattern is for the males, but not for the females. Testing Campbell’s hypothesis on these data leads to further rejection. The data available on 10th and 1lth grades show inconsistent correlations as well. Two other studies investigated the relationships between measured interest and tested abilities. Kelso, Holland, and Gottfredson (1977) found low to moderate correlations between the Self-Directed Search and compatible Armed Services Vocational Aptitude Scales in high school girls. Cooley (1967) reported somewhat higher correlations in his high school sample. Vroom (1964), referring to earlier findings on the same dispute, has proposed an explanation: Although the relationship between interest and actual ability has not been empirically demonstrated, there is a great deal of evidence for a relationship between interest and perceived ability. A number of investigators (Thomdike, 1917; King and Adelstein, 1917;Fryer, 1927)have found extremely high relationships between individuals’ reports of their preferences among activities and their estimates of their ability to perform these activities. The activities which are most highly preferred tend to be those in which the person believes himself to possess the greatest ability. (p. 70, italics in original)
Vroom’s suggestion concurs with Super’s (1951, 1953; Super, Starishevsky, Matlin, & Jordaan, 1963) idea that the self-concept is a major factor in career development. However, if perceived ability (or estimated ability, or assumed ability as preferred by some authors) correlates positively with vocational interests, the data presented above imply that there is a low relationship between actual (tested) and perceived abilities. A review of the literature on this point reveals that this is the case. O’Hara and Tiedeman (1959) found that “Aptitude is relatively poorly perceived throughout grades 9 through 12 even by academically
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able boys” (p. 300). In their study, O’Hara and Tiedeman correlated self-estimate and test estimate of students in grades 9 through 12 in five ability areas. The correlations, although mostly statistically significant, were relatively low and ranged from + .03 (grade 11, Abstract Reasoning) to + 58 (grade 12, Mechanical Reasoning), and averaged + .29. Froehlich (1957) also found a similar phenomenon. He reported that 7% of the lOthgrade students in his sample estimated their abilities differently from what their ability tests measured. Furthermore, O’Hara (1966) reported that, because of the low correlation between estimated and tested abilities, the prediction of achievement in high school students was significantly improved by adding estimated ability to the multiple correlation beyond the prediction of tested abilities. On the basis of the empirical evidence it may generally be said that knowledge of an individual’s abilities does not permit confidence in predicting his interests or vocational preferences. Wesley, Corey, and Stewart (1950), however, correlated interests (using the KPR-V) and abilities (using a series of tests) with intraindividual correlations, that is, assessing the compatibility of interests and abilities for each individual separately. By using this method, they showed that the mean correlation of their 100 Ss was .46, with a range from -.57 to 1.00. This finding indicates that there may be a relationship between interests and abilities but on an individual basis rather than an overall correlation among a group of individuals. This conclusion seems to be congruent with Vroom’s theoretical approach because perceived ability relates to the individuals’s frame of reference, rather than to the group’s frame of reference. Crites (1969a) proposed three hypotheses to explain the low correlations between interests and tested abilities: (a) There may be a nonlinear relationship; (b) influence of a third variable which suppresses the correlation; (c) relationship through a moderator variable or a geometric mode. Since these hypotheses have not been tested yet, their status cannot be evaluated. Vroom’s hypothesis was indirectly tested by McCall and Moore (1%5). They administered the KPR-V to 136 male and 107 female ninth-grade students. The KPR-V was given to the same students again 6 months later, but in the instructions they were asked to estimate their abilities to accomplish each of the activities (items of the inventory) rather than their interest in the activities. In correlating the test with the retest, they found unusually high correlations ranging from .49 (females-Computational) to .77 (males-Outdoor), with a mean correlation of .59. It may be summarized and proposed, though, that individual’s interest modification as a function or relation to personal abilities, is mediated by a cognitive process of his perception or believed knowledge of his abilities. Only these beliefs or perceptions are directly and highly related to interests, rather than the actual abilities.
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VOCATIONAL
INTERESTS AND PERFORMANCE
Since the correlation between ability and performance is generally in the range of the .30’s to the SO’s, and since, according to learning theory, an interest is a product of reinforced behaviors (cf. Darley & Hagenah, 1955), there should be an examination of the actual relationship between interests and performance. Common variance between these two variables may result from a casual effect one variable has on the other, a two-way directionality, or the effect of a third variable. However, an examination of the relationship between interest and performance is the first stage in inquiring into such possible causal effects. The studies regarding the relationship between vocational interests and work performance can be considered according to the design employed, i.e., correlational versus experimental. Among the correlational studies, the most impressive data are those reported by Strong (1943) and Kelley and Fiske (1951). Strong (1943) has shown that in some occupations performance is related to the relevant scales on the SVIB. The results describing insurance agents are perhaps the most convincing, with a correlation of .37 between this scale on the SVIB and success in this occupation (amount of new policies per year by their money value). Kelley and Fiske (1951) found some significant correlations between various scores on the SVIB and success in clinical training. The correlation between the Clinical Psychologist key on the SVIB and the criterion of “overall clinical competence’ ’ was .26 (n = 93; p < .05), while the correlation between the Experimental Psychologist scale and the criterion of “research competence” was .16 (n.s.) (the correlations between the Clinical Psychologist key and research competence, and between the Experimental Psychologist key and the overall clinical competence were -.08 and .Ol both n.s., respectively). The SVIB predictions were better than all the other predictors studied except the Miller Analogies Test (MAT). These studies and more recent ones led Campbell (1971) to conclude that there is a relationship between interest and performance. However, a careful review of the available data shows the relationship to be questionable, especially when interest data are not based only on the SVIB but on other measures of interests. Super and Crites (1%2) have mentioned that the correlation between vocational interests as measured by the KPR-V and vocational success is low and not convincing. Further reviews seem to indicate the same phenomenon. Guion (1965) cited 40 studies which sought to find covariation between interests and job success. Of all the statistical tests computed (correlation or group comparison) only 13% showed statistical significance. The outstanding work of Ghiselli (1%6) provides further information on the interest-performance relationship question. The mean correlations
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between interest measures and work proficiency, according to the General Occupational Classification System (developed by Ghiselli), were .22 (Managerial), .12 (Clerical), .31 (Sales), -.Ol (Protective Service), .26 (Vehicle Operators), -. 13 (Trades and Crafts), and .14 (Industrial). Although some of the correlations are relatively high, the overall picture is inconsistent. The mean correlation of all occupational groups is .13, accounting for only 2.6% of overlapping variance. Perhaps a quotation from Cronbach (1970) best summarizes the evidence: “Counselors are likely to misinterpret the interest profile as showing what [clients] can do best. Interests tell nothing about abilities. . . . A high interest score indicates that if a person survives training and enters the occupation, he is likely to enjoy his work. Although interests imply motivation, their influence on success is rather small . . . a person with interests and abilities suitable for an occupation can and will do well in it, a person with suitable abilities but unsuitable interests can do well but may not, and a person with low aptitude will do badly” (p. 476). Campbell (1971) has suggested that the correlation between vocational interest and success is restricted since interests best predict occupational persistence; the range of the surviving members in an occupation is restricted to highly interested people only, thereby lowering the magnitude of the correlation of interest with success. Although the logic of this notion is clear, it cannot explain why correlations of interest with job satisfaction are consistently positive and high, though still subject to the same restriction. Among laboratory experiments concerning the issue, those by Osipow and Scheid (1971) and Osipow (1972) are relevant. Noting the low predictability of success based on interests, Osipow and Scheid (1971) designed a study which intended to test the possibility that task preferences (or, in a broader sense, interests) are caused by previous performance. By using different success ratios as reinforcers on simple tasks, they showed that task preference can be manipulated by the degree of positive feedback. In the later study (Osipow, 1972) the previous results were replicated and extended in that more meaningful tasks were involved. Again, it was found that preferences for less preferred tasks were increased as a result of high success ratios in dealing with those tasks. Two different arguments can be made about the above studies: (a) Showing effects of one variable on the other does not immediately imply that there are no effects of the second on the first. That is, another experiment can control level of preferences and show differential levels of performance, and thus imply two-way direction of causality. Since such a study has not been done, it remains just a hypothesis, but counselors often hear from their clients that lack of success in a course, for instance, is caused by lack of interest. This notion is, however, questionable according to the empirical evidence presented; (b) no attempt was made to
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control or detect intervening or mediating variables. By showing effects of one variable on another, a direct causality is still uncertain and a third variable (e.g., satisfaction, as proposed later) may be affected by success that will affect preference. Vroom (1962) hypothesized that if a person expects successful performance on a task, he will prefer performing that task. In other words, there should be a correlation between the expected success in a task and the interest toward it. Although Vroom (1964) suggested that such a relationship should be studied by experimental manipulation of people’s beliefs concerning the consequences, and measurement of their desire or aversion for those consequences, correlating vocational interests with expected success in parallel areas could test Vroom’s expectancy hypothesis. It may be concluded and proposed that interests are poorly related to degree of performance and the relationships may be mediated by the cognitive variable of believed or expected success. VOCATIONAL INTERESTS AND SATISFACTION As was pointed out, there is a poor relationship between vocational interests and abilities and also between interests and performance. However, generally speaking, there is a correlation between interests and satisfaction. Although some studies (e.g., Dolliver, Irvin & Bigley, 1972; Schlezer, 1966) have revealed poor correlations between individuals’ interests and their job satisfaction in the same occupations, the majority of the studies have shown such a relationship does exist, based on different interest measures (cf. Barak & Meir, 1974; Crites, 1969b; Cronbach, 1970; Holland, 1973; Meir & Barak, 1974). The relationship between interests and satisfaction requires special attention. Are interests the cause for future satisfaction, or are they the product of previous satisfaction? In other words, what is the causal path of the interests-satisfaction relationship? According to theoretical and empirical analyses, it seems that the directionality may exist both ways, that is, there may be two-way causal effects. On the one hand, results of follow-up studies indicate the prediction of satisfaction by interests is enhanced; on the other hand, learning theory suggests that feelings of satisfaction will cause the individual to seek stimuli that are satisfiers, or to show motivation for such tasks. If the assumption that vocational interests are a component of motivation (C&es, 1969b; Strong, 1958)-or, more precisely, a component of intrinsic motivation toward the activity or the work itself (Herzberg, 1966; Herzberg, Mausner, & Snyderman, 1959; Meir & Friedland, 1971)-is acceptable, the satisfaction-causes-interests relationship might be understood.
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A brief review of some approaches to learning may contribute to the understanding of the process. Thorndike (1927), in his Law of Effect, proposed that a “bond” is created between a response and a situation when satisfaction is associated with the response in that situation. This principle holds also for Hull’s (1943, 1951) drive-reduction theory. The Skinnerian approach (Skinner, 1953, 1959), although defining reinforcement in terms of probability of occurrence of behavior, meant, generally, the same principle: Although some reinforcers are common to more than one individual (as food after deprivation to an animal), a reinforcer could be defined as such by its ability to satisfy the individual’s needs (Cautela & Kastenbaum, 1%7; Krumboltz & Thoreson, 1969). This principle may be further understood by utilizing cognitive mediating processes such as “acquired meaning of stimuli” (Mischel, 1973) which emphasize the individual’s own perception and subjective importance of objective stimuli. A similar process is proposed by the social learning approach (Rotter, 1954) of expectation of reinforcement, and Estes’ (1970) anticipation of rewards and punishments. There is some evidence that interests are learned through experience. Besides the studies mentioned already (Osipow & Scheid, 1971; Osipow, 1972), some studies have intended to show that experimental intervention can alter, shape, promote, or diminish interests, and thus have supported the assumption that interests are learnable (Krumboltz & Baker, 1973; Mitchell, Jones, & Krumboltz, 1974). Another approach has been that of Locke (1965). In four separate experiments involving different types of tasks, Locke found correlations in the .40’s between task success and task satisfaction. This phenomenon was successfuly replicated (Locke, 1966; Leonard & Weiz, 1971). Locke (1965) concluded that task success is an important source of attitude toward the task or work. It can be inferred that satisfaction from the task is a mediating variable between success and interest and may explain the low correlation between them. So far, it could be proposed that the process of interest shaping is: differential activities (or experiences) ---, differential success of performance + differential satisfaction + differential interests. However, one link is missing in the above chain: interests are not only a result of an input but, at the same time, represent an attitude toward an output. So, interest is not only an habitual activity (Strong, 1951)but also a dynamic cognition toward various activities. This notion necessitates an additional construct between the individual’s feeling of satisfaction and his interests, which is, as proposed here, anticipated satisfaction from various activities (and, as proposed earlier, perceived abilities and expected success). Fletcher (1966) theoretically analyzed the terms of interests, values and attitudes. He proposed that these constructs have the same characteris-
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tics as concepts in general and develop in a similar way. To every concept that is created, there is an association of “affect charge” which relates to the feeling or emotional tone of satisfying basic needs. Furthermore, “every concept system has an affect charge which is the resultant of the affect charges associated with every experience and concept that make up the system” (p. 133). Hence, “interests . . . are based on or derived from actual experiences: [interest] has its unique affect charge resulting from the processes of generalization, inference and abstraction arising out of particular needs. Concepts we classify as interests tend to deal with ‘doing’ and the affect charges are the satisfactions (or dissatisfactions) relating to need fulfillment (or lack thereof) associated with the particular behaviors in question” (p. 134). To continue with Fletcher’s thinking, anticipated satisfactions for needs, as learned through experience (and concept formation), may explain one’s interests toward various activities. This suggested process is also congruent with the reanalysis of interests by Strong (1958) and Vroom’s (1964) valence theory. THE MODIFICATION
OF INTEREST
In light of the critical review provided above, it is possible to describe and explain the development of interest and, simultaneously, to reformulate the construct of interests. The current model states that there is a path of mediating constructs which, by virtue of the direct causal relationships among them, results in the modification of individuals’ interests. More specifically, the model contains four developmental stages: (a) Differential activities and experiences; (b) Differential success and satisfaction; (c) Mediating cognitions; and (d) Differential interests (see Fig. 1). The relevant antecedent and mediating cognition, as defined in this model, consist of perceived abilities, expected success, and anticipated satisfaction. It is proposed that these later variables are the main modifying components of interests and hence, in terms of testable hypotheses, it is suggested that
Success 1 Satisfaction Y Expected
1 Success
Anticipated
" Satisfaction
Perceived
Abilities
I
FIG. 1.
A
modelof interestsdevelopment and modification.
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each and all of them will be highly correlated with interests, in both concurrent and longitudinal studies. This theoretical model concurs considerably with the cognitive approach to career development, especially the formulations of Vroom (1964), who explicitly theorized about cognitive mediation functions in work-related activities, and Super (e.g., Super et al., 1%3) who initiated the construct of self-concept and its role in career development. Both Vroom and Super theorized-and supplied some empirical data to support their approaches-that cognitive processes mediate between the individual’s input (e.g., experience, learning, inherited abilities) and his vocational-related output (e.g., interests, preferences, occupational stereotypes, work motivation). While Vroom concentrated on the organizational topics (such asjob satisfaction), Super’s theory centered around the individual and his career development. Super’s approach can be summarized in his own words: In expressing a vocational preference (Super, 1951), a person puts into occupational terminology his idea of the kind of person he is. . . .( 1%3, p. 1, italics added)
By exchanging “his idea” into the mediating cognitive variables proposed, there is a congruence between the two models. Some attempts have been made to implement cognitive variables in the study of career development. Those attempts, although not yet clear or consistent, have included variables as cognitive consistency (Korman, 1%8), cognitive differentiation (Bodden & Klein, 1973; Lawlis & Crawford, 1975), cognitive style (Levine, 1968; Osipow, 1%9), cognitive dissonance (Hilton, 1%2; Hilton, Baenninger, & Kom, 1962; Hershenson & Roth, 1%6), and cognitive complexity (Bodden, 1970; Dolliver, 1%7). Theoretical organization and guideline of these and other cognitive variables in line with the current model may prove useful in explaining the career development process and outcome. As pointed out by Osipow (1970, 1973) cognitive variables may prove to have high significance in career development. It seems that the model suggested agrees with Osipow’s statement and provides a needed theoretical organization of this approach. REFERENCES Barak, A., & Meir, E. I. The predictive validity of a vocational interest inventory“Ramak”: Seven year follow-up. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 1974, 4, 377-387. Bennett, G. K., Seashore, H. G., & Wesman, A. G. Manual for the Differential Aptitude Tests. New York: The Psychological Corporation, 1966. Berdie, R. F. Factors related to vocational interests. Psychological Bulletin, 1944, 41, 137-157. Berdie, R. F. Aptitude, achievement, interest, and personality tests: A longitudinal cornparison. Journal of Applied Psychology, 1955, 39, 103-l 14.
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