Water consumption characteristics at a sustainable residential development with rainwater-sourced hot water supply

Accepted Manuscript Water Consumption Characteristics at a Sustainable Residential Development with Rainwater-sourced Hot Water Supply Pei Ru Chao, Shivanita Umapathi, Wasim Saman PII:

S0959-6526(15)00466-7

DOI:

10.1016/j.jclepro.2015.04.091

Reference:

JCLP 5460

To appear in:

Journal of Cleaner Production

Received Date: 30 August 2013 Revised Date:

29 March 2015

Accepted Date: 21 April 2015

Please cite this article as: Chao PR, Umapathi S, Saman W, Water Consumption Characteristics at a Sustainable Residential Development with Rainwater-sourced Hot Water Supply, Journal of Cleaner Production (2015), doi: 10.1016/j.jclepro.2015.04.091. This is a PDF file of an unedited manuscript that has been accepted for publication. As a service to our customers we are providing this early version of the manuscript. The manuscript will undergo copyediting, typesetting, and review of the resulting proof before it is published in its final form. Please note that during the production process errors may be discovered which could affect the content, and all legal disclaimers that apply to the journal pertain.

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Water Consumption Characteristics at a Sustainable Residential Development with Rainwater-sourced Hot Water Supply Pei Ru Chao*1, Shivanita Umapathi2, Wasim Saman1 1

Barbara Hardy Institute, University of South Australia, Australia SA Water Centre for Water Management and Reuse, School of Natural and Built Environments, University of South Australia, Mawson Lakes, SA 5095, Australia *Corresponding author: Pei Ru Chao University of South Australia, Mawson Lakes Campus Tel: +61 424411092 Email: [email protected]; [email protected]

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Abstract

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The use of water-efficient appliances and inclusion of alternative water sources in urban residential developments is becoming increasingly necessary to meet the growing demands on conventional urban water supplies. As an initiative commissioned by the South Australian State Government in 2009, Lochiel Park is a recent model designed to embrace sustainable planning principles and technologies in a domestic context. An extensive post-occupancy monitoring program of actual residential water and energy usage was conducted. The study aimed at analysing and quantifying the water consumption at 59 houses through real-time monitored data collected over 3 years between 2010 and 2013, incorporating the monitored usage of mains water, collected rainwater and hot water usage. The analysis shows that the annual average total water consumption per household at Lochiel Park is significantly lower than both the Adelaide and national averages by about 24% and 16% respectively, while average mains water consumption is lower by 36% and 29% respectively. Rainwater contributes 6–10% of the total water use in summer and up to 26% in winter, with an average annual contribution of around 14%. A significant part of the saving is attributed to the increased minimum rainwater tank capacity from the 1 kL specified in the Building Code of Australia to 1.5 kL, and feeding rainwater into the hot water supply in a climate where rainfall occurs in winter. Although a reduced hot water demand is also prompted by having efficient fixtures and rainwater supply depends on climate, rainwater fed into hot water supply saves 40% of hot water consumption annually. Greater rainwater utilization in hot water is possible if rainwater tank sizing and a greater roof catchment area can match household winter hot water demand, rather than having a single minimum requirement across all households as in the current regulation. The study provides an understanding of the performance of alternative urban water systems. The outcomes verify the effectiveness of the Water Sensitive Urban Design (WSUD) features implemented and will be useful for future strategic planning and design initiatives for implementation of similar developments on a larger scale.

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Keywords: Sustainable urban development; Water demand management; Rainwater; Urban water planning;

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In order to address the future of water security in urban environments, a combination of various adaptive approaches will be necessary to integrate with existing water infrastructure (Fielding et al., 2013, de Loë et al., 2001). Frequent drought conditions and increasing water demands arising from various factors such as rapid urbanisation, changing landscapes and changing weather patterns have triggered major Australian cities to invest heavily in harvesting and management of alternative water sources such as rainwater, stormwater and wastewater (Imteaz et al., 2012). Previously, emerging water scarcity has prompted direct government interventions in dealing with the water crises (Talebpour et al., 2014). In recent years the concept of sustainable homes with reduced water demands and low energy impact has gained popularity in Australia and worldwide (Harrington et al., 2008, Pearce et al., 2014). Individual water users, such as homeowners, are playing a significant role by changing their water-use behaviour and installing water-efficient appliances to reduce individual consumption (NWC, 2012b, Fielding et al., 2012, Willis et al., 2010). Water demand management through adoption of water conservation practices by residents is essential for sustainable management of potable mains water in urban environments (Brooks, 2006). As decentralized systems based on Water Sensitive Urban Design (WSUD) principles increase, alternative urban water supply systems are likely to impact on the water supply dynamics of mains water supply networks in greenfield urban developments (Sharma et al., 2013). Detailed research into these systems is necessary to assess their long term economic and environmental sustainability.

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Over the past decade, several research methodologies were adopted to analyse and estimate the performance characteristics of domestic rainwater harvesting systems, specifically those comprising rainwater tanks both in Australia (Coombes and Kuczera, 2003, Loh and Coghlan, 2003, Beal et al., 2011, Chong et al., 2011, Willis et al., 2011) and worldwide including Sweden (Villareal and Dixon, 2005), Brazil (Ghisi et al., 2007, Ghisi, 2006), and India (Mukherjee et al., 2010). Household rainwater consumption has also been analysed on a ‘fit-for-purpose’ basis to optimise design of rainwater collection systems using water demand patterns and rainwater catchment areas (Fewkes, 1999). In recent years, research into household water consumption is increasingly being conducted by disaggregation of water flows in order to conduct end-use studies through incorporation of smart water and energy meters (Heinrich, 2008, Talebpour et al., 2011), a method that was first adopted by Mayer et al. in 1999 (Mayer et al., 1999) to study the residential end-uses of water in households spread across North America. Previous studies (Ferguson, 2012, Umapathi et al., 2013) have highlighted the use of smart metering methods to collect real-time water use data for water supply from multiple sources within a household in small time steps (t ≤ 1 minute) to conduct end-use analyses of rainwater collected in domestic rainwater harvesting systems, hence determining their corresponding savings in centrally supplied mains water. Smart metering techniques can be regarded as a reliable and accurate means by which to monitor and assess the water consumption characteristics in new and upcoming ecologically sustainable developments with alternative water supply in terms of various dependant factors including socio-demographic, hydrological, climatic and environmental.

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Extensive detailed research has been conducted using aforementioned metered monitoring methods in Queensland (Beal et al., 2012, Umapathi et al., 2013) and Sydney (Ferguson, 2012) regions. The studies were based on new homes built independently following the respective state water efficiency rules designed for new homes (QDC, 2008, BASIX, 2004).

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What are the trends of average total, mains, rainwater and hot water consumption per household and per capita in such an eco-development in a dry climate? How effective are the WSUD features implemented on the whole in terms of water efficiency? What percentage of mains and hot water supply can be expected to be replaced by the utilization of collected rainwater per household, with rainwater being plumbed into a hot water tank? What implications would the results have in terms of future development?

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In estate developments such as Currumbin (Diaper et al., 2007, Hood et al., 2010) and Silva Park Estate (also known as Payne Road development) (Gardner et al., 2006, Beal et al., 2008) in south east Queensland, the household samples are located in the same suburb with the same climatic conditions, rainfall, water quality, infrastructure and common house design guidelines which altogether allow for a more homogeneous sample set. Similarly, Lochiel Park is an estate/suburban development with detailed monitoring conducted in individual houses segregating various types of water supply and the usage at 5-second intervals. The considerable monitoring time of 3 years (and on-going until 2019) provides sufficient data for reliable statistical analysis for observing consumption trends. While in many other cases rainwater feeds the non-potable water uses such as toilets, laundries and irrigation, rainwater collected at Lochiel Park feeds the solar hot water system and is used as a potable water source. This has been permitted by the South Australian appendix of the Building Code of Australia (ABCB, 2012). In addition to the individual household rainwater tanks, Lochiel Park includes a communal stormwater recycling facility to feed the non-potable water uses. However since the stormwater recycling facility is still under construction, the recycled stormwater data is excluded from the analysis presented in this paper. The analysis is based on available data of total mains water, hot water, mains hot water (top-up wherever rainwater is low) and calculated rainwater data. In this paper the research questions are:

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A comparison of the per-capita water consumption as well as overall household water consumption in Lochiel Park with the greater Adelaide area, the Australian and other international averages was conducted to allow the evaluation of the development in meeting its broader sustainability goals.

2 Background of the case study

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Adelaide city is known for its hot, dry summers and cool, wet winters, with few inland water sources and perennial streams. The majority of these streams rarely reach the sea due to the dry climate (Daniels, 2010, Rutherfurd and Finlayson, 2011). Due to a decade-long drought from the year 2000, water-saving strategies were introduced by State and Local Governments. Nationally, an average reduction of 21% between 2004–2009 was observed (Rutherfurd and Finlayson, 2011). In South Australia, a reduction of 34% of daily water consumption per household was achieved between 2000–2010 (ABS, 2011a). This reduction occurred without sacrificing the standard of living, suggesting a significant elasticity of domestic water usage levels. Much of this reduction was due to the State promotions of restricting outdoor water uses through Stage 2 Water Restrictions (pre-2003), Permanent Water Conservation Measures (2003), and Stage 3 Water Restrictions (2007). Stage 3 was eventually replaced by the less severe Water Wise Measures in December 2010 (Maier et al., 2013, Arbon et al., 2014).

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In response to the need for more environmentally sustainable living and the limited natural freshwater supply in South Australia, Lochiel Park project was commissioned in 2009 with an aim of promoting sustainable urban development. The project was intended to be a living laboratory that followed stringent urban and building design principles focusing on energy and water-efficiency. The project is located on 15 hectares of protected natural land located along the Torrens River. The majority of the lot sizes range between 200 to 400 m², considerably smaller than the current average lot size of 425 m² in Adelaide (ABS, 2010). The houses are required to meet specifically developed design guidelines to achieve an energy performance of 7.5 stars, well above the then 5 star energy rating stipulated by the Building Code of Australia. Upon completion, the residential part of the project will consist of 106 dwellings covering just 28% of the site, suggesting the focus of an ‘urban forest’. The small residential area allows a part of the site to be used for a natural water filtration process of stormwater storage and recycling via an aquifer storage and recovery system, to produce non-potable water supply to the houses.

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Water-saving guidelines were designed to reduce potable water demand at Lochiel Park (Blaess et al., 2006, LMC, 2009). The approach exceeds the minimum standard stipulated by the Building Code of Australia (ABCB, 2012) and other legislations (UniSA/GoyderInstitute, 2011). Some of the compulsory requirements are: • Provide rainwater tanks of a minimum of 1.5 kL (the minimum South Australian building requirement is 1 kL (ABCB, 2012)) per house. • Collect rainwater off a minimum of 80% of roof surface area, plumbed into hot water systems (the current South Australian building requirement for new homes requires rainwater collection from a minimum 50 m² of roof area for homes with total roof area greater than 50 m², or if roof area is less than 50 m², from all of the roof area, as a mandatory secondary water supply (ABCB, 2012)). • Provide a minimum of 4 star rated Water Efficiency Labelling Standard Scheme (WELS) toilets (average of 3.1 to 3.5 L/flush), 4 star dishwashers (14 to 6.7 L per wash on normal cycle), and 3 star showerheads (maximum of 9 L/min flow rate). The 3 star showerhead requirement is a part of the South Australian water heater installation requirements (OTR, 2014) as well as part of the Building Code of Australia. • Install real-time monitored data display screen in each house. • Front and rear garden design guidelines are also provided with a list of native, waterconserving plants suitable for the climate (LMC, 2009).

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The water-saving guidelines for Lochiel Park aims to reduce potable water use by 78% of the average Adelaide household consumption, and to reduce 87% of potable water in the entire development (including public areas) via the supply of rainwater and recycled stormwater (LMC, 2009). While the residents understand that high tech eco-friendly features are built into their houses and that they are the studied subjects, not all of them have environmental awareness. Some residents disregard the monitoring display screen and continue to live their usual lifestyles, while some others set daily targets of water consumption using the real-time screen data (Whaley et al., 2010). Therefore, environmental awareness is not a prerequisite for Lochiel Park residents and overall their behaviours are similar to that of residents in ordinary suburbs. However, residents are prompted to make necessary changes due to the planning and design features implemented; smaller gardens invariably reduce outdoor water use.

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Table 1 Demographic and house characteristics of Lochiel Park Average Household size

1 person 2 person 3 person 4 person 5 person No. of detached dwellings No. of terrace dwelling

Average indoor area

327 m² 281 m² 196 m² 2.4 kL 1.5 kL

3 The Water Monitoring System

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Average rainwater tank Median rainwater tank

2.5 persons 7% 56% (including retirees 14%) 14% 19% 5% 37 22

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Average lot area Median lot area

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The demography of Lochiel Park by January 2013 consists of a total population of 154 residents in the detached dwellings only, with apartments excluded due to having very different plumbing configurations. Out of the included total of 59 sample houses, 32 houses are 2-person households (56%) which is the majority household type, followed by the 4person households (19%). Taking age into account, the largest category is the 2-adults household (under 64 years of age) with 22 households (39%), followed by the 4-person household made up of 2 adults and 2 children. Retired couples and the 3-person households are the next most common household category. The average household size is 2.5 persons per household, which is similar to the 2011 Census data of 2.4 for Significant Urban Areas of Adelaide, and same as the 2.5 for the immediate local municipality of Lochiel Park, Campbelltown (ABS, 2011b). Based on household size, the Lochiel Park data is representative of the average Adelaide households and therefore comparable with local averages. As houses are all two-storey in height at Lochiel Park, the minimum roof area would be half of the indoor floor area. Hence the minimum rainwater catchment area would be 78 m², greater than the 50 m² required in the building code. The main demographic and house characteristics at Lochiel Park are shown in Table 1.

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The water monitoring system consists of three water meters plus one rainwater-harvesting controller as shown in Figure 1. The mains water meter (Meter 1) measures the total volume of mains water supplied while Meter 2 measures the mains water used solely for hot water supply. As the rainwater tank is plumbed into the hot water system, Meter 3 is installed along the same hot water line between the rainwater and hot water tanks. Meter 3 measures the volume of water going into the hot water system, which can be either mains water or rainwater. A proprietary rainwater-harvesting controller is used to switch the supply to mains water whenever the water level in the rainwater tank is low. This configuration does not provide a direct measurement of the rainwater volume stored in the rainwater tank; hence, rainwater usage is calculated by subtracting the measured value of Meter 2 from Meter 3. The meters are digital and measure one pulse per litre. A detailed description of the monitoring system and equipment can be found in (Whaley et al., 2010). Due to the location of Meter 3,

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hot water is measured at the hot water tank outlet and is commonly assumed to be at least 60 ºC, which is the required minimum temperature for water storage to kill Legionella as specified in AS 3498 (Standards Australia, 2009). Hot water volume measured at tank outlet translates into a greater volume of hot water measured at the tap after mixing with cold water.

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Figure 1 Water Metering System at Lochiel Park

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The measured digital outputs from the meters are connected directly to a selected proprietary display and monitoring system. This system consists of a programmable logic controller, a computer which stores the data, and an in-home touch-screen monitor (with software) that displays the water consumption data to the householders in real-time. The stored data is then transferred from each of the computers via Ethernet or optical fibres to the main server, which is accessible to researchers with a log-in password. Householders were advised to place their in-home display screen at a visually prominent location, typically in the kitchen. All users can see real-time usage of electricity, gas and water use levels which can be converted to greenhouse gas emission levels. For houses with detail monitoring, users can also see rainwater, remaining water uses, internal temperature and humidity, plus both realtime and forecasted weather data from the Bureau of Meteorology.

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In addition to measuring the different types of water supply, the monitoring meters have an additional benefit of detecting water leaks. Since the in-home display screen shows the amount of water used in real-time, any prolonged, consistent and unknown usage may indicate a water leakage. However, the monitoring system itself has to be checked initially for defects. To date, several water leaks at the Lochiel Park houses have been detected, located and fixed via the monitoring system which would not have been found easily otherwise. Householders who made the most of their in-home display screen by regularly checking their water usage were able to spot the unexplained usage increase at an early stage and thus benefit most from having such a system. A number of leaks were also found by researchers who then notified the residents of the need for repairs or corrections. Since the focus of this research has been on the quantification of typical water use, a prompt maintenance of installations/monitoring systems is important to obtain data representative of typical usage.

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4 Analysis of Monitored Data

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As of January 2013, 59 houses were built and occupied with monitoring systems commissioned. In order to maximize the number of samples, monitoring data was included as part of the study sample as soon as the monitoring systems were installed and commissioned. As more houses were completed over time, there was a monthly increase in the data sample size.

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Monitored data for each lot was obtained in minutely time steps which was converted into hourly, daily and monthly summarized formats of water consumptions. Information on the basic demographics of the householders and some characteristics of the houses such as lot size and indoor house size were obtained. The daily water consumption averages were derived from the monthly summarized formats, while the average daily profile in each month was compiled from the minutely data. Questionable data that resulted from monitoring faults was identified and excluded from the study sample. The excluded data were the unusually high, unusually low, and unrecorded water usage over an extended period of time when the monitored energy data of the same period of time showed a typical occupancy in the house. Alternatively, a complete lack of data from both energy and water monitoring showed a possible blackout, while a consistent base water usage could mean a leakage in the system. This process of data validation has been coded via Visual Basic Applications to scan through the data files, and atypical and faulty data have been left out of the analysis. Consequently, the total number of houses or/and number of householders varied month-to-month depending on the availability of data. This data validation process was important as it influenced the calculation of averages of water consumptions. The reasons for inaccurate or lack of data may have been from a number of sources including incorrect equipment installation process, malfunctioning devices, and the inability of the monitoring system to come back online after blackouts due to insufficient set-up. The monitoring system and the hardware installation issues that caused inaccurate data have been discussed in depth by Whaley et al. (2010).

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Average water consumption patterns were established to obtain the overall seasonal, monthly and diurnal trends. Water consumption showed significant variability and the outliers were identified by normal distribution as the top and bottom 5% of water users. Their average daily pattern was also established for comparison purpose.

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5 Results

5.1 Seasonal Trend in Water Consumption

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Based on monthly water consumptions, annual total water usage pattern showed a clear seasonal trend for the period January 2010 to January 2013. The total water consumption per household per month during this period was disaggregated into two sources of water: mains and rainwater (Figure 2). The monthly mains water consumption in summer was 40–49% more than that in winter. Summer total and mains water consumption were clearly higher than those in winter. On average, rainwater contributed to a minimum of 6% of total water consumption in January (summer), up to 25% in August (winter), with an annual average contribution of 13%. Therefore, rainwater use in winter was over four times that in summer. Monthly total water use in summer was 33–39% greater than that in winter. The high rainwater use in winter therefore reduced the seasonal variation of the total water consumption.

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Annual Average of Mains Water Use (L) Annual Average of Total Water Use (L)

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Months Jan 2010-2013 Figure 2 Monthly Total Water Use/House 2010–2013 (Numbers in brackets show sample size for mains and rainwater data)

Total and mains water consumption both tended to be high in summer and low in winter (Figure 2), however hot water consumption showed an opposite seasonal trend. Figure 3 shows the average monthly hot water consumption disaggregated into rainwater and mains top-up consumption. In summer, hot water was approximately 24% of the total water usage, while

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winter hot water use increased to 38%, with an annual average of hot water use being 31% of the total water use. Monthly hot water use in mid-winter was consistently higher than midsummer by 35–37% over the 3 years monitored. Rainwater contributed towards hot water use from a minimum of 18% in January 2013 and up to 68% in August 2010, with an average of 42% in all years analysed (Figure 4).

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Monthly hot water consumption had an increasing trend over the 3 years (dotted line in Figure 3), with the average annual rainwater contribution decreasing from 51% to 34% (Figure 4). This decrease of rainwater contribution can be associated to the decrease of annual rainfall over the same period (BOM). The decrease may also be associated with the small size of rainwater tanks (1.5 kL) of the newer houses which became part of the studied sample over time.

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Jan (1,1) Feb (4,3) Mar (10,7) Apr (13,9) May (15/10) Jun (18,13) Jul (19,13) Aug (20,15) Sep (22,16) Oct (23,17) Nov (28,22) Dec (26,17) Jan (28,21) Feb (30,24) Mar (31,24) Apr (22,16) May (25,17) Jun (30,20) Jul (31,20) Aug (31,21) Sep (34,23) Oct (31,22) Nov (32,21) Dec (36,23) Jan (38,29) Feb (42,27) Mar (45,30) Apr (50,34) May (48,35) Jun (48,35) Jul (50,35) Aug (49,39) Sep (50,38) Oct (49,40) Nov (53,40) Dec (53,42) Jan (51,40)

Monthly Total Water Use (L)

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Average of Mains Hot Top-Up (L) Annual Average Hot Water Use (L)

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Average of Mains Hot TopUp (L) Average of Rainwater Use (L) Annual Average Rain/Hot %

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Jan-10 Feb-10 Mar-10 Apr-10 May-10 Jun-10 Jul-10 Aug-10 Sep-10 Oct-10 Nov-10 Dec-10 Jan-11 Feb-11 Mar-11 Apr-11 May-11 Jun-11 Jul-11 Aug-11 Sep-11 Oct-11 Nov-11 Dec-11 Jan-12 Feb-12 Mar-12 Apr-12 May-12 Jun-12 Jul-12 Aug-12 Sep-12 Oct-12 Nov-12 Dec-12 Jan-13

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Figure 3 Monthly Hot Water Use/House 2010–2013 (Numbers in brackets show sample size for mains and rainwater data)

Rainwater in Hot Water Use (%)

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Hot Water Use/Household (L)

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Month Jan 2010-Jan 2013

Figure 4 Percentage of Rainwater Use in Hot Water Use/month 2010–2013

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5.2 Average Daily Water Consumption Average household mains water consumption per day at Lochiel Park varied from 221 L/day in winter (August) up to 439 L/day in summer (January) as shown in Figure 5. The average daily mains consumption per household at Lochiel Park was 312 L/day , which was 40% less than the then average Adelaide mains water use of 521 L/day (ABS, 2011a). Even with rainwater use included, the average daily total water consumption per household at Lochiel Park was 363 L/day, 30% less than the Adelaide average. Average daily hot water consumption per household ranged from 107 L/day in summer (February) up to 144 L/day in winter (August). This hot water consumption flowrate was measured at the hot water tank outlet, not at the point of end use where cold water was

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included to reduce the temperature. Hot water consumption measured at the tank outlet therefore has a lower volume (flowrate) with higher temperature than that measured at the point of end use. The hot water consumption data from this study therefore was not directly comparable with those from studies focusing on end use metering without exact water temperature data. Results in this study suggested that average daily hot water use per household had a significant seasonal variation, being almost 35% higher in winter than that in summer (Figure 6). Rainwater contribution to daily hot water use ranged from 27% in summer to approximately 60% in winter.

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Total water consumption per capita ranged from 132 L/person/day in winter, to 198 L/person/day in summer (Figure 7). Average annual total water use per capita was 157 L/person/day, while average mains water use was 136 L/person/day. Hot water use per capita ranged from 43 L/person/day in summer to 59 L/person/day in winter with an annual average of 51 L/person/day (Figure 8). Hence, daily hot water use per capita was approximately 22% of the total water consumption per capita in summer and up to 45% in winter. Annual average daily hot water use per capita was approximately one third of the total water use per capita.

Total Water Use/Household/day (L)

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Figure 6 Hot Water Use/House/Day (L) and comparison with average monthly rainfall

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Figure 8 Hot Water Use/Person/Day

5.3 Comparisons with National and International Data

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The South Australian Water Sensitive Urban Design Target (UniSA/GoyderInstitute, 2011) has set an indoor water consumption target for the Greater Adelaide region. However the water consumption data at Lochiel Park did not separate indoor and outdoor use, therefore did not allow a direct comparison with the target. The annual average mains and total water consumption per household at Lochiel Park were 118 kL and 136 kL respectively, which were both lower than the annual average mains water per household supplied in Adelaide between 2010–2011 of 180 kL/year (NWC, 2012a) by 34% and 24% respectively. The average annual mains water consumption per household at Lochiel Park was also lower than those in the major Australian cities and the National average in 2010–2011 as shown in Figure 9.

Mains Water Use/Household/year (kL/yr)

5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18

Average of Rainwater/ Person/ day (L)

30

JAN

Hot Water Use/Person/Day (L)

70

19 20 21

Melb

Sydney

Brisbane Darwin

Perth

Adelaide Canberra Lochiel National Park Mean (Mains)

Figure 9 Annual Mains Water per Household Comparison to Major Australian City Average (2010–2011) Source: Adapted from National Performance Report 2010–2011 (NWC, 2012a)

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Table 2 Lochiel Park (LP) Water Consumption Comparison with Adelaide Averages LP Total Water Use

363 136

LP % Mains Water Use Savings (from Adelaide Average) 40% 34%

LP % Total Water Use Savings (from Adelaide Average) 30% 24%

LP Mains Target (L to achieve 78% Savings from Adelaide Average) 115 40

L/house/day kL/house/year

521# 180^

312 118

L/person/day kL/person/year

385# 77*

136 49

157 57

65% 36%

59% 30%

85 17

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LP Mains Water Use

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Adelaide Average

#Source: SA Stats (ABS, 2011a) *Source: Water Accounts Australia 2009-2010 (ABS, 2011c) ^Source: Securing Australia’s Water Future (NWC, 2011)

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Although water consumption at Lochiel Park was lower than that of both State and National water consumption, the envisaged target of 78% potable water savings from the Adelaide average water consumption has not yet been achieved. In order to meet this target, mains water consumption at Lochiel Park would need to be further reduced by at least 63% of the current usage. The amount of mains water use that would achieve the target is shown in the last column of Table 2. A sizable part of this reduction is expected to be met by the soon-tobe-commissioned recycled stormwater plant supplying non-potable water to toilets, laundry and outdoor uses, all of which have been fed by mains water thus far. Non-potable water use in the average South Australian households contributes up to a total of 69% (ABS, 2011a). Taking this statistics into consideration, the water savings target is expected to be met with the planned recycled stormwater. The amount of water saving can be verified once the installation of the stormwater recycling plant is completed.

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The household water usage at Lochiel Park was compared with the Adelaide average of varying metrics sourced from different references (Table 2). The daily mains water consumption per person sourced from the SA Stats (385 L/person/day) did not appear congruent with the average daily household water consumption (521 L/house/day), considering that the average Adelaide household consisted of 2.4 persons. Hence mains water savings per person per day (65%) appeared significantly higher than the savings from the Adelaide average sourced from other references (34–40%). The figures were similar to the 36% mains water savings in houses that passed the water-efficiency requirements of the mandatory residential building sustainability rating tool from another state, namely BASIX (Building Sustainability Index) (Amaro, 2012).

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A comparison of the domestic water consumption at Lochiel Park with that of some European countries revealed that the daily mains water consumption per capita at Lochiel Park was higher than that of the European countries, but lower than that of Auckland in New Zealand (Branz, 2008), as shown in Table 3. Although detailed comparisons cannot be made directly with countries that are geographically, topographically and climatically different, such a comparison provides a general understanding of the domestic water consumption characteristics on a global scale. The findings provide a basis for further assessments to understand the cause for the gap in water consumption characteristics, wherein the allocation and efficiency of fixtures and appliances for domestic water use within households, garden size or behavioural patterns can be studied in correlation to water consumption.

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Table 3 Water Consumption Data Comparison to International Averages (per person) Domestic Water Use

LP Mains Water Use

LP Total Water Use

New Zealand

L/person /day

136

157

178.5

Denmark1

Finland

Neatherlands2

Austria1

Germany3

Australia6

,4

1,4

,4

,4

,4

,7

5

131

150

127.5

125

115

2226, 2167

Ofwat (2007) 2 Vewin (2008); 3 BMU (2006); 4 Aquaterra (2008); 5 Branz (2008); 6 ABS, (2010b); 7 Derived from dividing the total water supplied in 2010–2011(ABS, 2011c) by total population from the Australian Census. Note: The average household occupancies for the international countries varied from 2.1 to 2.4 persons per household.

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Approximately 90% of houses at Lochiel Park achieved savings in total water consumption when compared to that in Adelaide as shown in Figure 10. Negative value in the horizontal axis indicates water consumption higher than the Adelaide average. Although 11% of the houses had total water use equivalent to or exceed the Adelaide average, the majority of the households achieved savings of 10%–60%. The average saving was 28% for total water use and 38% for mains water use. These averages were similar to the median total and mains water consumption of 31% and 41% respectively, which were less affected by the outliers. Approximately 56% of the houses achieved greater than the median daily total water saving. These results showed the range of variability in domestic water use even within the same sustainable development.

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-50% -40% -30% -20% -10% 0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80% 90% 100%More % of Total Water Use Savings (from Adelaide Average)

Figure 10 Percentage of Households with % Savings on Total Water Consumption

5.4 Average Daily Water Consumption Profiles Average daily water use profiles showed the water usage pattern in a typical day at Lochiel Park. The water usage profiles, shown in Figure 11 and Figure 12, revealed two peaks at 7am and 6pm for both daily total water and hot water use, with the morning peak being the most prominent. The lowest daytime water usage occurs at 2pm consistently. Hot water use on average contributed to approximately 44% of the morning peak of total water use, and about 34% of the evening peak, which made up the majority of daily hot water use (78%).

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The highest peak daily water usages consistently occurred at 7am regardless of season (Figure 13, Figure 14). Winter peak mains water usage was clearly lower than that in summer, and the overall diurnal variation in winter was less than that in summer. Albeit low, water usage still occurred throughout the night. This may be due to a small number of houses having significantly high mains water use in the early hours of 2am–4am. As neither hot water nor rainwater was being used, the unexpected water usage was mainly cold water use possibly from automatic garden irrigation or dishwashers with internal heating set on a late night timer. In summer, short spiked usages occurred frequently and randomly throughout the day, with less predictability in water use.

40.0 35.0

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Annual Average Rainwater Use/hr Annual Average Mains Water Use/hr

0:00 1:00 2:00 3:00 4:00 5:00 6:00 7:00 8:00 9:00 10:00 11:00 12:00 13:00 14:00 15:00 16:00 17:00 18:00 19:00 20:00 21:00 22:00 23:00

Total Water Use/Household (L/hr)

TE D

Time of Day

12 13 14 15

16.0 14.0 12.0 10.0

Annual Average Rainwater Use/hr Annual Average Mains Hot Top Up/hr

8.0

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Hot Water Use/Household (L/hr)

Figure 11 Diurnal Hourly Average Total Water Use--2010 Jan-2013 Jan (All years)

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16 17 18 19

15

Time of Day Figure 12 Diurnal Hourly Average Hot Water Use—2010 Jan–2013 Jan (All years)

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Total Water Use/Household (L/hr)

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Total Water Use/Household (L/hr)

Figure 13 Diurnal Hourly Average Total Water Use—January

Figure 14 Diurnal Hourly Average Total Water Use—August

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Average Rainwater Use (L/hr) Annual Average Mains Hot Top Up/hr

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Time of Day

Figure 16 Diurnal Average Hourly Hot Water Use—August

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Hot Water Use/Household (L/hr)

Figure 15 Diurnal Average Hourly Hot Water Use—January

5.5 Comparison of High and Low End Water Users The maximum and minimum total water and hot water consumptions above and below one standard deviation of a normal distribution was analysed to evaluate the difference between the typical daily consumption patterns of the two outlier groups. The results showed that the most significant differences occurred at the peak and trough periods, and that the high total water users had three peaks instead of two peaks. The discrepancy in peak total water consumption reached a 5-fold difference. Hence activities that occurred at the peak times created the largest difference of water consumption. Note that the maximum users also tended to be using water late into the night, when the minimum users had next to no water usage at this time (Figure 17).

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Hot water consumption was also compared and it was found that the difference at peak times was even greater than that of the total water consumption. The largest difference was at 8pm and 12am (Figure 18), when the minimum users consumed a very low amount of hot water. Hot water use was therefore extremely variable amongst households and these comparisons provided a guide to pinpoint the time of the large consumption differences during the day. Further survey targeting the type of activities and user attitudes may explain why such a large difference in hot water use occurred.

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Max Users Min Users

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0:00 1:00 2:00 3:00 4:00 5:00 6:00 7:00 8:00 9:00 10:00 11:00 12:00 13:00 14:00 15:00 16:00 17:00 18:00 19:00 20:00 21:00 22:00 23:00

0.0

Time of Day

35.0 30.0 25.0 20.0 15.0

Maximum Users Minimum Users

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Figure 17 Average of Maximum vs. Minimum Total Water Users (greater and less than 1 standard deviation of a normal distribution)

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0.0

Time of Day

15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22

Figure 18 Average of Maximum and Minimum Hot Water Users

5.6 Rainwater Tank Sizes vs. Mains Hot Water Use More than half of the sample households (54%) installed the minimum required size of 1.5 kL rainwater tank while approximately another one third (30%) installed the 2 kL tank. The

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two tank sizes accounted for the majority of the total data sample set. As expected, a linear correlation between monthly rainwater use and the size of rainwater tank installed showed that rainwater use increased as rainwater tank size increased. As rainwater use in hot water demand increased, demand for mains hot water top-up decreased. The mains hot water use in relation to the rainwater tank size could be seen in Figure 19. Mains hot water use was similar between households with 1.5 kL and those with 2 kL. However, a distinct reduction in mains hot water use could be observed in households that had a rain water tank equal to or greater than 2.5 kL. This distinct reduction was however, not only a result of the larger rainwater tank but may also be due to an apparently lower hot water demand in households with greater rainwater tanks. As rainwater tank size approached 5 kL, the demand for mains hot top-up was minimized by having sufficient rainwater capacity to supply the entire hot water demand.

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Monthly Mains Hot Water Use (L)

3000

y = -0.6335x + 3247.4 R² = 0.6771

1000 500 0 0

1000

2000

3000

4000

5000

6000

Figure 19 Monthly Mains Hot Water Use vs. Size of Rainwater Tank

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6 Discussion and Conclusion

Through analysis of monitored water consumption data, the WSUD guidelines at Lochiel Park demonstrates the achievement of a considerable amount of water saving when compared to State and National water consumption. The analysis shows that the annual average total water consumption per household is lower than both the Adelaide and National average water consumption by approximately 24% and 16% respectively, while mains water consumption is lower by 36% and 29% respectively. The majority of the individual houses save 10–60% from the Adelaide average. Rainwater contributes 6–10% of the total water use in summer and up to 26% in winter, with an average annual contribution of approximately 14%. Hot water is on average a third of the total water consumption, and rainwater fed into hot water tanks substantially contributes up to 56% of the average hot water demand in winter, when both hot water demand and rainfall is the highest. This plumbing arrangement along with the WSUD guidelines implemented (without the recycled stormwater supply) produce similar water savings in comparison with the results from houses complying with other State building sustainability regulations such as BASIX. Lochiel Park therefore establishes a baseline reference for future water-efficient developments in similar climates.

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Monitored hot water demand in South Australia is nearly non-existent. Information on State Government website refers to statistical modelling mainly based on market and sales data of water heaters plus surveys of equipment usage and patterns (Harrington et al., 2008). Local water use in showers and taps has been studied through flow trace technique (Arbon et al., 2014), however the aim was to identify where water is being used and results did not provide specific consumption of hot water as temperature was not measured. Total energy use from hot water was calculated for the various capital cities (Kenway et al., 2008) based on an assumed hot water temperatures (60 °C) with hot water usage extracted from older literature. Lochiel Park has recently measured data that reveals the total household hot water use at the hot water tank outlet. Understand domestic hot water use leads to an understanding of domestic energy use, and can further verify the efficiencies of the hot water systems in use. The monitored hot water usage data also provides an evidence-based per capita consumption data for sizing hot water systems.

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Having the rainwater supply connected to the hot water tank is an encouraged arrangement in the South Australian Appendix of the Building Code of Australia (ABCB, 2012). Rainwater in such arrangement reduces mains water that would normally be required to supply hot water. Since the state or national reference for average household water usage is essentially mains water use derived from billing meters, comparing mains water use at Lochiel Park with the reference mains water use tends to focus on the advantages of rainwater collection. Comparing total water use and the reference mains water use highlights the effectiveness of both rainwater and non-rainwater related water-efficient features. Approximately 36–40% of mains water saving is achieved at Lochiel Park while 24–30% of total water saving is achieved, suggesting that rainwater feeding hot water supply saves approximately a quarter of the mains water consumption, through reduced mains hot water top-up. Potential exists to increase the contribution of rainwater for hot water supply by increasing rainwater tank size as well as increasing roof catchment area currently in the Building Code of Australia. The study shows that rainwater can contribute up to 56% of hot water supply in winter with current median rainwater tank size of 1.5 kL. To maximize the use of rainwater for hot water supply, the rainwater tank could be sized to cover as much as possible the winter hot water demand, taking account of rainfall and roof catchment area. Current building code requirement of 50 m² roof catchment area could potentially be increased in proportion with the winter hot water demand. The study also suggests that a rainwater tank size of 4.5–5 kL for the locality is sufficient for supplying the majority of the hot water load and consequently eliminating the need for mains hot top-up. Rainwater tank size requirement customized to the household hot water demand would achieve greater water-efficiency than using the standard minimum size set by the building code across all households. The monitoring of hot water demand provides valuable information for streamlining this type of plumbing configuration to further maximize rainwater use in hot water supply.

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The study provided the averaged projections for hot water, mains water and total household water demand based on three years of monitored data. Quantification of rainwater, hot water and mains water consumption per capita per day and daily profiles enabled an improved understanding of hot water use. Further detailed examination of occupant behaviour, demographic differences as well as the relationship with house design features will assist in identifying the significance of other influences on the result of the water savings.

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ABCB 2012. Building Code of Australia Volume 2. Appendix A Additions: South Australia Additions. Australian Building Codes Board. ABS 2010. 1345.4 SA Stats--Houses in South Australia. ABS 2011a. 1345.4 SA Stats--Household Water Consumption and Conservation Actions. Australian Bureau of Statistics. ABS. 2011b. 2011 Census Quick Stats--Campbelltown [Online]. Australian Bureau of Statistics. Available: http://www.censusdata.abs.gov.au/census_services/getproduct/census/2011/quickstat/LG A40910 [Accessed August 2013]. ABS 2011c. 4610.0 Water Account Australia 2010-2011. Australian Bureau of Statistics. AMARO, H. 2012. BASIX Water Savings Monitoring for 2010-2011. Sydney: Sydney Water. AQUATERRA 2008. Water and the environment. International comparisons of domestic per capita consumption Environment Agency ARBON, N., THYER, M., MACDONALD, D. H., BEVERLEY, K. & LAMBERT, M. 2014. Understanding and Predicting Household Water Use for Adelaide. Goyder Institute for Water Research Technical Report Series 14/15. Adelaide South Australia: Goyder Institute for Water Research BASIX 2004. Building Sustainability Index: BASIX. In: GOVERNMENT, N. (ed.). BEAL, C., HOOD, B., GARDNER, T., LANE, J. & CHRISTIANSEN, C. 2008. Energy and water metabolism of a sustainable subdivision in south east Queensland: a reality check. Enviro’08. . Melbourne Exhibition and Convention Centre, 5-7 May 2008. BEAL, C., STEWART R, A., HUANG, T. & REY, E. 2011. SEQ residential end use study. Journal of the Australian Water Association, 38, 80-84. BEAL, C. D., BERTONE, E. & STEWART, R. A. 2012. Evaluating the energy and carbon reductions resulting from resource-efficient household stock. Energy and Buildings, 55, 422-432. BLAESS, J., RIX, S., BISHOP, A. & DONALDSON, P. 2006. Lochiel Park-A Nation Leading Green Village. Land Management Corporation. BMU 2006. Water Resource Management in Germany. Part 1: Fundamentals. In: FEDERAL MINISTRY FOR THE ENVIRONMENT, N. C. A. N. S. (ed.). BOM. SA & Adelaide annual climate summary archive [Online]. Commonwealth of Australia Bureau of Meteorology. Available: http://www.bom.gov.au/climate/current/statement_archives.shtml [Accessed Janurary 2015]. BRANZ 2008. Aukland Water Use Study - Monitoring of Residential Water End Use. BROOKS, D. B. 2006. An Operational Definition of Water Demand Management. International Journal of Water Resources Development, 22, 521-528. CHONG, M. N., UMAPATHI, S., MANKAD, A., SHARMA, A. & GARDNER, T. 2011. A Benchmark Analysis of Water Savings by Mandated Rainwater Tank Users in South East Queensland (Phase 2) Urban Water Security Research Alliance Technical Report No. 49.: CSIRO. COOMBES, P. J. & KUCZERA, G. 2003. Analysis of the Performance of Rainwater Tanks in Australian Capital Cities. 28th International Hydrology and Water Resources Symposium. Wollongong NSW: The Institution of Engineers, Australia. DANIELS, C. B. (ed.) 2010. Adelaide: Water of a City, Adelaide: Wakefield Press. DE LOË, R., KREUTZWISER, R. & MORARU, L. 2001. Adaptation options for the near term: climate change and the Canadian water sector. Global Environmental Change, 11, 231-245. DIAPER, C., TJANDRAATMADJA, G. & KENWAY, S. J. 2007. Sustainable Subdivisions: Review of technologies for integrated water services, CRC for Construction Innovation. FERGUSON, M. 2012. A 12-Month Rainwater Tank Water Savings and Energy Use Study For 52 Real Life Installations. Oz Water '12 Sydney.

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