Water development for hydroelectric in southeastern Anatolia project (GAP) in Turkey

Renewable Energy 39 (2012) 17e23

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Review

Water development for hydroelectric in southeastern Anatolia project (GAP) in Turkey Ibrahim Yuksel* Sakarya University, Technology Faculty, Department of Civil Engineering, 54187 Sakarya, Turkey

a r t i c l e i n f o

a b s t r a c t

Article history: Received 5 April 2011 Accepted 6 August 2011 Available online 1 September 2011

Southeastern Anatolia Project (GAP) region in Turkey is rich in water for irrigation and hydroelectric power. The Euphrates and Tigris rivers represent over 28% of the nation’s water supply by rivers, and the economically irrigable areas in the region make up 20% of those for the entry country. On the other hand, 85% of the total hydro capacity in operation has been developed by DSI, corresponding to 9931 MW (49 hydro plants) and 35,795 GWh/year respectively. The largest and most comprehensive regional development project ever implemented by DSI in Turkey is “The Southeast Anatolian (GAP) Project”, which is located in the region of Southeast Anatolia on the Euprates and Tigris rivers and their tributaries, which originate in Turkey. The energy potential of the Tigris and Euphrates is estimated as 12,000 GWh and 35,000 GWh, respectively. These two rivers constitute 10% and 30% of the total hydroelectric energy potential. The GAP region will be an important electric power producer with 1000 MW installed capacity from the Karakaya dam, 2400 MW installed capacity from the Atatürk dam and 1360 MW installed capacity from the Keban dam. The GAP region has a 22% share of the country’s total hydroelectric potential, with plans for 22 dams and 19 hydroelectric power plants. Once completed, 27 billion kWh of electricity will be generated annually. Ó 2011 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Hydroelectric Water resources Southeastern Anatolia project (GAP) Turkey

1. Introduction By the year 2010, Turkey is planning to exploit two-thirds of its hydropower potential, aiming to increase hydro-production to about 75,000 GWh/yr. By 2020 this will rise to 100,000 GWh/yr, and by 2030 it could be 140,000 GWh/yr (DSI, 2006). On the other hand, there are 436 sites available for hydroelectric plant construction, distributed on 26 main river zones. The total gross potential and total energy production capacity of these sites are nearly 50 GW and 112 TWh/yr, respectively. As an average, 30% of the total gross potential may be economically exploitable. At present, only about 18% of the total hydroelectric power potential is exploited. The national development plan aims to harvest all of the hydroelectric potential by 2010 [1e3]. Water resources development around the world has taken many different forms and directions since the dawn of civilization. Humans have long sought ways of capturing, storing, cleaning, and redirecting freshwater resources in efforts to reduce their vulnerability to irregular river flows and unpredictable rainfall. Early

* Tel.: þ90 264 2956472; fax: þ90 264 2956424. E-mail addresses: [email protected], [email protected]. 0960-1481/$ e see front matter Ó 2011 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. doi:10.1016/j.renene.2011.08.006

agricultural civilizations formed in regions where rainfall and runoff could be easily and reliably tapped. The first irrigation canals permitted farmers to grow crops in drier and drier regions and permitted longer growing seasons. The growth of cities required advances in the sciences of civil engineering and hydrology as water supplies had to be brought from increasingly distant sources [4e7]. The southeastern Anatolia project (GAP) is one of the largest power generating, irrigation, and development projects of its kind in the world, covering 3 million ha of agricultural land. This is over 10% of the cultivable land in Turkey, and the land to be irrigated is more than half the presently irrigated area in Turkey. GAP is an integrated development project. It is expected to affect the entire structure of the GAP region (Fig. 1) in its economic, social and cultural dimensions through a process of transformations to be triggered by agricultural modernization. It is envisaged as the means of bridging the gap between the southeastern region and the more advanced areas of Turkey and of increasing the welfare of the region. The GAP project on the Euphrates and Tigris rivers encompasses 22 dams and 19 hydroelectric power plants and irrigation schemes on an area extending over 1.7 million ha. The total cost of the project is 32 billion US$. The total installed capacity of its power plants is 7476 MW, which means an annual production of 27 billion kWh [7e9].

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I. Yuksel / Renewable Energy 39 (2012) 17e23

Fig. 1. GAP region [10].

The Atatürk Dam has been important in the completion of the lower Euphrates project and even the entire GAP project, for it is the water source of the four projects aimed at irrigation of 852,781 ha. The total area to be irrigated from the Atatürk Dam will reach approximately 1,000,000 ha. The Atatürk Dam, which is the sixth largest volume dam (48.7 billion m3) in the world, is installed in Urfa province by the State Hydraulic Works (DSI). The type of dam is rock packed, with 169 m height from the river bed and 1664 m long crest. The body packed volume of the dam is 84.5 million m3. The Atatürk Dam has eight units with 300 MW installed capacity of each unit, and the mean value of electrical energy production is 8.5 billion kW h/yr. The GAP will play an important role in the development of Turkey’s energy and agriculture sector in the near future. For this reason, it is suitable to examine the general structure of this project and its effects. The GAP project is one of the largest power generating, irrigation, and development projects of its kind in the world, covering 3 million ha of agricultural land. This is over 10% of the cultivable land in Turkey; the land to be irrigated is more than half of the presently irrigated area in Turkey. In this paper, general structure of the project, the natural resources and the hydroelectrical energy generation potential of the GAP is aimed to be evaluated as well as investigating the physical characteristics of the water source systems of the region in relation to planningapplication problems [6,9e12]. 2. Water development and power plant for hydroelectric Hydroelectric power plants capture the energy released by water falling through a vertical distance, and transform this energy into useful electricity. In general, falling water is channeled through a turbine which converts the water’s energy into mechanical power. The rotation of the water turbines is transferred to a generator which produces electricity. The amount of electricity which can be generated at a hydroelectric plant is dependant upon two factors. These factors are the vertical distance through which the water falls, called the “head”, and the flow rate, measured as volume per unit time. The electricity produced is proportional to the product of the head and the rate of flow. The following is an equation which may be used to roughly determine the amount of electricity which can be generated by a potential hydroelectric power site [13,14]:

PowerðkWÞ ¼ 5:9Flow  Head

(1)

In this equation, flow is measured in cubic meters per second and head is measured in meters. Based on the facts presented above, hydroelectric power plants can generally be divided into two categories. "High head" power plants are the most common and generally utilize a dam to store water at an increased elevation. Heads for this type of power plant may be greater than 1000 m. High head plants with storage are very valuable to electric utilities because they can be quickly adjusted to meet the electrical demand on a distribution system. "Low head" hydroelectric plants are power plants which generally utilize heads of only a few meters or less. Power plants of this type may utilize a low dam or weir to channel water, or no dam and simply use the "run of the river". This type is called as small hydropower plant (SHP).

3. Global hydropower and sustainable development in developing countries There is about 700 GW of hydro capacity in operation worldwide, generating 2740 TWh in 2000 (about 19% of the world’s electricity production). About half of this capacity and generation is in Europe and North America with Europe the largest at 32% of total hydro use and North America at 23% of the total. However, this proportion is declining as Asia and Latin America commission large amounts of new hydro capacity. On the other hand, small, mini and micro hydro plants also play a key role in many countries for rural electrification. An estimated 300 million people in China, for example, depend on small hydro [3,15]. Until recent years there has been less than 100 GWh/year of new hydro capacity under construction at any one time, equivalent to less than 15% of the capacity in operation. The figure has now risen, reflecting China’s vast construction program, which includes the 18.2 GW Three Gorges Project, now in its second phase of construction. Most new hydro capacity is under construction in Asia and South America. China has by far the most, with about 50 GW under way. Brazil has largest resources in world (800,000 GWh/year) of economically exploitable capacity and

I. Yuksel / Renewable Energy 39 (2012) 17e23

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Table 1 Technically and economically feasible hydropower potential of the world in 2000 by region [15]. Region

North America L. America & Caribbean Western Europe Central/Eastern European Former Soviet Union Middle East and North Africa Sub-Saharan Africa Centrally Planned Asia South Asia Pacific Asia Pacific OECD World Total

Gross Theoretical

Technically Feasible Potential

Economically Feasible Potential

Installed Hydro Capacity

Hydropower Production

Hydro Capacity Under Construction

TW/year

TW/year

5817 7533 3294 195 3258 304 3583 6511 3635 5520 1134 40,784

1509 2868 1822 216 1235 171 1992 2159 948 814 211 13,945

TW/year

GW

TW/year

GW

912 1199 809 128 770 128 1288 1302 103 142 184 6965

141.2 114.1 16.3 9.1 146.6 21.3 65.7 64.3 28.5 13.5 34.2 654.8

697 519 48 27 498 66 225 226 105 41 129 2581

0.9 18.3 2.5 7.7 6.7 1.2 16.6 51.7 13.0 4.7 0.8 124.1

Norway depends almost entirely hydro for its electricity needs [3,15,16]. Turkey has important hydropower potential. Therefore, Turkey has rigorous plans for the development of its substantial hydropower potential. Approximately 5500 MW of hydropower capacity is under construction, the largest schemes being Deriner Dam in the north of the country (680 MW) and Berke Dam in the southeast (520 MW). Schemes built on the concept of build operate transfer (BOT) are being encouraged strongly, and bilateral agreements have been signed with a number of countries to further international cooperation in hydropower development. In Turkey, 566 hydropower projects by DSI have been identified for development in total, 130 are already in operation, 31 are under construction, and 405 (with a capacity of 19 951 MW) are planned (see Tables 1e4) [3,15,17e21]. 4. Water management and hydropower aspects in Turkey The Ministry of energy and natural resources carries out the general energy planning studies, using the model for analysis of energy demand (MAED) demand model, and TEIAS, (Turkish Electricity Transmission Company) carries out energy generation expansion planning studies, using the DECADES model. The MAED model [22], which was developed by the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA), makes projections of the medium and longterm general electricity demand. It takes into consideration a detailed analysis of social, economic and technical systems. The model is based on low, medium and high case scenarios. It is very important to project the energy demand accurately, because decisions involving huge investments of capital are based on these forecasts. The TEIAS, has prepared the Long-term Energy Generation Plan, taking into consideration the MAED model demand outcome. According to the plan, the installed capacity will increase to 57,551 MW in 2010 and to 117,240 MW in 2020. The installed hydropower capacity is anticipated to increase to 18,943 MW in 2010 and to 34,092 MW in 2020. Thus, an additional 1000 MW of hydro capacity should be added to the system annually over the

Table 2 Development of irrigation, hydropower and water supply in Turkey [17].

Irrigation Hydroelectric energy Water supply

In operation

Ultimate goals

Development

(2005)

(2030)

Rates (%)

4.9 million ha 45.3 billion kWh 10.5 billion m3

8.5 million ha 127.3 billion kWh 38.5 billion m3

58 36 27

next 20 years. Turkey is thus seeking support for the development of all its economic potential by 2023, which is the 100th anniversary of the foundation of the Turkish Republic [23e26]. Although Turkey has an adequate amount of water in general, it is not always in the right place at the right time to meet present and anticipated needs. As regards hydrology, Turkey is divided into 26 drainage basins. The rivers in general have irregular regimes, and natural flows cannot be taken directly as usable resources. The average annual precipitation, evaporation and surface runoff geographically vary greatly [27e29]. On the other hand, Turkey has 665,000 ha of inland waters, excluding rivers and small streams. There are 200 natural lakes, with a total area of 500,000 ha, and 775 dam lakes and ponds with a total surface area of 165,000 ha [27]. With the projects developed primarily by DSI and other institutions engaged in water resources development, water consumption in Turkey reached 39.3 billion m3 by 2000, corresponding to only 36% of the economically exploitable water resources. During water consumption estimates on a sectoral basis, it is accepted that all of the economically irrigable land will be irrigated with irrigation schemes constructed by the year 2030 and water consumption for irrigation will be 71.5 billion m3. Hence, while its share in the total consumption was 75% in 1999, the share of irrigation water in the total water consumption will be decreased to 65% by the year 2030, through the utilization of modern irrigation techniques [22,29]. Table 3 Distribution of the hydropower potential in Turkey by Project implementation status [17]. Number Installed Total annual power generation of project capacity capacity MW Firm Mean Cumulative Mean GWh In operation Under construction Final design completed Under final design operation Planned Under planning Master plan completed Reconnaissance completed Initial study completed Total potential

GWh

GWh

%

130 31 19

12,251 3338 3570

32,984 6467 7029

44,388 10,845 10,897

44,034 55,233 66,130

35.0 9.0 9.0

21

1333

2492

4494

70,624

4.0

119 57 40

6091 1978 2691

10,861 4214 5674

22,324 92,948 7602 100,550 9195 109,745

18.0 6.0 7.0

107

3920

8523

15,184 124,929

12.0

42

368

526

1180 126,109

1.0

566

35,540

78,770 125,129

100.0

20

I. Yuksel / Renewable Energy 39 (2012) 17e23

5. Water and energy potential of the GAP Region

Table 4 Small hydropower development in Turkey (2005) [18].

In operation Under construction In final design Infeasibility and pre-feasibility Total

Number of SHP

Installed Capacity (MW)

Energy Generation (GWh)

70 6 7 120 203

175.4 21.7 38.8 613.2 849.1

654 130 168 2671 3623

It has been accepted that the total population of Turkey will reach 110 million by 2030, with an annual increase rate of 2%. Additionally, it is assumed that the per capita water consumption of 280 l/day (in 2003) will reach 540 l/day by 2030. By taking into consideration that about 5.2 billion m3 water is needed in the tourism sector, the total water consumption for domestic purposes will reach 26.1 billion m3 by 2030. With the assumption of 4% annual growth rate in the industrial sector, it is expected that industrial water consumption will increase from 4.8 billion m3 in 2003 to 13.2 billion m3 in 2030. Thus, considering all of these issues that 100% of the total economically exploitable water resources will be under use by the year 2030 [27e29].

The GAP area is rich in water resources. The Euphrates and Tigris rivers represent over 28% of the country’s water supply by rivers, and the economically irrigable areas in the region make up 20% of those for the whole Turkey. The development of the region was originally planned as relating to its water resources, which were later combined in a comprehensive water and land resources development package. For this purpose, total 12 groups of projects were planned on the Euphrates and Tigris rivers and their branches by the General Directorate of State Hydraulic Works (DSI) as shown in Table 5. In addition to this Table 5 shows water and land resources development projects in the GAP Region [6,10,30]. The package included the construction of 22 dams, 19 hydroelectric power plants and the irrigation facilities to serve 1.7 million ha of land. The total installed capacity of the power plants is about 7500 MW with an annual production of over 27 billion kWh. Table 6 gives energy potential of the southeastern Anatolia project (GAP). There are two main basin projects: the Euphrates and the Tigris basin projects. The Euphrates basin projects have 5304 MW installed capacity, will generate 20 billion kWh of energy and will irrigate 1 million ha of land. Fourteen dams and 11 hydroelectric

Table 5 Water and land resources development projects in the GAP Region [6]. Project

Capacity (MW)

Production (GW)

Karakaya Dam & HEPP Lower Euphrates Project Atatürk Dam & HEPP S¸anlıurfa HEPP S¸anlıurfa Irrigation Tunnels Siverek-Hilvan Pumped Irrigation Bozova Pumped Irrigation Border Euphrates Project Birecik Dam & HEPP Karkamıs Dam & HEPP Suruç-Baziki Plain Irrigation Adıyaman-Kahta Project Adıyaman-Göksu Dam & Irrigation Çamgazi Dam & Irrigation Koçalı Dam & HEPP Büyükçay Dam, HEPP & Irrigation Kahta Dam & HEPP Pumped Irrigation from Atatürk Dam Gaziantep Project ız Dam & Irrigation Hancag Kayacık Dam & Irrigation Pumped Irrigation from Birecik Dam Dicle-Kralkızı Project Kralkızı Dam & HEPP Dicle Dam & HEPP Dicle Right Bank Gravity Irrigation Dicle Right Bank Pumped Irrigation Batman Project Batman Dam & HEPP Batman Left Bank Gravity Irrigation Batman Left Bank Pumped Irrigation Batman Right Bank Gravity Irrigation Batman-Silvan Project Silvan Dam & HEPP Kayser Dam & HEPP Dicle Left Bank Gravity Irrigation Garzan Project Garzan Dam & HEPP Garzan Irrigation Ilisu Dam & HEPP Cizre Project Cizre Dam & HEPP Nusaybin Cizre Irrigation

1800

7354

OP

2400 50

8900 124 476,000 160,000 70,000

OP OP OP E E

146,500

UC DD E

852 180

3168 652

7

43

40 30 75

120 84 171

94 110

198

150 90

Irrigation area (ha)

71,600 7430 21,605 12,322 29,599

FS UC MP MP MP MP

7330 14,740 66,000

OP UC FS

54,280 75,870

UC OP UC UC

9570 9180 18,600

OP UC FS DD

146 298

483

623 341 250,000

90

315 60,000

1200

3830

240

1208

Present stage

89,000

OP: in operation; UC: under construction; E: Exploration; DD: detailed design completed; FS: feasibility study; MP: master plan.

E E E E E DD DD E

I. Yuksel / Renewable Energy 39 (2012) 17e23

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Table 6 The energy potential of the southeastern Anatolia project [6,10,30].

In operation Euphrates basin Tigris basin In installation Euphrates basin Tigris basin Others Euphrates basin Tigris basin Total

Installed capacity (MW/yr)

Generation (GW/yr)

Capacity Project value (Million $)

4214 4214 0 632 230 402 2664 874 1170 7490

16.296 16.296 0 1703 776 927 9385 3068 6317 27.384

4779 4779 0 1412 798 614 4459 1656 2803 10.650

power plants are planned for this basin. The Tigris basin projects have 2172 MW installed capacity, will generate 7 billion kWh of electric energy and will irrigate 700 000 ha of land area. Eight dams and eight hydroelectric power plants are planned for this basin [6,10,30]. There are two main basin projects: the Euphrates and the Tigris basin projects. The Euphrates basin projects have 5304 MW installed capacity, will generate 20 billion kWh of energy and will irrigate 1 million ha of land. Fourteen dams and 11 hydroelectric power plants are planned for this basin. The Tigris basin projects have 2172 MW installed capacity, will generate 7 billion kWh of electric energy and will irrigate 700,000 ha of land area. Eight dams and eight hydroelectric power plants are planned for this basin [6,10,30]. The Lower Euphrates Project is one of the GAP schemes on the Euphrates river and consists of Ataturk Dam and Hydroelectric power plant (HEPP), Sanlıurfa tunnels and hydroelectric power plant, Sanlıurfa-Harran irrigation, Mardin-Ceylanpınar irrigation, Siverek-Hilvan pumped irrigation. Main public investments in this project have been completed. Ataturk dam was completed in 1990 which the sixth largest volume dam (48.7 billion m3) in the world. Type of dam is rock packed with 169 m high from river bed and 1664 m crest long. Body packed volume of the dam is 84.5 million m3. Water reaches from the Ataturk dam to Sanlıurfa-Harran plains via the Sanlıurfa tunnels system, which consists of two parallel tunnels each 26.4 km long and 7.62 m in diameter. This irrigation tunnel system is the largest of its kind and it has numerous irrigation networks, canal systems constitute the physical groundwork in water resources. Tunnels were completed in 1997, and irrigation is now practiced in a 250,000 ha (total is 476,000 ha) [6,10,30]. In this paper, hydroelectric potential and production was reviewed for GAP in Turkey. In the project more than 10 groups (units) are already operated since 1980’s. There has not been any

Table 7 Primary energy consumption (ktoe) [31]. Energy sources

2008

2009a

2010b

Hard coal Lignite Petroleum products Natural gas Hydroelectricity Renewable energy Wood Animal waste and plant residue Total primary energy consumption Per capita consumption (kgoe)

16,427 15,217 31,784 33,807 2861 1645 3679 1134 106,525 1423

16,165 15,031 27,652 30,764 3121 1910 3610 1150 99,360 1312

16,861 15,891 29,312 33,603 3354 2102 3591 1120 105,791 1381

ktoe: kilo tons of oil equivalent; kgoe: kilo gram of oil equivalent. a Estimate. b Forecast.

Fig. 2. Percentages of electricity generation by primary energy resources by 2007 [32e35].

negative impact till now on area and countries downstream of two major rivers (Euphrates and Tigris). While the project was planning, Turkey has not ignored the necessity of water and water utilization for the others neighbor countries. 6. The GAP project and energy situation of Turkey The GAP project originally planned by the State Hydraulic Works is a combination of 12 major projects primarily for irrigation and hydroelectric generation. The project includes the construction of 22 dams and 19 hydroelectric power plants on the Euphrates and the Tigris rivers and their tributaries. It is planned that upon completion, over 1.8 million hectare of land will be irrigated and 27 billion kWh hydroelectric energy will be generated annually [30]. On the other hand, it is assumed that in addition to energy production and improvement in agricultural sectors, the effects of this project on the social structure of the region will be considerable. The main objectives of the GAP project are to increase the economic conditions and well-being of the people of the area as well as the utilization of the potential resources. The project seeks an integrated purpose for development [6,9,10]. Turkey’s energy demand is met through thermal power plant consuming coal, gas, fuel oil and geothermal energy, wind energy and hydropower. Because Turkey does not own any nuclear power plant yet, the installation of first nuclear power plant with a capacity of 1000 MW is on the schedule as a plan of the near future. In 2008, the energy consumption of Turkey is about 106,525 kilo tons of oil equivalent (ktoe) as shown in Table 7. Turkey’s installed generation capacity is also 41,818 GW and electricity generation is 198,418 GWh in 2008 [31]. According to Turkey’s Ninth Plant, 66% of Turkey’s generated electricity is supplied from thermal power plants. Contribution of wind and hydropower plants are 0.2% and 32.20%, respectively. 49.00% of

Table 8 The status of economically feasible hydropower potential in Turkey [10]. Project

Number of project

Total installed capacity (MW)

Annual average energy (TWh/yr)

Ratio (%)

In operation Under construction In program Total

172 148 1418 1738

13,700 8600 22,700 45,000

48 20 72 140

35 14 51 100

22

I. Yuksel / Renewable Energy 39 (2012) 17e23

Fig. 3. Distribution of Turkey’s hydropower potential on basin level [36].

Turkey’s electricity is generated by Electricity Generation Incorporation (EUAS), 39.70% is generated by auto-producers, and 9.5% is generated by affiliated partnerships of EUAS and 1.8% by distribution of electricity generation by primary resources by 2007 is given in Fig. 2 [32e35]. According to Chambers of Turkish Electrical Engineers, Turkey has 259 billion kWh energy potential, but only 35% of this potential can be used. Nowadays, Turkey’s electricity generation is approximately 176 billion kWh per year and will be 400e500 billion kWh per year by year 2020. As it is seen in Fig. 2, the most important energy sources are thermal and hydropower plants. Power plant’s installed capacities are approximately equal at the year of 1997. At the end of 2006, comparing thermal power plant installed capacity to hydro; thermal capacity is big more than twice and 35.30% of the thermal source is derived from natural gas [34]. Turkey does not have enough primary energy sources, but has a tremendous hydropower potential [36]. Nowadays, hydropower is recognized as the most important kind of renewable and sustainable energy sources. The position of hydropower plants (HPP) becomes more and more important in today’s global renewable technologies. The small-scale renewable and distributed generation may be the most cost-effective way to bring electricity to remote villages that are not near transmission lines [37]. In terms of hydropower potential, with 440 TWh/year, Turkey is the second richest country after Norway in Europe. This potential can be used technically 215 TWh/year and economical potential 128 TWh/year in accordance with the predictions of General Directorate State Hydraulic Works (DSI). Table 8 shows the status of economically feasible hydropower potential in Turkey [10]. Those are being designed are divided into seven categories and given in Table 8 as follows: 18% (23.183 GWh/year) with feasibility report ready, 12% (15.707 GWh/year) with preliminary report ready, 9% (11.113 GWh/year) with master plan ready, 9% (11.027 GWh/ year) with final design ready, 4% (5.339 GWh/year) with feasibility report under preparation, 3% (4243 GWh/year) with final design under preparation and 1% (1.727 GWh/year) with preliminary report under preparation [10,25,37,38]. Water and hydropower potential in Turkey are distributed into 26 basins and the total flow rate of water sources for energy production is 186 km3/years. The biggest five basins of Turkey are Euphrates, Tigris, Eastern Black Sea, Coruh and Seyhan as shown in Fig. 3. Euphrates represents over 38% of the national hydropower potential, Tigris represents over 16% of the national potential, Eastern Black Sea represents 11% of the national water supply,

Coruh represents 10.5% and Seyhan represents 7.3% of the national water and hydropower potential [10,25,30,36e38]. The construction of more than 329 hydropower plants is projected to add a total installed capacity of 19,699 MW, thus the total number of hydro plants is to bring to 483 and will be the total installed capacity of 34,592 MW by 2020 [32]. This increase includes the southeastern Anatolia Project (GAP) which covers onetenth of Turkey’s total land area. GAP will have an installed capacity of 7460 MW [12,33,39]. Following the succession of this project, 1.7 million ha of land will be irrigated and the ratio of irrigated land to the total GAP area will increase from 2.9% to 22.8% while that for rain-fed agriculture will decrease from 34.3% to 7% [10,12,30]. On the other hand, 27 billion kWh of electricity will be generated annually over an established capacity of 7460 MW. The area to be irrigated accounts for 19% of all the economically irrigable area in Turkey (8.5 million ha), and the annual electricity generated will account for 22% of the country’s economically viable hydroelectric power potential, 118 billion kW. By 2006, today the Ataturk and Karakaya dams, the most important investments of the GAP, had generated about 175 billion kWh energy [10]. Table 9 shows the energy production in GAP [10]. Turkey total hydropower capacity is estimated at 440 TWh per year. Some of this potential can be achieved with small hydroelectric plants (SHEPs) having individual capacities of 10 MW or less. It is estimated that, theoretically, Turkey has SHEP resources of 710 GW for project generation and 300 MW for total installed capacity [37,40]. SHEP development in Turkey was initiated in 1900. Since then, municipalities in rural areas have installed many decentralized plants by private entrepreneurs, and by some government organizations. Temelsu is a well-known Turkish consulting engineering company, which provides multidisciplinary engineering services, locally and internationally, since its foundation in 1969. It is estimated that, Turkey has SHEP Table 9 Energy production in GAP [6]. Name of dam

Yearly energy production

Karakaya Dam and HPP Ataturk Dam and HPP Kralkızı Dam and HPP Karkamıs¸ Dam and HPP Dicle dam and HPP Birecik Dam and HPP Total

106.8 billion kWh 74.5 billion kWh 0.3 billion kWh 0.6 billion kWh 0.1 billion kWh 1.6 billion kWh 183.9 billion kWh

I. Yuksel / Renewable Energy 39 (2012) 17e23

resources of 710 GW for project generation and 300 MW for total installed capacity. Annual increases of SHEP capacity during the past 25 years average 8e12% [19,21,40]. 7. Conclusions Dams are built to store water, irrigate crops, provide flood management, generate electricity, provide recreation or ease navigation. The most common purposes for building dams are flood management, water supply and hydroelectric production. The design and operation of hydropower dams have the potential to cause particularly serious impacts to rivers. Hydropower dams are designed to operate in either a “run-of-river” or peaking mode. Run-of-river hydropower dams generally operate such that the amount of water flowing into the reservoir is equal to the amount of water flowing out of the reservoir through generating turbines or other outlets. Peak hydropower dams typically store water during “off peak” periods and release water through turbines to produce power during daily, weekly or seasonal periods of peak power demand. Hydropower operations can result in higher water temperatures, lower dissolved oxygen levels, altered pH levels, reduced habitat and species diversity and reduced macroinvertebrate and native fish populations and productivity. The GAP project is one of the largest power generating, irrigation, and development projects of its kind in the world, covering 3 million ha of agricultural land. This is over 10% of the cultivable land in Turkey; the land to be irrigated is more than half of the presently irrigated area in Turkey. The GAP project on the Euphrates and Tigris rivers encompasses 20 dams and 17 hydroelectric power plants. When all projects are completed, 27 billion kWh of electricity will be generated annually, which is 45% of the total economically exploitable hydroelectric potential. As a multipurpose regional development project, the implementation of the GAP will be carried out as scheduled. The environmental impact assessment studies for the GAP will be put into effect. Similar studies for other regions will be carried out when required. In the GAP region, on farms, development work will be completed before the irrigation projects. References [1] Ozturk R, Kıncay O. Potential of hydroelectric energy. Energy Sources 2004;26: 1141e56. [2] MENR, Ministry of Energy and Natural Resources. Energy statistics of Turkey in 2005. available from, ; 2006 [accessed 16.12.06]. [3] Yüksel I. Dams and hydropower for sustainable development. Energy Sources Part B 2009;4:100e10. [4] Gleick PH. The changing water paradigm: a look at twenty-first century water resources development. Water International 2000;25:127e38. [5] WCD, World Commission on Dams. Dams and development: a new framework for decision-making. London: Earthscan; 2000. [6] Yüksel I. South-eastern Anatolia project (GAP) for irrigation and hydroelectric power. Energy Exploration & Exploitation 2006;24:361e70. [7] Kaygusuz K. Sustainable development of hydropower and biomass energy in Turkey. Energy Conversion and Management 2002;43:1099e120. [8] Bagıs AI. Turkey’s hydro politics of the Euphrates-Tigris basin. International Journal of Water Resources Development 1997;13:567e81.

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